Part 1 - Geometric Design, Road Safety Audits and Traffic Surveys(1)

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS
AND BRIDGES
Part I: Geometric Design,

Road Safety Audits &
Traffic Survey Manual
April 2016
DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 1A) – Geometric Design 2009
PREFACE
This Geometric Design Manual Part 1 A) - 2009 is one of the series of “Design
Manuals, Standard Contract Documents and Specifications” prepared under a
European Development Fund (EDF) financed project for the Updating of Road
Design Manuals. The project was undertaken by Egis Bceom International
through a consultancy project with the Ministry of Roads.
This manual has been developed from the previous manuals: Road Design Manual
Part 1 Geometric Design of Rural roads (1979) and Road Design Guidelines for
Urban Roads 2nd Draft (2001). Current international practices have also been
referred and appropriately modified to take account of local experience and
conditions.
This single combined manual has been prepared for both Rural and Urban road
design and has been overseen by a Technical Steering Committee established by
the Ministry of Roads.
The complete set of manuals and other documents comprise:
Part 1 a) Geometric Design

b) Road Safety Audits
c) Traffic Surveys
Part 2 Drainage Design
Part 3 Materials and Pavement Design - New Gravel, Bituminous
and Concrete Roads
Part 4 Materials and Pavement Design - Overlay and Asphalt
Pavement Rehabilitation
Part 5 Traffic Control Devices
a) Traffic Signs
b) Road Marking
c) Traffic Signals
d) Street Lighting
Part 6 Structural Design
a) Bridge and Culvert Design
b) Catalogue of Drawings
i) Standard Culverts and Drifts
ii) Standard Concrete Box Culverts – Schedules and
Quantities
iii) Standard Small Span Concrete Bridges
iv) Standard Structures
Standard Specifications and Methods of Measurement
Standard Bills of Quantity
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads Draft Document – December 2009

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This design manual has been prepared as a component of the EU funded project for
the Updating of Road Design Manuals for the Ministry of Roads (MoR) which was
undertaken by the project consultant, Egis BCEOM International, under the guidance
of a Technical Steering Committee (TSC) consisting of senior MoR staff, Consultants
and Academics drawn from the professional bodies and institutions of Kenya.
The TSC delegated responsibility for the preparation of this particular manual to a
sub-committee consisting of the following personnel:
Prof. O. Mbeche – University of Nairobi Chairman

Eng. Andrew Gitonga – European Union Member and main commentator
Eng. Sammy Muthama - City Council of Member and commentator
Nairobi
Eng. C.O.Obuon – Ministry of Works Member
Benyam Erdachew – Egis BCEOM Int. Writer
The MoR wishes to acknowledge the contributions made by all those from both the
private and public sectors who have made comments on the draft documents and
particularly for the advice, technical assistance and guidance of the members of the
sub-committee.

DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 1 A) – Geometric Design 2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PREFACE
1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................ 1-1
2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN STANDARD ................................... 2-1
3 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA .............................................................. 3-1
4 ROUTE SELECTION AND SURVEY .............................................................. 4-1
5 DESIGN ELEMENTS ....................................................................................... 5-1
6 THE CROSS-SECTION ................................................................................... 6-1
7 AT GRADE INTERSECTION DESIGN ............................................................ 7-1
8 GRADE SEPARATED JUNCTIONS ............................................................... 8-1
9 ROADSIDE AMENITIES.................................................................................. 9-1
10 SAFETY SYSTEMS ....................................................................................... 10-1
APPENDIX A DEFINITION OF TERMS
APPENDIX B TYPICAL CROSS-SECTIONS
APPENDIX C MERGE AND DIVERGE LANES LAYOUTS
APPENDIX D ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
APPENDIX E ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads i Draft Document – December 2009

1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................ 1-1

1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1-1
1.2 Purpose ............................................................................................................. 1-1
1.3 Scope of manual ............................................................................................... 1-1
1.4 Organization of the Manual ............................................................................... 1-1
1.5 Units of Measurement ....................................................................................... 1-2
1.6 Design Techniques ............................................................................................ 1-3
1.6.1 Flexibility in Highway Design and Departures from Standard ................... 1-3
1.6.2 Departure from Standards ......................................................................... 1-5
1.6.3 Road Safety Audits .................................................................................... 1-6
1.6.4 Economic Analysis .................................................................................... 1-7
Table 3-1: Definitions of Prefixes 1-2

Table 3-2: Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples 1-3
Figure 1-1 Process for conducting road safety audit 1-7
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads ii Draft Document – December 2009

1 GENERAL
1.1 Introduction
The Road Design Manual provides design guidelines and standards to be adopted
for the rural and urban roads in Kenya. This manual is an update of the Rural Road
Design Manual of November, 1979 and the Draft Urban geometric design manual,
2001.
The contents of the manual are partly guidelines and recommendations to be

considered, and partly standards which as a general rule should be adhered to. In
some instances special conditions may demand modifications to these standards.
Such instances will usually be brought to the attention of the designer by the Chief
Engineer (Roads). However it is also the responsibility of the designer to put forward
any proposals for modifications to the standards which he considers will result in a
better and more economical design.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this design manual is to give guidance and recommendations to the
engineers responsible for the geometric design of rural and urban roads in Kenya.
Geometric road design guidelines are used as an aid to achieving consistent and
operationally effective road designs. Development and improvement to road
networks in developing countries lead to the need for standards to:
(a) maintain a degree of uniformity, particularly across administrative and regional

boundaries, and also within the region across international borders
(b) enable safe and technically adequate designs to be produced,
(c) ensure that road finances are not wasted, through inappropriate designs, or
through inadequate provision for future traffic growth or current operations.
1.3 Scope of manual
The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are
applicable to all classified rural and urban roads as defined in Section 2.2.1 of this
manual.
The use of the procedures described in this manual should help in achieving
reasonable uniformity in geometric design for a given set of conditions. It is prepared
as a guide for the road design engineers in Kenya and it is expected that these
engineers will contribute by putting forward any proposals for further development
and revision stemming from the inactual field experience and practice and also which
they consider will result in a safe, aesthetic and more economical design.
1.4 Organization of the Manual
The manual is divided into 10 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 provides a general introduction and gives units of measurement, definition

and abbreviations.
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Chapter 2 deals with road functional classification in Kenya based on recent studies
and design standards
Chapter 3 provides design controls and criteria affecting the selection of the
geometric design values. These include design vehicles, driver performance, traffic
characteristics, capacity and level of service. .
Chapter 4 covers route selection and survey requirements.
Chapter 5 deals with the various elements of alignment design such as horizontal
alignment, and vertical alignment
Chapter 6 discusses cross section requirements and standards.
Chapter 7 covers at-grade intersection design
Chapter 8 deals with grade separated junctions
Chapter 9 discusses road side amenities such as stopping places, service centres
and vehicle interception sites.
Chapter 10 provides guidance on safety systems.
1.5 Units of Measurement
The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the International system
(SI) units. However, the units applicable to road design also include some units which
are not strictly part of SI.
Multiples and sub-multiples of SI units are formed either by the use of indices or
prefixes. Definitions of applicable prefixes are given in Table 1-1 below.
The basic units and the derived and supplementary units which will normally be
required for road design are 1isted in Table 1-2 below.
Table 1-1: Definitions of Prefixes
Factor by which the

Prefix Symbol
unit is multiplied
mega M 10 6
kilo K 10 3
hecto H 10 2
deca da 10
deci d 10 -1
centi c 10 -2
milli m 10 -3
Micro μ 10 -6
1-2
Table 1-2: Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples
Recommended Multiples and sub-

Item Unit Symbol
multiples
Length Metre m km, mm
Mass Kilogram kg Mg, g, mg
Time Second s Day (d), hour (h), minute (min)
Area Square metre m2 km2, hectare (1ha = 10,000m2), mm2
Volume (solids) Cubic metre m3 cm3, mm3
Volume (liquid) Litre l ml (1ml=10-3 l, 1ml=1cm3)
Density Kilogram per cubic kg/m3 1Mg/m3 =1kg/10 3l, g/ml
metre
Force Newton N MN, KN (1N=1 kgm/s2, 1kgf=9.81N)
Pressure and Newton per square N/m2 KN/m2, N/mm2
Stress metre
Velocity Meter per second m/s km/h (1 km/h=1/3.6(m/s))
(Speed)
O
Angle Degree or Minute (‘), second (“”) (360o circle)
grad g (400g circle)
o
Temperature Degree Celsius C
1.6 Design Techniques
To arrive at an acceptable design there is no substitute for experience and study of

different alternatives. There is, however, a range of useful tools and techniques at the
designer's disposal. These are formalised expressions of particular objectives and
include:
• Adherence to or implementation of particular procedures
• Departure from Standard to allow flexibility in highway design
• Road safety audits;
• Economic analysis and value engineering
• Environmental assessment
1.6.1 Flexibility in Highway Design and Departures from Standard
A review of the standards and guidelines in this manual will quickly reveal that it
allows some degree of design flexibility. The degree to which this flexibility is
employed in the design process is in fact, nothing more than the application of the art
and science of engineering.
However, it is also the responsibility of the designer to put forward for approval any
proposals for modifications to the standards which he considers will result in a better
and more economic design.
The design engineer should also realise that the adoption of the guidelines and
standards given in this manual does not automatically ensure a safe, economic and
aesthetic road design. This can only be achieved through a careful consideration
and balancing of the various controls, criteria and elements involved. Uncritical use
of the manual will, more often than not, produce an inadequate design. The designer
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must not work on aspects of geometric design in isolation and must familiarise
himself with the basic ideas; principles and derivations contained in this and other
reference manuals including those detailed in Section 1.6.1.
This Geometric Design Manual forms a part of a set of Kenyan Design manuals,
which relate to road design. These are:
Part 1 a) Geometric Design

b) Road Safety Audits
c) Traffic Surveys
Part 3 Design for New Roads – Materials Pavement
a) Design for New Gravel, Bituminous and Concrete Roads
Part 4 Overlay and Asphalt Pavement Rehabilitation
Part 5 Traffic Control Devices
a) Traffic Signs
b) Road Marking, Street Lighting
c) Traffic Signal Engineering
d) Street Lighting
Part 6 Structural Design Manual
a) Bridge and Culvert Design
b) Catalogue of Drawings for Bridges and Culverts
i) Standard Culverts Drifts
ii) Bending Schedules of Materials
iii) Standard small span Concrete Bridges
Part 7 Environmental Guidelines
The most important concept to keep in mind throughout the highway design process
is that every project is unique. The setting and character of an area, the values of the
surrounding community, the needs of the highway users and the associated physical
challenges and opportunities are all factors that highway designers must consider.
For each potential project, designers are faced with the task of balancing the need for
improvement of the highway with the need for safety and integration of the design
into the area’s natural and human environments.
To accomplish this, highway designers must exercise flexibility. There are a number
of options available to resolve design issues that balance safety, aesthetics,
environmental and social impact, and cost.
Among these are the following:
• Use the flexibility available within the design standards;

• Recognize that design exceptions may be required where environmental impacts
are of significance;
• Be prepared to re-evaluate decisions made earlier in the project planning and
environmental impact assessment phase;
• Lower the design speed where appropriate;
• In road upgrading projects, maintain the road's existing horizontal and vertical
geometry and cross section where possible to avoid excessive cost and
environmental impact;
• Consider developing alternative design standards, especially for scenic or historic
roads; and
• Recognise the safety and operational impacts of various design features and
modifications.
1-4
In addition to exercising flexibility, a successful highway design process should

include public consultation. To be effective, the public view should be established at
the beginning, even before the need for the project has been defined i.e at feasibility
stage if the primary purpose and need for the improvement has not been agreed on,
it would be extremely difficult to reach consensus on alternative design solutions later
in the process. Public input can also help to assess the characteristics of the area
and to determine what physical features are most valued by the community and thus
need the greatest consideration when designing the road and its appurtenant
features to mitigate adverse impact. Awareness of these valued characteristics at an
early stage will help designers to avoid critical comments during the project and
reduce the need for mitigation and the likelihood of controversy.
Planning ahead for consultation meetings with the public that will be affected by the
project is an essential step in ensuring that the community takes “ownership” of the
road and achieves its desired objectives. After working with the community to define
the basic project need and to assess the physical character of the area, public
involvement is necessary to obtain input on design alternatives. Working with the
affected community to solve design challenges as they arise is far more effective
than bringing the public into the process only after major design decisions have been
made. The public needs to be involved at all points in the project to allow their views
to be taken into consideration in relation to any need for changes to be made in the
design.
One of the major and continuing sources of argument between highway agencies
and the communities they serve relates to the topic of functional classification. The
public should be aware of the existing functional class of the road as well as what
level of upgrade is important to the surrounding area. In particular, assuring the
community of the need for "correct" functional classification for a particular section of
highway, and a regular re-examination of functional classification as changes in
adjacent land use take place, would resolve many potential design and
implementation conflicts before they take place.
There are various fundamental design controls that must be balanced against one
another. These include:
• The design speed of the road;

• The design-year peak-hour level of service on the road;
• The physical characteristics of the design vehicle;
• The performance characteristics of the design vehicle;
• The capabilities of the typical driver on the road (i.e., local residents using low-
speed local streets versus long distance travellers on arterial roads); and
• The existing and future traffic demands likely to be served by the facility.
1.6.2 Departure from Standards
Under all the above explained circumstances, which relate to the need for flexibility in
highway design, it is implicit that a road geometry designed to “standards” is not
necessarily safe or economical. Furthermore, human factors play as great a role in
the determination of geometric design standards as do other limitations such as
safety, various design vehicles, aesthetic, economic, environmental and social
aspects. Hence, in situations where the designer is obliged to make changes based
1-5
on his engineering judgment in relation to design parameters, a Departure from

Standards may be necessary. With such flexibility, the designer shall submit any
required departures from standards with detailed reasons for the departure as well as
recommendations for safety mitigation for evaluation.
An example of a Departure from Standard could be the use of a gradient greater than
the absolute maximum value and also the use of radius less than the allowable
minimum for any specified class of road. Where the designer departs from a
standard, he must obtain written approval and authorization from the Chief Engineer
of MoR. The Designer shall submit the following information to the Chief Engineer:
• The number, name, and description of the road

• The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
• A description of the standard, including guide value, and the value which is
proposed as a departure from standards
• The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
• Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety, environment, and cost
1.6.3 Road Safety Audits
As the term implies, road safety auditing is a structured process that brings
specialized and explicit safety knowledge to bear on a highway project so that it can
be quantitatively considered. It is a formal examination of a future or existing project
in which an independent, qualified examination team reports on the accident potential
and safety performance of the project.
The benefits of road safety audits include:
• A reduction in the severity of accidents on the road network;

• An increased awareness of safe design practices among traffic engineers and
road designers;
• A reduction in the life-cycle cost of a road.
• A saving in time and cost by changing project details at the planning and design
stage rather than by changing or removing a road element once installed;
• A reduction in the likelihood of accidents and therefore in accident costs; and
• A reduction in the cost of litigation.
The objectives of a road safety audit are;

• To identify and report on the accident potential and safety of a road project;
• To ensure that road elements with an accident potential are removed; or
• That the risk of crashes is reduced.
Road safety can be audited at any of the following six stages, however, the more
often the better:
Stage 1 Road safety audit: Preliminary design stage

Stage 2 Road safety audit: Draft design stage
Stage 3 Road safety audit: Detailed design stage
Stage 4 Road safety audit: Road works
Stage 5 Road safety audit: Pre-opening stage
Stage 6 Road safety audit: Existing facility
1-6
Figure 1-1 Process for conducting road safety audit
Reference should be made to Part 1 b) of the Road and Bridge Design Manual –
Road Safety Audits for a detailed guideline.
1.6.4 Economic Analysis
Economic analyses form an essential part of any civil engineering project where the
"value engineering" concept is important.
Roads are essential for mobility of people and goods and these benefits are attained
at a cost. Roads cost money to build and maintain; they consume space and affect
the environment; road travel consumes time, creates noise and pollution, and brings
about accidents, etc. All these are the costs of mobility.
By spending more money on construction, other costs may be reduced (e.g. travel
time or accidents). However, additional expenditure must create increases in benefits
or reductions in other costs that may accrue due to environmental impacts,
accidents, etc. Economic analyses can evaluate the costs and benefits accrued.
Economic analysis of a road should advise decision making at macro economic and
policy level for the project. Many formal or informal economic evaluations may have
been carried out and decisions made before the geometric designer gets involved. In
extreme cases, the designer may be so constrained by decisions already made, that
there is little or no opportunity to make value engineering judgement. It is, however,
the designer's task to incorporate those judgments into planning and design
wherever that freedom exists. The designer should also identify situations where
policy decisions may unreasonably constrain execution of a satisfactory design. A
1-7
satisfactory design is one which incorporates safety, environment, social and cost
benefits. When presented effectively, arguments made by designers may affect the
timing and scope of projects.
In addition to the geometric designer’s determination of the horizontal and vertical

alignment and cross section, special planning is required at every location where
roadways intersect, to accommodate diverging, converging and conflicting traffic
movements. In selecting design dimensions and layouts, the designer can directly
affect some of the benefits, costs and impacts of the road, as well as allow for future
expansion.
The designer must have the ability to optimize and foresee the effects of design
decisions on the benefits, costs and impacts of the road. He should be able to
compare and analyse decisions made by others, the content of design guides and
the result of his own engineering judgement.
Factors that the designer may be able to influence include:

• Mobility;
• Environmental impacts;
• Safety;
• Capital costs;
• Aesthetics;
• Maintenance costs
• Vehicle operating costs
• Social benefits
In influencing these factors, the designer will be guided by the design manual as well
as other legal requirements and the Road Authority’s policies and decisions.
1-8
2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN STANDARD .................................... 2-1

2.1 General ..................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Road Classification Concept and Design Standards ................................ 2-1
2.2.1 Rural Road Classification ................................................................. 2-2
2.2.2 Urban Road Classification ................................................................ 2-3
2.3 Hierarchy Essentials ................................................................................. 2-5
2.4 Access Control ......................................................................................... 2-6
2.4.1 Degree of Control ............................................................................. 2-6
2.4.2 Application ........................................................................................ 2-7
2.4.3 Control of Access: Rural Roads ....................................................... 2-7
2.4.4 Control of Access: Urban Roads ...................................................... 2-8
2.5 Road reserve ............................................................................................ 2-8
2.5.1 General ............................................................................................. 2-8
2.5.2 Rural Road Reserve ......................................................................... 2-9
2.5.3 Urban Road Reserve ........................................................................ 2-9
2.6 Design Type Classification ..................................................................... 2-10
2.6.1 General ........................................................................................... 2-10
2.6.2 Application of Standards................................................................. 2-10
Table 2-1 Level of rural access control .................................................................. 2-7

Table 2-2: Level of urban access control ................................................................ 2-8
Table 2-3: Rural road reserve width ........................................................................ 2-9
Table 2-4: Urban road reserve width..................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2-1 Example of Typical Urban Road Classification ....................................... 2-5
i
2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN STANDARD
2.1 General
Roads have two basic traffic service functions which, from a design standpoint, are
incompatible. These functions are:
(i) to provide traffic mobility between centres and areas – rural context; and
(ii) to provide access to land and properties adjoining the roads – urban context.
For rural roads the major function is to provide mobility, i.e. to cater for through and
long-distance traffic where high and uniform speeds and uninterrupted traffic flows
are desirable. For urban roads the major function is to provide land access mobility,
hence high speeds are unnecessary and, for safety reasons, undesirable.
Thus, the function of a particular road in the national, regional and local road network
has a significant impact on the design criteria to be chosen, and the design engineer
has to give careful consideration to this aspect in the early stages of the design
process- The following steps are required:-
1. Classification of the road in accordance with its major function.

2. Determination of the level of access control compatible with the function of
the road.
3. Selection of geometric design standards compatible with function and level of
access control.
When the functional classification and level of access control are given, design
standards can be applied which will encourage the use of the road as intended.
Design features that can convey the level of functional classification to the driver
include carriageway width, continuity of alignment, spacing of junctions, frequency of
accesses, standards of alignment and grades, traffic controls and road reserve
widths.
2.2 Road Classification Concept and Design Standards
The Road Classification establishes a hierarchy of roads according to the importance

of each road in the road network, the socio-economic function they serve and intend
to serve. The classification enables the agency that is responsible to effectively plan
upgrade and maintain the roads. Design standards and level of maintenance
requirements are directly related to the road functional class, together with other
indicators such as existing and predicted traffic on the road.
The classification of a road is based on its proposed function and roads grouped
under a particular category or class will be characterized by the level of service they
provide.
Functional classification of roads is one of the aspects that a road design class
should follow according to its role in the National, Provincial or Urban road networks.
Road design standards are categorised considering their transportation
characteristics of trip length, design volume and design speed.
2-1
The conflicting transport requirements of mobility and accessibility are key design
features and are used to differentiate between the design standard categories.
Details of the road categories for rural and urban roads, their location in the road
network and their defining characteristics are presented in the following subsections.
The rural and urban road classifications presented in the following sections are in
accordance with the study conducted on reclassification of the roads network in
Kenya by MoR. (MoR, 2008)
2.2.1 Rural Road Classification

The rural roads in Kenya are divided into the following seven classes according to
their major function in the road network:
Rural Class S roads – Motorways
• dual carriageway highways connecting two or more cities and designed to

carry safely a large volume of traffic at a high speed through elimination of
at-grade intersections using underpasses and overpasses. These roads
would be mostly tolled.
• Have maximum access restrictions by imposing full control of access from
adjacent properties
• eliminating all cross traffic with grade separations and interchanges and no
at grade railway crossings: grade-separated access provided only at
interchanges,
• there are generally no traffic lights or stop signs.
• pedestrians, cyclists and mopeds are banned at all times from motorways
• Sidewalks/footpaths may be attached to roads that cross motorways.
• Specialised pedestrian bridges and tunnels may be provided to enable
pedestrians and cyclists to cross the motorway without a long detour to the
nearest motor vehicle crossing.
Rural Class A Roads – Major Arterial or International Roads
Roads forming strategic routes and corridors, connecting international

boundaries and international terminals such as international ports.
Rural Class B Roads – Minor Arterial or National Trunk Roads
Roads forming important national routes, linking provincial capitals or other

important centres to the capital, to each other or to Class A roads.
These roads usually cross province boundaries, but may link several district
towns within the same province.
Rural Class C Roads – Major Collectors or Inter-District Roads
Roads linking district headquarters and other major designated towns (usually
with more than 10-25,000 population) to the higher level network or to each
other.
2-2
These roads usually cross existing district boundaries.
Rural Class D Roads – Minor Collectors or Divisional Roads
These are roads forming routes of moderate length, linking divisional

headquarters and other minor towns (usually with between 2,000 and 10,000
population) to the District towns or higher level network.
These roads usually cross existing division boundaries, but not district
boundaries.
Rural Class E Roads – Major Local or Minor Feeder Roads
Roads linking one or more markets, location centres or sub-location centres

to divisional centres or the higher level network.
Roads usually cross sub-location boundaries, but not divisional boundaries
Rural Class F Roads – Minor Local or Minor Feeder Roads
Roads serving groups of rural population in the range of less than 4,500 in
average density areas, without a market or at most one minor market.
Roads will usually provide a connection to a sub-location centre, a more
important market or the higher level network.
Rural Class G Roads – Local Access or Farm to Market Roads
Roads providing direct access between farming areas and the nearest market
or the higher level road network.
These are likely to serve catchment areas of less than 2,500 population
engaged mainly in farming activities and without internal market centres.
Roads of the highest classes, S, A and B, have as their major function to

provide mobility and have longer trip lengths. They are required to provide a
high level of service with a high design speed. The roads of Classes C and D
serve a dual function in accommodating shorter trips and feeding the higher
classes or road. For these roads an intermediate design speed and level of
service is required. Road Class E have short trip length and their primary
function is to provide access. Design speeds and level of service for these
roads may be low as well as for Classes F and G.
2.2.2 Urban Road Classification
Within urban areas the road network classification was determined according
to the type of service they provide. The following are the proposed urban road
functional classification:
Urban Class H Roads - Major Arterials or Urban Highways

These roads provide for through traffic and for relatively long-distance
movements between widely separated parts of the town or city. They are
likely to be found only in the largest towns and cities and will often represent
the extension of the international trunk routes (class A rural) through the
urban area; they include any bypasses or expressways.
2-3
They should normally include some form of access control, including

segregation of pedestrian and other non-motorised movements.
Traffic volumes are likely to be in the range of 40,000-50,000 vehicles/day in

Nairobi, or at least 5,000 ADT in other major towns. Major arterials should
connect at the defined urban boundaries with a rural arterial of equivalent
class.
Urban Class J Roads - Minor (or Principal) Arterials

Minor arterials provide the main means of moving between different zones of
the urban area, and they serve many towns, with up to at least 25,000
population, the main rural arterial or collector roads (i.e., B or C) passing
through the urban area, are likely to be suitable for adoption as principal
urban arterials (where there are no urban class A roads). Their traffic volumes
may be high enough to justify dualling, while some level of access control
through service lanes and segregation of non-motorised traffic will be
desirable wherever practicable.
These roads are likely to include the principal urban bus routes.
Urban Class K Roads - Major Collectors

Major collectors provide the link between arterials and local roads, distributing
traffic to residential and other defined zones. They typically take the form of
radial roads between arterials or spine roads serving the main residential
areas or other defined zones In larger towns. They are likely to have traffic
levels in the region of 5,000-10,000 ADT, but may be absent in smaller towns.
Ideally they provide some measure of access control, although most will
combine a balance of mobility and access functions.
Major collectors should link to arterials at one terminal and to local roads or
minor collectors at the other.
Urban Class L Roads - Minor Collectors

These perform a similar function to major collectors, but generally serve a
smaller area, with lower traffic levels, typically in the range of 1,000 - 5,000
ADT. They are likely to be the main type of collector in medium-sized towns,
but may be absent in smaller towns. They are unlikely to provide any access
control and will combine mobility and access functions.
Urban Class M Roads - Major Local – Local/Shopping Streets

These roads include the main shopping and business streets in the urban
central business district or suburbs of larger towns and cities, other than
designated minor arterials. They are also likely to feature prominently in
smaller urban settlements and markets.
They need to cater for a high level of pedestrian access to commercial

properties fronting directly on the street.
Local streets will be connected to arterials, collectors or other local streets.
2-4
Urban Class N Roads - Minor Local - Non-Residential Access

Roads providing direct access to individual or groups of properties, other than
residential areas, or to places of specific social or economic activity, including
industrial and commercial areas, and government institutions such as
schools, hospitals, prisons, government housing, etc. This class may be
appropriate for many of the special purpose roads presently classified as ‘G’
(government) roads.
Most roads are likely to be quite short and traffic volume will vary with the
type of activity served.
Urban Class P Roads - Local Access - Residential Access

Roads providing direct access to groups of residential properties, comprising
local residential streets and constituting the lowest tier of the hierarchy of
urban roads suitable for motorized transport.
Typical traffic volumes are expected to be about 400 ADT per 1000
population served in larger towns.
2.3 Hierarchy Essentials
PRINCIPAL ARTERIAL ROAD
LOCAL DISTRIBUTOR
LOCAL STREET
MOTORWAY
COLLECTOR STREET
IAL
R
RTE
A
OR
MIN
PRINCIPAL ARTERIAL ROAD
Figure 2-1 Example of Typical Urban Road Classification
The above road networks serve two important types of traffic movement:
i) Traffic that has no relation or not need to enter the area – served by
principal arterial and minor arterial roads
ii) Traffic that has direct relationship and need to access the area or circulate
within an area – served by minor arterial, collector and local streets
2-5
The types of movements that are served by the above classified roads have several
functions such as provision of through traffic, access to properties, bus routes and
stops, cycle tracks, and pedestrian facilities. Some roads serve more than one
functions to varying degree, however, mixing incompatible functions may lead to
traffic conflict. Therefore, the concept of road hierarchy is to define the main purpose
of each road class which will then be used as a basis for planning of land use and
traffic management.
The road hierarchy is essential in the identification of the function proposed for all the
elements of the road system, and it will assist in considering activities such as:
• Network planning
• Traffic management
• Safety
• Route signing
• Parking facilities
• Cycle and pedestrian facilities
• Environmental and land use consideration
• Economic consideration
Government policies and the master planning process for the operational and
management needs of the above elements must also be related to the functional
classification.
2.4 Access Control
2.4.1 Degree of Control
Access control defines the conditions where by the right of owners, other persons or
occupants abutting land or to access to a road, is fully or partially controlled by the
public authority.
Uncontrolled access to roadside development along roads, whose major function is

to provide mobility, will result in an increased accident hazard, reduced capacity and
early obsolescence of the roads. In order to preserve major roads as high standard
traffic facilities it is necessary to exercise access control, whereby the right of owners
or occupants of land to access is controlled by the Highway Authority.
Although control of access is one of the most important means for preserving the
efficiency and road safety of major roads, roads without access control are equally
essential as land service facilities.
Control of access is usually classified into three types for its degree of control,
namely full control, partial control and non-controlled or unrestricted access.
Full Control of Access means that preference is given to through traffic by providing
access connecting with selected public roads only and by prohibiting crossings at
grade or direct private driveway connections.
Partial Control of Access means that preference is given to through traffic to a degree
that in addition to access connection with selected public roads, there may be some
cross trafficked roads. At grade intersections should be limited and only allowed at
selected locations.
2-6
Non-control or unrestricted access means that preference is given to local traffic, with
the road serving the adjoining areas through direct access connections. To
compensate for the limited access to roads with full or partial control of access,
frontage or service roads are sometimes attached to the sides of the main roads
However, the detailed location and layout of the accesses should be subject to
approval by the Highway Authority in order to ensure adequate standards of visibility,
surfacing, drainage, etc. In Non Control Access there are basically no access
limitations.
2.4.2 Application
The selection of the degree of access control required is important to preserve the
as- built capacity of the road as well as to improved safety for all road users. Three
aspects pertaining to the degree of access are:
(a) Consideration of access to existing developments during the design stage;

(b) Consideration of access to future developments after the road is completed;
(c) Selection of degree of access control depends on traffic volumes, function of
the road and the road network around the areas. Guidelines for selecting the degree
of access control for rural and urban roads are provided in Table 2-1 and Table 2-2
respectively.
2.4.3 Control of Access: Rural Roads
Road function determines the level of access control needed. Motorways should
always have full control of access. For all-purpose roads the following general
guidelines are given for the level of access control in relation to the functional road
classification:
Table 2-1 Level of rural access control
Level Of Access Control

Functional Class
Desirable Reduced
Motorway Full Full
Major Arterial Full Partial
Minor Arterial Full Partial
Major Collector Full or Partial Partial
Minor Collector Partial Unrestricted
Major Local Partial or unrestricted Unrestricted
Minor Local, Local Access Unrestricted Unrestricted
The Reduced levels of access control may have to be applied for some road projects
because of practical and financial constraints.
2-7
Control of access is accomplished either by the careful location of accesses, by

grouping accesses to reduce the number of separate connections to the through
traffic lanes or by constructing service roads which intercept the individual accesses
and join the through lanes at a limited number of properly located and designed
junctions. In every case the location and layout of all accesses, service roads and
junctions should be carefully considered at the design stage and included in the final
detailed design for the project.
2.4.4 Control of Access: Urban Roads
Table 2-2: Level of urban access control
Level of Access Control

Functional Class
Desirable Reduced
Major Arterial Full Partial
Minor Arterial Full or Partial Partial
Major Collector Partial Partial
Minor Collector Partial Unrestricted
Major Local Unrestricted Unrestricted
Minor Local Unrestricted Unrestricted
Local Access Unrestricted Unrestricted
For existing developments such as shopping malls that may require direct access
from Major arterials, a grade separated ramped access can only be provided if it
does not create interference to the through traffic. Future developments, however,
must incorporate the requirements of the concerned authority for provision of access.
2.5 Road reserve
2.5.1 General
Road reserves are provided in order to accommodate future road connections or

changes in alignment, road width or junction layout for existing roads and to enhance
the safety, operation and appearance of the roads. The road reserve should always
be determined and shown on the final design plans for road projects.
2-8
2.5.2 Rural Road Reserve
The following road reserve widths are applicable for the different rural road classes:
Table 2-3: Rural road reserve width
Road Reserve (m)

Functional Class
Motorway 80
Major Arterial 40 -60
Minor Arterial 40 – 60
Major Collector 40
Minor Collector 25
Major Local 9 – 20
Minor Local 9 – 10
Local Access 9 - 10
The Reduced widths may be adopted only when it is found necessary for economic,
financial or environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing
developments or when provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high
costs because of physical constraints.
For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road reserve width above
the given values. As a general rule the road reserve boundary should be at a distance from
the centreline of the nearest carriageway equal to half the road reserve width for single
carriageway roads.
2.5.3 Urban Road Reserve
Road reserves in urban areas should be treated in conformity with the city master
plans that indicate future land use developments. In such cases, the following given
values can be used as a general guidelines. However, the design engineer after a
careful comparison of reserve values with the master plan can make revision to cater
for safe, economical, and environmentally sound design.
2-9
Table 2-4: Urban road reserve width
Functional Class Road Reserve (m)
Major Arterial 60 – 80
Minor Arterial 20 – 45
Major Collector 18 – 40
Minor Collector 15
Major Local 12 – 15
Minor Local 9 -12
Local Access 9 - 12
2.6 Design Type Classification
2.6.1 General
There is no fundamental difference in the principles of design for rural and urban roads.
Roads in urban areas, however, are characterized by surroundings where buildings and
houses are gathered and business activity is common, and by busy pedestrian activities
and frequent stopping of vehicles owing to short intersection spacing and traffic congestion.
An urban area covers all areas within the gazetted Municipality limits and also includes
areas expected to become urbanised within the design period. Lower design speeds are
usually adopted for urban roads and different cross-sectional elements are applied to take
into account the nature of traffic and adjoining land use. It is for these reasons that
variations in certain aspects of geometric design are adopted for urban roads.
2.6.2 Application of Standards
The proposed design standard is classified into seven groups (DR1, DR2, DR3, DR4, DR5,
DR6 and DR7) for Kenyan rural roads and into seven groups for Kenyan urban areas
namely (DU1, DU2, DU3, DU4, DU5, DU6 and DU7). These are in descending order of
design hierarchy.
Roads which function to provide long distance travel will require higher design speeds and
standards, while roads which serve local traffic, where the effect of speed is less
2-10
significant require lower standards. Roads with heavier traffic will be provided with a
higher standards for both rural and urban cases.
Each proposed design standard is generally applicable to the road types as follows:
(a) Standard DR1/DU1 : Provides the highest geometric design standard for rural or urban
areas. Roads of this standard usually service long trips with high speed of travelling,
comfort and safety. This standard always includes divided carriageways with full access
control.
(b) Standard DR2/DU2: Also provides high geometric standards suitable for long to
intermediate trip lengths with high to medium travelling speeds. The road is usually
designed with partial access control.
(c) Standard DR3/DU3: Provides a medium geometric standard road suitable for
intermediate trip lengths with medium travelling speeds and partial access control.
(d) Standard DR4/DU4: Provides low geometric standards and serves mainly local traffic.
There is partial or no access control.
(e) Standard DR5/DU5: Provides the lowest geometric standard road with two-way flow.
This standard is used for roads accommodating local traffic with low volumes of
commercial traffic.
(f) Standard DR6/DU6: Provides for a road with very low geometric standards and is
applied to very low traffic volume. It is used for urban areas where two way traffic
is not required.
(g) Standard DR7/DU7: Provides for a road with low geometric standards with a
gravel surfacing carrying low traffic volumes. The need for provision for two way
traffic is very low
Geometric design parameters for the above rural and urban design standards are
given in Chapter 6 of this manual.
2-11
3 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA............................................................... 3-1

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Terrain, Land Use and Physical Features ................................................ 3-1
3.2.1 General ............................................................................................. 3-1
3.2.2 Route Location ................................................................................. 3-2
3.2.3 Land Use Integration ........................................................................ 3-2
3.2.4 Geology and Geomorphology........................................................... 3-2
3.2.5 Terrain .............................................................................................. 3-2
3.2.6 Erosion ................................................................................................. 3-2
3.3 Environmental and Social Considerations ................................................ 3-3
3.3.1 Indirect factors .................................................................................. 3-4
3.4 Safety Considerations .............................................................................. 3-4
3.5 Road Function and Access Control .......................................................... 3-6
3.6 Traffic Characteristics ............................................................................... 3-6
3.6.1 Traffic volume patterns ..................................................................... 3-6
3.6.2 Measures of traffic volume ............................................................... 3-6
3.6.3 Projection of Future Traffic ............................................................... 3-8
3.7 Road Capacity and Level of Service ........................................................ 3-8
3.7.1 General ............................................................................................. 3-8
3.7.2 Level of Service .............................................................................. 3-12
3.8 Speed and Speed Controls .................................................................... 3-13
3.8.1 General ........................................................................................... 3-13
3.8.2 Operating speed ............................................................................. 3-14
3.8.3 Design speed.................................................................................. 3-14
3.8.4 Design sections .............................................................................. 3-15
3.8.5 Other Factors That Affect Operating Conditions ............................ 3-15
3.9 Design Vehicles ...................................................................................... 3-16
3.9.1 Minimum Turning Radii ................................................................... 3-16
3.10 Human Factor ......................................................................................... 3-19
3.10.1 Driver Behaviour and Performance ................................................ 3-19
3.10.2 Reaction Time ................................................................................ 3-20
3.11 Other Road Users .................................................................................. 3-20
3.11.1 Pedestrians..................................................................................... 3-20
3.11.2 Pedal cyclists .................................................................................. 3-21
3.11.3 Motor cyclists .................................................................................. 3-21
3.12 Sight Distance ........................................................................................ 3-22
3.13 Road surface .......................................................................................... 3-22
3.14 Economic considerations ....................................................................... 3-22
i
Table 3-1: General Ranges for K and D Factors ............................................... 3-8

Table 3-2 Conversion Factors to Passenger Car Units .................................... 3-9
Table 3-3 Practical capacities of two-way rural roads ..................................... 3-10
Table 3-4 Practical capacities of two-way urban roads................................... 3-11
Table 3-5 Practical capacities for one-way urban roads ................................. 3-12
Table 3-6: Level of Service Characteristics by road type ............................... 3-13
Table 3-7: Recommended Design Speed (Rural) ............................................ 3-14
Table 3-8: Recommended Design Speed (Urban) .......................................... 3-14
Table 3-9 Dimension of Design Vehicle ............................................................ 3-16
Figure 3-1: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck ........... 3-17
Figure 3-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus......... 3-18
Figure 3-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination. 3-
19
ii
3 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA
3.1 Introduction
The geometric form of a road includes a number of geometric design elements. Appropriate
standards (Chapter 5) and combinations of these elements should be determined on the
basis of the following controls and criteria:
• Terrain, land use and physical features.
• Environmental and social considerations
• Safety considerations.
• Road function and access control
• Traffic characteristics
• Road capacity and level of service
• Speed
• Design vehicle
• Driver factor
• Other road users
• Sight distance
• Road surface
• Economic and financial considerations
All these controls and criteria should be considered in order to arrive at a final design which
is in balance with the physical and social environment, which meets future traffic
requirements and which encourages consistency and uniformity of operation. In this way it
is possible to eliminate at the design stage any environmental and operational problems
which would otherwise increase accident potential and other detrimental effects and create
disruption and additional costs for remedial measures in the future.
Alternative construction technologies incorporating labour intensive methods have a

bearing on design criteria for lower class (D and E) roads; these cases require special
consideration and sometimes a relaxation of the standards mentioned in Chapter 1 of this
manual.
3.2 Terrain, Land Use and Physical Features
3.2.1 General
Road design is an exercise in three-dimensional planning the success of which will be
measured not only by the efficiency of the road but by its appearance and impact upon
the adjoining areas.
Information regarding topography, land use and physical features are essential and
should be obtained in the early stages of planning and design. In this respect it is
necessary to consult with the physical planning authorities (Physical Planning
Department and the Provincial Physical Planning Officers.) in order to co-ordinate the
project with existing and proposed land uses and to protect the selected route from
conflicting development.
Man-made features such as agricultural, industrial, commercial, residential and

recreational developments are important controls for the route location and final design.
Care should be taken to avoid unnecessary destruction, demolition or severance of valuable
properties.
3-1
3.2.2 Route Location

The first fundamental consideration in the design process is route location. An appropriate
route shall be located that takes into account the intended functional classification, public
opinion, environment, cost and benefits. The objective of route selection should be to
choose a route that has both the minimum effect on landform and requires the
smallest quantity of large earthworks.
A fundamental consideration in route location and final design is to fit the road
sympathetically into the landscape, with a broad awareness of the character and features
of the area through which it passes. This is required not only to obtain an aesthetically
pleasing alignment, but in general is also necessary in order to obtain the most economic
solution and the best possible service to the traversed area with the least detrimental
effects.
3.2.3 Land Use Integration
It is important to consider routes that use the existing landform and minimise the land
use.
In urban areas, an existing and future development land use study is essential for the
proposed project. This will establish zones for residential or commercial use and
open space. It should also include size of population and other related information.
3.2.4 Geology and Geomorphology
Geological, soil, climatic and drainage conditions also affect the location and geometries of
a road.
This section of the manual concerns the main geomorphological, geological and
geotechnical features and drainage characteristics that shall be considered in the corridor
where the different route alternatives are located. These existing physical conditions affect
the location and geometries of the road and a general study of the area shall be conducted
using available data such as exiting topographical maps, geological maps, climatic data and
previous studies.
3.2.5 Terrain
Terrain is a major factor in determining the physical location, alignment, gradients, sight
distances, cross-section and other design elements of a rural road. Flat terrain may have
little influence on route location, but may cause difficulties in some design elements, e.g.
drainage. Furthermore, it may encourage monotonous straight alignments with abrupt
changes in direction which may cause problems for drivers because the terrain gives no
indication of what to expect. In mountainous terrain the route location and certain design
features may be almost entirely governed by the terrain.
3.2.6 Erosion
Of particular importance in road design is the prevention of soil erosion. Areas should
be identified where there are possible occurrences of landslides, slips, earth flows,
and rock falls. These areas are to be avoided if possible in identifying alignment
alternatives. Similarly cuts on steep slopes in volcanic rock should be avoided as
these may result in collapse of the hillside. Areas of unstable soil and marked erosion
should also be avoided, and in all cases where the foregoing are unavoidable a
detailed geotechnical study of slope stability should be undertaken.
3-2
3.3 Environmental and Social Considerations

No road project is without both positive and negative effects on the environment. The
location and design of a road should aim at maximising the favourable effects of the
project, such as providing or removing undesirable traffic from environmentally
vulnerable areas, while at the same time minimising the adverse effects of the project
as much, as possible.
The following direct factors, related to the road as a physical feature in the
environment, have to be considered in the location and design of a road project:
(1) The preservation of the natural beauty of the countryside.
(2) The preservation of particular areas and land used for specific purpose,
including:
- national parks and other recreational areas;
- wildlife and bird sanctuaries;
- forests and other important natural resources;
- land of high agricultural value or potential;
- other land of great economic value of importance in a local context
- forests, wetlands and other important natural resources;
- historic, archeological and cultural sites, cemeteries and other man-made
features of outstanding value.
(3) The prevention of soil erosion and sedimentation.
(4) The prevention of health hazards by ponding of water leading to the

formation of swamps.
(5) The avoidance or reduction of visual intrusion.
(6) The prevention of undesirable roadside development.
Other considerations are mainly related to the operation of the road as a facility for
moving traffic and include the following detrimental effects:
- Noise pollution.
- Air pollution.
- Vibration.
- Severance of areas (barrier effect)
These operational effects are mainly a problem of urban roads and traffic, but in
some cases are also relevant to the design of roads in rural areas.
Some of the adverse environmental effects are fairly easy to quantify (e.g. noise
levels and air quality), whilst others are more difficult (e.g. visual impact). In many
cases it is necessary to employ the services of other professions to reach a proper
evaluation of the problems and establish adequate remedial measures.
3-3
3.3.1 Indirect Factors
These will mostly apply to new roads. Indirect factors (also known as secondary,
tertiary, and chain factors) are usually linked closely with the project, and may have
more profound consequences on the environment than direct impacts. Indirect
impacts are more difficult to measure, but can ultimately be more important. Over
time they can affect larger geographical areas of the environment than anticipated.
Some of the indirect factors to consider include:
- degradation of surface water quality by the erosion of land cleared as a result of
a new road,
- Potential for spontaneous urban growth near a new road,
- increased deforestation of an area, stemming from easier (more profitable)
transportation of timber or charcoal to market,
- potential influx of settlers into an undeveloped area
- rapid depletion of animals due to poaching
These impacts should be considered not only as they pertain to road rights-of way,
but also to sites associated with the road project, which include deposit, spoil and
borrow sites, materials treatment areas, quarries, access roads, and facilities
provided for project work
3.4 Safety Considerations
Designing safety features into roads is one of the main objectives of geometric
design. Relevant safety features for a given type of road must be included during
the initial design phase.
Safety considerations in road design have two different objectives:
(i) To provide design features aimed at preventing accidents, and
(ii) To provide design features aimed at reducing the seriousness of accidents

when they occur.
For the prevention of accidents the following points are of particular importance;
(1) Provision of physical separation between motor vehicles and non-

motorized traffic (pedestrians, cyclists, animals); and separate facilities for
these two road user types.
(2) Provision of a balanced design, i.e. compatibility between the various

design elements.
(3) Avoidance of surprise elements for the drivers; i.e. no abrupt changes
in standard, adequate visibility conditions and proper phasing of
horizontal and vertical alignment.
(4) Avoidance of situations where drivers must make more than one
decision at a time.
(5) Provision of design features that reduce speed differentials between

vehicles; e.g. flat grades and speed change lanes.
3-4
(6) Proper location and design of junctions with particular emphasis on

sufficient sight distances, a minimum of conflict points, and clearly defined
and controlled traffic movements.
(7) Proper design, application and location of traffic signs, road markings
and other traffic control devices. (Refer to the Design Manual for
Roads and Bridges – Part 5)
(8) Provision of design elements compatible with traffic volumes and type of
traffic (long-distance, through, local, etc.).
(9) Provision of proper drainage of the road surface.
Some accidents will happen even on roads designed to high safety standards
because of the human element involved, A basic consideration in road design is,
therefore to minimise injuries and damage when accidents do occur. Important
points in this respect are:
(a) Roadside slopes should be made as flat as possible whenever feasible,

desirably 1:4 or flatter, and the roadside area should be well rounded where
slope planes intersect.
(b) Road sign and lighting supports and other utility poles should be located far
enough from the carriageway to make them unlikely to be struck by an out-
of-control vehicle, or they should have breakaway capability and/or
guardrail.
(c) All drainage structures should be designed so that out-of-control vehicles

can either pass safely over them or be safely deflected.
(d) Barrier systems should be considered only when fill slopes of 1:4 or flatter
are not feasible, and the damage caused by hitting a safety fence would be
less serious than damage from leaving the carriageway.
(e) Roadside barriers should be provided at dangerous obstacles which cannot

be removed, and which would cause serious damage if hit by an out-of-
control vehicle (e.g. bridge piers and abutments).
Road safety considerations and features are built into the principles, criteria and
values for the various design elements given in this Road Design Manual. However,
this does not necessarily ensure that the completed road will be of a safe design
unless the designer is fully aware of, and takes into account, road safety aspects
through out all phases of the design work.
In order to ensure road safety at various project stages, a road safety audit should be
considered as detailed in Part 1 b) of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Traffic safety is of primary importance when considering new and upgrading road
design projects. In the particular case where upgrading is required for rural and urban
roads, accident data shall be obtained and evaluated for considerations with respect
to the new design. Such data should include accident type cause and severity. This
will help in identifying the measures of accident prevention that must be considered
in the road design.
3-5
3.5 Road Function and Access Control
The function of a particular road, as defined by the majority of the road users (long-distance
traffic, through traffic, local traffic, etc.) has to be taken into account in the determination of
design standards for the project and in particular in the selection of the design speed.
In particular, careful consideration must be given to the choice of design standards for roads
whose major function is to cater for long distance regional traffic (generally International
trunk and national trunk rural roads and, major and minor urban arterials ). Due to the long
distances involved, traffic tends to move at high speeds on some of these roads and it may
therefore be necessary to adopt higher standards than are warranted by traffic volumes
alone in order to provide an acceptable level of road safety.
Guidelines for the selection of design standards in relation to road function are given in
subsequent chapters for a number of design elements.
Depending on the function of a road, various levels of access control should be imposed as
described in Section 2.4. All points of access should be carefully considered and planned
at the design stage. Access should not be allowed at locations where entering and leaving
vehicles will create a hazard, particularly where sight distances are restricted or at points
too close to other junctions. The proper location and design of access points may in some
cases necessitate adjustments to the initial alignment.
3.6 Traffic Characteristics
3.6.1 Traffic Volume Patterns

The traffic volume on a specific road section can vary significantly between peak
hours, daily traffic and seasonal flows. The extent of the variation depends on factors
such as the road function, the traffic conditions, location and environment. Localised
information on seasonal variations should be obtained by collection of appropriate
traffic data and also by local knowledge where no traffic studies, statistics or
comparative counts are available. Reference should be made to the KRBD Manual
Part 1c) Traffic Surveys.
3.6.2 Measures of Traffic Volume
The general measures of vehicular traffic on a road are:
(1) Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) – The average 24-hour

volume at a given location over a full 365-day year; the number of
vehicles passing in a site in a year divided by 365 days (366 days in
a leap year.
(2) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) - the average 24-hour volume at a given
location over a defined time period less than one year; a common
application is to measure ADT for each month of the year.
All these terms are stated in terms of vehicles per day (veh/day). Daily volumes are
generally not differentiated by direction or lane but are totals for an entire road
location at the designated location. They can be readily established when continuous
counts are available. When only periodic counts are undertaken, the ADT and AADT
can be estimated by applying relevant factors to account for season, month and day
of week.
3-6
AADT and ADT are used in:
• assessing annual usage

• undertaking strategic link analysis
• justifying project alternatives and expenditure of funds on projects
• designing structural elements of the road
In design, peak-hour volumes are sometimes estimated from projections of the

AADT. Traffic forecasts are most often cast in terms of AADTs based on documented
trends and/or forecasting models, because daily volume, projections can be more
confidently made using them. AADTs are converted to a peak-hour volume in the
peak direction of flow. This is referred to as the “directional design hour volume”
(DDHV), and is found using the following relationship:
DDHV = AADT * K * D (3-1)
Where: K = proportion of daily traffic occurring during the peak hour
D = proportion of peak hour traffic traveling in the peak direction

of flow
On two-lane two-way roads, the Design Hourly Volume (DHV) is usually the total
volume for both directions. For roads with more than two lanes or where a two-lane
road is to be widened at a later date, the volume in each direction must be known. In
peak hours on multi-lane roads, the volume in the peak direction can vary from 55 to
70 percent of the total flow depending on the origins and destinations of the traffic.
The directional split may be greater on a highly recreational route. The design must
therefore consider the proportion of traffic in one direction to ensure an adequate
design is undertaken.
For design, the K factor often presents the proportion of AADT occurring during the
30th peak hour flow. This means if the 365 peak hour volumes of the year at a given
location are listed in descending order, the 30th peak hour is the 30th on the list and
represents a volume that exceeded 29 hours of the year. The design hour should be
one that is “not exceeded very often or by much” (AASHTO, 2001).
For rural roads, the 30th peak hour may have a significantly lower volume than the
worst hour of the year, as critical peaks may occur only in frequently. In such cases it
is not economically feasible to invest large amounts of capital in providing additional
capacity or higher road class that will be used in only 29 hours of the year.
In urban cases, where traffic is frequently at capacity levels during the daily
commuter peaks, the 30th peak hour is often not substantially different from the
highest peak hour of the year.
Factors K and D are based upon local or regional characteristics at existing locations.
A general range of these factors is given in Table 3-1. The values are illustrative, and
specific data on these characteristics should be available for the project road from
the local highway authorities.
3-7
Table 3-1: General Ranges for K and D Factors
Facility Type Normal Range of Values
K-Factor D-Factor
Rural 0.15 – 0.25 0.65 – 0.80
Semi-urban 0.12 – 0.15 0.55 – 0.65
Urban 0.07 – 0.12 0.50 – 0.60

(Source: Traffic Engineering, by Roess,Prassas & MacShane)
The most adequate design control for low-volume roads is AADT in year 10 after
opening, estimated from historical AADT data and the envisaged socio-economical
development pattern. For routes with large seasonal variations but still moderate
traffic volumes, it may be sufficient to determine the Design Volume in year 10 after
opening as ADT during the peak months of the year.
3.6.3 Projection of Future Traffic
For most design purposes, an estimate of the traffic in the design year is required.
The nominated design year is used to define the design life of a traffic system.
Design parameters are based on traffic forecasts for the design year. Although this is
the case, even with a developed economy and stable economic conditions, traffic
forecasting is an uncertain process. When forecasting traffic growth it is usual to
separate the traffic into the following three categories:-
• Normal traffic: Traffic which would travel along the same road even if no
improvement were provided.
• Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to
the project road because of the improved facility, but still travels between the
same origin and destination.
• Generated traffic: Additional traffic that occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road.
3.7 Road Capacity and Level of Service
3.7.1 General
The term capacity is used to express the maximum hourly rate at which persons or
vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane
or a carriageway during a given period of time under prevailing carriageway and
traffic conditions.
Highway capacity information serves three general purposes:-
1. It is used in transportation planning studies to assess the adequacy or sufficiency

of the road network to service existing traffic and to estimate the time when traffic
3-8
growth may overtake the capacity of the network or result in unacceptable

congestion.
2. Highway capacity information is of vital importance in the design of roads and
road networks. Knowledge of highway capacity is essential to the proper fitting of
a planned road to the requirements of estimated traffic, both in the selection of
the road type and the dimensions of lanes and weaving sections.
3. Capacity information is utilised in the analysis of traffic operations (either existing
or planned) for many purposes, but particularly for the identification of bottlenecks
and assessing the benefits to be accrued from spot improvements to the
geometry of the road.
3.7.1.1 Passenger car units

Vehicles of different types require different amounts of road space because of
variations in size and performance. In order to allow for this in capacity
measurements for roads and junctions, traffic volumes are expressed in terms of
passenger car units (pcu's). The basic unit is the car (taxis, mini vans, vans,
pickups and three-wheeler vehicles also count as one unit). As different types of
vehicles affect the capacity of rural roads, urban roads, roundabouts and traffic
signals in varying degrees, the weighting for each class of vehicle has to be
varied to suit the purpose for which it is to be used. For example, a heavy goods
vehicle on a rural road is rated as equivalent to 3 cars, but on an urban road to
only 2, and at traffic signals to 1.75. The appropriate values for different types of
vehicles under varying conditions are given in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2 Conversion Factors to Passenger Car Units

Type of Vehicle Equivalent Value in P.C.U’S
Rural Urban Roundabout Traffic
Standard Standard Design Signal
Design
Passenger Cars 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Motor Cycles, 1.00 0.75 0.75 0.33
M t Vans t
Light 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Medium Lorries 2.50 2.50 2.80 1.75
Heavy goods 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.25
hi l & coaches
Buses 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.25
Pedal cycle 0.50 0.33 0.50 0.20
3.7.1.2 Road capacity

The design of main traffic routes in built-up areas should be based on peak-hour
demands and not, as in rural areas, on the average daily traffic. Due allowance
should be made, especially in intersection design, for tidal flows during the
morning and evening peaks and for any other peaks during the day as, for
example, at lunch time.
Guide values for rural road capacities are given in Table 3-3.
3-9
Table 3-3 Practical capacities of two-way rural roads

Basic capacity for a Operating Design Proportion of Design
2-lane single Speed Speed road with pass. Capacity
carriageway (km/h) (km/h) sight dist. (pcu/h)
(pcu/h) greater than
minimum
requirement
2000 95 110-120 100% 400

80% 360
60% 300
2000 80 90-100 100% 800

80% 700
60% 600
40% 480
2000 65 80 100% 1120

80% 1060
60% 940
40% 760
20% 560
2000 55 70 100% 1340
80% 1240
60% 1140
40* 1040
20% 880
Approximate practical capacities of urban roads between junctions are given in

Tables 3-3 and 3-4, which cover a wide range of carriageway widths typical of
both new and existing roads. On two-way carriageways capacity is relatively
independent of distribution by direction and designs can be based on two-way
flows; on the other hand, on dual or divided carriageways capacity is dependent
on distribution by direction and designs must therefore be based on peak-hour
flows in the busier direction of travel. Recommended carriageway widths for
various types of road and some typical cross-sections are given in Section 5.7.
3-10
Table 3-4 Practical capacities of two-way urban roads
Effective width of
2-lane 3-lane 4-lane 6-lane
carriageway in
metres (excluding
refuges or central
reservation) 7.0m 7.3m 10m 14m 20m Remarks
Capacity in pcu's per

Capacity in pcu's per hour for
Description hour for one direction
both directions of flow
of flow
All purpose roads
with no frontage
access, no parked Appropriate to all-
1350 1500 2200 2 200 3300
vehicles permitted purpose distributors
and negligible
cross traffic
Applicable to
distributors and
All purpose streets
2250 (or access roads where
with high capacity
1000 1200 1800 1 350 2450 for dual accesses is frequent
junctions and 'No
carriageway but capacity is not
waiting' restrictions
unduly restricted by
junctions
All purpose streets
Applicable to roads
with capacity
450 to 600 to 1100 to 900 to with waiting vehicles
restricted by 1500 to 2000
600 750 1300 1000 and with heavy cross
parked vehicles
traffic limit capacity
and junctions
3-11
Table 3-5 Practical capacities for one-way urban roads

Effective width of 2-lane 3-lane 4-lane
carriageway in
metres ( excluding
refuges or central 5.5m 7.0m 7.3m 10m 14m Remarks
reservation
Description Capacity in pcu's per hour
Urban motorways with Applicable to the

4500
grade separation and 3000 6000(14.5m) highest of category
(11m)
no frontage access of distributor
All purpose roads with

no frontage access, no 2200 Applicable to all-
1650 2400 3300 4400
standing vehicles and purpose distributors
negligible cross traffic
Applicable to
distributors and
All purpose streets with access roads
high capacity junctions where access is
1100 1600 2400 3350
and 'No waiting' 1450 frequent but
restrictions capacity unduly
restricted by
junction
Applicable to roads
All purpose streets with with waiting
capacity restricted by 720 950 1100 1800 2800 vehicles and with
parked vehicles heavy cross traffic
limit capacity
3.7.2 Level of Service
Level of Service relates to the operating conditions encountered by traffic. It is a

qualitative measure of factors such as speed, trip time, interruptions, interference,
freedom to overtake, ability to manoeuvre, safety, comfort, convenience and vehicle
operating costs.
The choice of level of service will generally be based on economic considerations.
Six levels of service are defined. These vary from level A which is the free flow
condition, where drivers can maintain their desired speed (low volume and high
speed); to level E where the traffic is approaching saturation with drivers travelling at
low speed due to high volume of traffic.
The maximum volume that can be carried at any selected level of service is referred
to as the service volume for that level. The traffic flow rates that can be served at
each level of service are termed as service flow rate. Once a level of service has
been identified as applicable for design, the accompanying service flow rate logically
3-12
become the design service flow rate, implying that if the traffic flow rate using the
facility exceeds that value, operating conditions will fall below the level of service for
which the facility was designed.
Table 3-6: Level of Service Characteristics by road type
Multi lane urban without access
Level of Service Two lane rural
control
Average travel speed of ≥ Average travel speed of about
93km/hr. 90% of free flow speed. Stopped
Most passing manoeuvres can be delay at signalized intersections is
A made with little or no delay. minimal
Service flow rate a total of 420
pcu/hr for both direction and about
15% of capacity can be achieved.
Average travel speed of ≥ Average travel speeds drop due to
88km/hr. intersection delay and inter-
Flow rates may reach 27% of vehicular conflicts, but remain at
B
capacity with continuous passing 70% of free flow speed. Delay is
sight distance. Flow rate of 750 not unreasonable.
pcu/hr total for both direction.
Flow still stable. Average travel Stable operations. Longer queues
speed of ≥ 84km/hr. at signals result in average travel
Flow rates under ideal condition speeds of about 50% of free flow
C equal to 43% of capacity with speeds. Motorists will experience
continuous passing sight distance appreciable tension.
or 1,200 pcu/hr total for both
direction.
Approaching unstable flow. Approaching unstable flow.
Average travel speed of ≥ Average travel speeds down to
80km/hr. 40% of free flow speed. Delays at
D Flow rates, two directions, at 64% intersections may become
of capacity with continuous extensive.
passing opportunity, or a total of
1,800 pcu/hr for both direction.
Average travel speeds in Average travel speeds 33% of free
neighborhood of 72 km/hr. flow speed. Unstable flow.
Flow rates under ideal conditions, Continuous backup on approaches
total two way, equal to 2,800 to intersections.
E
pcu/hr. Level E may never be
attained.
Operation may go directly from
Level D directly to Level F.
Forced congested flow with Average travel speed between 25
unpredictable characteristics. and 33% of free flow speed.
F Operating speeds less than 72 Vehicular backups, and high
km/hr. approach delays at signalised
intersections
3.8 Speed and Speed Controls
3.8.1 General
Speed is a primary factor in all modes of transportation and geometric design of roads. The
speed of vehicles on a road depends, in addition to capabilities of the drivers and their
vehicles, upon general conditions such as the physical characteristics of’ the highway, the
weather, the presence of other vehicles and the legal speed limitations.
3-13
The Speeds are selected to meet the needs of the road to fulfil its function. Thus roads
which are planned to provide long distance travel will be designed with a higher speed while
those which provide short distance travel can be given a lower design speed.
3.8.2 Operating Speed

Operating speed is the highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road
under favourable weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions without at any
time exceeding the design speed on a section by section basis.
3.8.3 Design Speed

Design speed is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section
of the road when conditions are so favourable that the design features of the road govern.
The assumed design speed should be a logical one with respect to the topography, the
adjacent land use and the type of road. Every effort should be made to use as high a design
speed as practicable whilst maintaining the desired degree of safety, mobility and efficiency.
Table 3-7 and Table 3-8 indicate the selection of design speeds for rural and urban roads
respectively.
Table 3-7: Recommended Design Speed (Rural)
Design speed ( km/hr)

Design Standard
Mountainous
Flat Terrain Rolling Terrain
Terrain
DR1 120 100 80

DR2 110 90 70
DR3 100 90 70
DR4 90 85 60
DR5 80 65 50
DR6 70 65 50
DR7 50 40 30
Table 3-8: Recommended Design Speed (Urban)

Design Standard Design Speed ( km/hr )
Urban Type I Urban Type II

DU1 90 70
DU2 60 50
DU3 50 40
DU4 50 40
DU5 50 30
DU6 50 30
3-14
DU7 50 30
Note : Urban Type I – Relatively free in road location with very little problem as
regards to land acquisition and affected buildings e,g small towns, and
low population density areas.
Urban Type II – Very restrictive in road location with problems regarding

land acquisition and affected buildings e.g big towns and densely
populated areas.
For design purposes the following definitions apply to different types of terrain
referred to in table 3-7
Flat Terrain:
The topographical condition where highway sight distances, as governed by both
horizontal and vertical restrictions are generally long or could be made to be so
without construction difficulty or expense. The natural ground cross slopes
perpendicular to natural ground contours in a flat terrain are generally below 5 %.
Rolling Terrain:
The topographical condition where the natural slopes consistently rise above and fall
below the road or street grade and where occasional steep slopes offer some
restrictions to normal horizontal and vertical roadway alignment. The natural ground
cross slopes perpendicular to contours in rolling terrain are generally between
5–20 %.
Mountainous Terrain:
The topographical condition where longitudinal and transverse changes in the
elevation of the ground with respect to the road or street are abrupt and where
benching and side hill excavation are frequently required to obtain acceptable
horizontal and vertical alignment. The natural ground cross slopes perpendicular to
contours in mountainous terrain are generally above 20 %.
3.8.4 Design Sections
In the design of a substantial length of road, it is desirable, although not always

feasible, to allow for a constant design speed through changes in terrain and other
physical controls may dictate a change in the design speed on certain-sections. If a
different design speed is introduced the change should not be abrupt but there
should be a transition section of at least 1 km to permit drivers to change speed
gradually before reaching the section of’ the road with a different design speed. The
transition sections are sections with intermediate design speeds and, where the
magnitude of the change in the design speeds are large, more than one transition
section will be required.
3.8.5 Other Factors That Affect Operating Conditions
Among the factors other than traffic volume that affect operating condition are
weaving sections, Ramp Terminals, and Traffic compositions.
3-15
Weaving Sections are road segments where the pattern of traffic entering and
leaving at contiguous points of access results in vehicle paths crossing each other.
Ramps and ramp terminals are features that can adversely influence operating
conditions on roads if their use is excessive or if their design is deficient.
3.9 Design Vehicles

Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in
geometric design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include
power to weight ratio, minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and
vehicle height and width. The road elements affected include the selection of
maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
The present vehicle fleet in Kenya includes a high number of four-wheel drive
utility vehicles and trucks. Until more detailed information becomes available
regarding the makeup of the vehicle fleet in Kenya, the four design vehicles
indicated in Table 3-9 should be used in the control of geometric design until a
major change in the vehicle fleet is observed and detailed information on the different
vehicle types using the roads in Kenya becomes available.
Table 3-9 Dimension of Design Vehicle
Overhang
turning radius
inside radius
Wheel base (m)
Overall (m)
(m)
Design
Minimum
Minimum
Vehicle type
design
Length
Height
width
Front
Rear
(m)
(m)
4x4
1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3 4.2
passenger car
Single unit
4.1 2.6 9.1 1.2 1.8 6.1 12.8 8.5
truck
Single unit
4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8 7.4
bus
Semitrailer
4.1 2.6 16.7 0.9 0.6 6.1 & 9.1 13.7 5.8
combination
Interstate
4.1 2.6 21.0 1.2 0.9 6.1 & 12.8 13.7 2.9
Semitrailer
3.9.1 Minimum Turning Radii
The maximum turning paths for different vehicles are shown in Figures 3-1, 3-2 and
3-3.
3-16
Figure 3-1: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Single Unit Truck
3-17
Figure 3-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus
3-18
Figure 3-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination

(15m overall) also Applicable for Truck (Tandem) Plus Trailer.
3.10 Human factor
3.10.1 Driver Behaviour and Performance
The most important driver characteristics are:

• a susceptibility to confusion from surprise,
• a tendency to act according to habit,
• the desire to take a 'natural' movement path,
• the need for adequate reaction and decision making times, and an ability to select
the correct action from several alternatives
Drivers learn through experience that some events are likely to happen, or not
happen. To avoid surprises and such expectancies, and their possibly dangerous
3-19
reactions, it is essential to provide drivers with a continuous flow of information on the

state of the road ahead, including information on:
• the road alignment,

• approaching decision points, and
• other traffic, vehicular or pedestrian activity which may affect, or be in conflict, with
them.
This advice should be mostly visual and can be provided by means such as road
layout, signposting, traffic signs, and pavement markings. The receipt and
subsequent treatment of this information depends largely on each driver's visual
ability, reaction time and decision making processes.
3.10.2 Reaction Time
Reaction time is defined as the time between the instant a hazard comes into view
and the instant the vehicle begins to slow after the brakes have been applied.
Reaction time varies according to a driver's:

• age,
• experience
• physical condition (fatigue, drugs and alcohol intake), and
• awareness (presenting drivers with situations which match their expectation will
reduce reaction time and vice versa).
Reaction time of 2.0 and 2.5 seconds are the values which will be adopted as a
general rule.
2.5 seconds: For normal use in all situations. It is used when design speeds are
greater than 70 km/h because in these situations drivers are likely to
be travelling in free speed conditions and are normally not so alert or
prepared for the unexpected.
2.0 Seconds: An absolute minimum reaction time for design speeds less than
70km/h. i.e. Urban areas and low speed rural areas.
3.11 Other Road Users
3.11.1 Pedestrians
The interaction of pedestrians and vehicles should be carefully considered in road design,
principally because 50 percent of all road fatalities are pedestrian.
Pedestrian actions are less predictable than those of motorists. Pedestrians tend to select
paths that are the shortest distance between two points. They also have a basic resistance to
changes in gradient or elevation when crossing roadways and tend to avoid using
underpasses or overpasses that are not convenient.
Walking speeds vary from a 15th percentile speed of 1.2 m/s to an 85th percentile of 1.8 m/s,
with an average of 1.4 m/s. The 15th percentile speed is recommended for design purposes.
Pedestrians' age is an important factor that may explain behaviour that leads to
collisions. It is recommended that older pedestrians be accommodated by using
simple designs that minimize crossing widths and assume lower walking speeds.
3-20
Where complex elements such as channelisation and separate turning lanes are
featured, the designer should assess alternatives that will assist older pedestrians.
Pedestrian safety is enhanced by the provision of:
• median refuge islands of sufficient width at wide intersections

• lighting at locations that demand multiple information gathering and processing
• safe crossing location with provision of speed management measures
• pedestrian overpasses across fully access controlled roads
• well lit pedestrian underpasses
3.11.2 Pedal Cyclists

Bicycle use is increasing and should be considered in the road design process.
Improvements of the following can considerably enhance the safety of a street or

highway and provide for bicycle traffic.
• paved shoulders;
• bicycle-safe drainage grates;
• adjusting manhole covers (if present) to the grade; and,
• maintaining a smooth and clean riding surface
In urban areas it is appropriate to supplement the existing road system by providing

specially designated footpaths and cycle tracks.
3.11.3 Motor Cyclists

Motorcycles are a widely used mode of transport. They are favoured by many drivers
especially in urban areas where road networks are regularly affected by congestion,
as motorcycles can provide faster access and can play a significant role in achieving
more efficient road use, parking space utilisation and reduced emissions. An
increase in use of motorcycles is envisaged to become as this mode of transport
becomes more popular in Kenyan urban areas.
The main features of motorcycles are their small size, mainly in terms of width and
their two-wheel rather than four-wheel configuration, which means that motorcycles
have distinct movement characteristics in comparison with other motorised traffic.
These characteristics are:
• Higher manoeuvrability
• Need of less space (mainly vertical but also horizontal)
• Higher acceleration and deceleration rates
• rider vision - headlight spread as the rider leans into a curve means that
objects and delineation are not as visible to motorcyclists.
Hence, motorcycles move not only in marked lanes but also demonstrate a
tendency to move between stationery or moving traffic that is moving on adjacent
lanes.
Designers should take account of the motorcycle rider’s perspective, providing

designs that cater for the special needs of motorcycles as well as meeting the needs
of the other road users. Motorcycle riders require constant attention to the road and
its environment. Many principles of good design for motorcycles are equally valid for
the other road users.
3-21
3.12 Sight Distance

Sight distance is a fundamental criterion in the design of any road, be it urban or
rural. It is essential for the driver to be able to perceive hazards on the road and to
have sufficient time in hand to initiate any necessary evasive action safely. On a two-
lane two-way road it is also necessary for the driver to be able to enter the opposing
lane safely while overtaking. In intersection design, the application of sight distance is
slightly different from its application in design for the open road but safety is always
the chief consideration.
Sight distance is discussed in detail in Chapter 5 of this design manual.
3.13 Road Surface

The roadway surface should provide a level of skid resistance that will accommodate
the braking and steering manoeuvres that can reasonably be expected for the
particular site.
It is known that highway geometrics affect skidding. Therefore, skid resistance should
be a consideration in the design of all new construction and major reconstruction
projects. An appropriate design and application of surface dressing to the finished
road surface should not be ignored in this regard.
3.14 Economic Considerations

The relationship between costs and benefits is a measure of justification and often a
deciding factor in determining alternative alignment and the geometric features of design.
The costs include right-of-way (road reserve), construction, and maintenance and vehicle
operation. The general value resulting from an improved road link includes services and
benefits to the country, community and road users. A high geometric design standard is
warranted where there are sufficient benefits to road users to justify the additional costs
above those of a low design standard. This should be considered at the preliminary design
stage when decisions regarding location and general design parameters are made,
Preliminary or approximate cost estimates should be made for each alternative plan. All
major items should be included; road reserve acquisition, site clearance, earthwork,
drainage, pavement, structures and, where significant, relocation of utility services and the
cost of maintaining traffic flow during construction. Estimated annual costs of maintaining
and operating the roadways, roadsides (ditches) and structures should also be included if
there appear to be significant differences between alternatives.
To complete an economic analysis of alternative plans, the total road user costs should be
determined for each alternative. Road user costs are the drivers' vehicular operating costs
and, where relevant, the value of (gained) time. The total of the road user costs for
each alternative plan can be a good factor for comparison as they reflect speed, distance
(directness) and operating conditions.
Computer model such as "HDM-4", software for Highway Development, and other
maintenance Management Systems which estimates the costs of different investment
strategies for rural and urban roads can be used to analyze the cost and benefits of
projects in Kenya. HDM-4 is a decision making tool for checking the Engineering and
Economic viability of investments in road projects which has been developed by The World
Bank for global use.
3-22
4 ROUTE SELECTION AND SURVEY ............................................................... 4-1

4.1 General ..................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Route Corridor Selection .......................................................................... 4-1
4.2.1 Preliminary Identification Comparison of Potential Corridors ........... 4-1
4.2.2 Site Visit and Survey ........................................................................ 4-2
4.3 Survey ...................................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.1 Reconnaissance ............................................................................... 4-4
4.3.2 Preliminary........................................................................................ 4-4
4.3.3 Location ............................................................................................ 4-5
4.3.4 Construction ..................................................................................... 4-5
4.4 Information Gathering ............................................................................... 4-5
4.4.1 Existing Sources ............................................................................... 4-5
4.4.2 Physical Ground Information ............................................................ 4-7
4.5 Surveying Applications ............................................................................. 4-8
4.5.1 Instrument Care and Adjustments .................................................. 4-12
4.5.2 Classification and Accuracy ............................................................ 4-12
4.5.3 Specific Survey Procedures ........................................................... 4-13
4.6 Records and Reports ............................................................................. 4-17
4.6.1 Field Notes for Traditional Surveys ................................................ 4-18
4.6.2 Field Notes for Automated Surveys ................................................ 4-18
4.6.3 Mapping Guidelines ........................................................................ 4-18
4.6.4 Aerial Photography Mapping Scales .............................................. 4-19
Table 4-1: Mapping Scales and Contour Intervals ................................................. 4-19

Table 4-2: Aerial Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks ................................... 4-19
Figure 4-1: Typical BM Monument (Concrete) ....................................................... 4-14
i
4 ROUTE SELECTION AND SURVEY
4.1 General
This chapter provides guidelines to engineers, surveyors and technicians who are
responsible for surveying and/or mapping. A definition of data required and the
sources of such data is provided in this chapter as well as guidelines for gathering,
processing and documenting the data.
This chapter presents many of the established surveying and mapping methods
along with some of the modern techniques now in use. It is not the purpose of this
chapter to be all inclusive. Specific information concerning techniques, theory, and
methodology can be obtained from several supporting manuals, books and other
materials.
Once a single route or alternatives are selected, it requires surveying of the corridor.
Surveying for road design involves the gathering of field information and
measurements for use in locating, designing, and constructing highways and other
related features. Field data is collected by ground surveys, aerial surveys, or by a
combination of these two methods. Establishing controls for construction is generally
done by ground surveying techniques.
The safety of field crews and the travelling public is a high priority. Surveying
activities are not to be attempted on or adjacent to a travelled roadway until
appropriate traffic warning and/or control measures have been implemented.
The are two main activities of route section;

• Preliminary identification of potential corridor and comparison
• Site visit and survey
Survey also has generally four stages of activities from design to construction
progression: These are:
• Reconnaissance
• Preliminary
• Location
• Construction
4.2 Route Corridor Selection
4.2.1 Preliminary Identification Comparison of Potential Corridors
The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that
it should be short, easy to construct and maintain, safe in terms of stability of natural
hill & embankment slope and economical in terms of initial cost, maintenance cost
and operational cost.
Satellite Imagery
Using 1:50,000 scale topographical maps and aerial photographs together with
knowledge of the project requirements, it is possible to trace out some possible
alternative alignments. This is readily accomplished by referring especially to the
4-1
vertical geometric design criteria for maximum grade and plotting possibilities through
correlation with the contour lines shown on the maps.
For each of the possible alternative alignment corridors, the existing maps should be
studied and aerial photographs examined with a stereoscope. From this study it will
be possible to assess the positive or negative influence of the following local factors:
• Topographic, geologic, and physical characteristics;

• Number, type and characteristics of water courses;
• Potential risk of slides, slope instability or floods;
• Human settlements affected by the road; and,
• Environmental impact of the selected route.
The proposed alternative alignments corridors within the above mentioned are next
studied, evaluated and compared based on the criteria below and the best
alternatives can then be selected for further studies and field assessment.
The evaluation criteria could be the following:
• What are the relative lengths of the alternatives? Normally the shortest distance
is preferable.
• What are the average and mean gradients of the alternatives? Normally the least
severe grade alternative is preferred. However, the relation of minimum grade
may be the inverse to the shortest length route.
• Which alternative more closely follows an existing road or track? This makes
survey and construction easier and may indicate the route of least earthworks.
• Which alternative follows the least severe terrain type? An alignment through, for
instance, rolling terrain should be less costly to construct, have lower vehicle
operating costs and maintenance costs, and less severe horizontal curves than a
route through mountainous terrain.
• Which route remains for a longer period on the crest of the terrain? Such an
alignment minimizes the need for drainage structures.
• Which alignment minimizes the need for land acquisition? e.g Consider the
amount of farm land to be taken by the road and which alignment minimizes the
need to demolish buildings and houses less resettlement.
• What is the total number of bridges and their respective estimated spans required
for each alternative? What is the total aggregate length of these bridges?
• Which route results in the least environmental disturbance to the surrounding
area?
• Which route has the least overall project cost, including both design and
construction?
4.2.2 Site Visit and Survey
After the preliminary office work, a site visit must be made to the road. Where terrain
constraints make such a visit problematic, a flight can be made over the terrain and
all potential routes can be directly examined from the air.
When potential route corridors have been identified from the desk studies a
reconnaissance survey is usually employed to verify, modify and update the desk
and interpretations, to further assess the selected corridors, to help determine the
4-2
preferred corridor, and to identify factors that will influence the feasibility of the design
concept and relative costs.
A team consisting of the following personnel should make a site inspection visit:
• Highway Engineer;
• Soils & Materials Engineer;
• Hydrologist;
• Surveyor;
• Bridge/Structures Engineer;
• Environmentalist/Sociologist, and,
• Local Administrative Personnel.
In most cases, the information obtained from the reconnaissance survey will lead to
significant modifications of the desk study interpretations. During the reconnaissance
survey and in addition to the data collected in respect of the evaluation criteria, the
following information should be determined:
• Topographic and geomorphologic characteristics;

• The location of topographical constrains, such as cliffs, gorges, ravines, rock out
crops, and any other features not identified by the desk study;
• Slope steepness and limiting slope angles identified from natural and artificial
slopes (cutting for paths, agricultural terraces and existing roads in the region);
• Slope stability and the location of pre-existing land slides;
• Solid Geology, tectonics, rock types, geological structures, rock outcrops, dip
orientations, rock strength and rip-ability;
• Approximate percentage of rock in excavations;
• Availability of construction materials sources and their distribution;
• Soil types and depth (a simple classification between residual soil and alluviums
/colluviums is useful at this stage);
• Soil erosion and soil erodibility;
• Slope drainage and groundwater conditions;
• Hydrology, drainage stability and the location of shifting channels and bank
erosion;
• Land use, land cover and their likely effect on drainage;
• Likely foundation conditions for major structures;
• Approximate bridge spans and the sizing and frequency of culverts;
• Flood levels and river training/protection requirements;
• Environmental considerations, including forest resources, land use impacts and
socio-economic considerations;
• Verify the accuracy of the information collected during the desk study;
• The possibility of using any existing road alignments including local re-alignment
improvements; and
• Information on the physical accessibility to bridge sites and the proposed
corridors, including the geomorphology of drainage basins, soil characteristics,
slopes, vegetation, erosion and scouring.
During the site inspection the team should examine all alternatives. This information
can be combined with the results of the desk study to determine the most appropriate
alignment alternative. An appropriate field assessment report of each alternative by
each discipline will have to be prepared.
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The route selection process will be completed with the selection and
recommendation of the best and most viable route for detailed study and design
taking due account of construction cost, benefits to the local population, and length of
travel for each alternative. The final report will also give details as to why a certain
alignment alternative was selected and why others were rejected or not considered.
4.3 Survey
4.3.1 Reconnaissance
The reconnaissance survey is normally performed in connection with early scoping

activities on a project.
A reconnaissance survey of an area is the examination of a large area to determine

feasible highway corridors or alternate locations within a corridor between designated
termini. The evaluation of feasible alternatives is a comparison of these corridors or
alternative locations in sufficient detail to select the corridor or alternative locations
deserving further study.
Aerial photography, Satellite Imagery, Geological Survey maps, and Forest Service
mapping are often useful for reconnaissance purposes.
4.3.2 Preliminary
Preliminary surveys are normally performed during the environmental planning and
concept study phases of project development.
The following are considered preliminary surveys:
• Aerial Control Surveys
• Satellite Imagery
• Ground Control Surveys
• Topographic Surveys
• Planimetric Surveys
• Bridge Site Surveys
• Cadastral Surveys
• Preliminary Alignment Surveys
• Special Surveys (for retaining walls, drainage structures, borrow pits, quarry
sites, etc.)
Preliminary surveys provide the necessary data to be used in environmental

planning, conceptual studies, bridge design, and highway design. Typically, the direct
derivatives of preliminary surveys are topographic and planimetric maps, digital
terrain data, and survey monumentation.
Aerial surveying is the process of obtaining ground measurements from photographs

rather than from field techniques. Where visibility permits, this method of surveying
provides substantial savings in manpower for information gathering, and mapping.
Satellite imagery is the method of taking photographs of the earth by means of

artificial satellites.
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4.3.3 Location
Location surveys involve establishing previously designed data on the ground. In

many ways location surveys are the inverse of preliminary surveys. Preliminary
surveys are used to extract and collect field data. Location surveys normally
disseminate data back to the field. Location surveys always include the
establishment of the highway centreline and reference points.
4.3.4 Construction
Construction surveys include establishing points in addition to those placed during

the location survey. These include slope stakes, grade stakes, and culvert and bridge
control stakes.
4.4 Information Gathering
Information gathering, as it relates to surveying, actually consists of two parts:

(1) An examination of existing information about the project.
(2) The physical gathering of the ground information.
Both information gathering actions are of equal importance. Careful attention to detail
during this process can often result in substantial savings in time and effort at a later
date. The surveyor should use as much of the existing information as practical to
reduce the time spent gathering actual field data.
4.4.1 Existing Sources
Before any type of survey occurs, a comprehensive search for existing information
should be performed. For the most part, the information described below can be
obtained from other government agencies. However, do not limit the search to these
agencies. Much valuable information may be available from private consulting
engineering firms that have worked near a specific highway project.
Sources of information that are helpful during the course of a survey include the
following:
■ Survey control data.

■ As-built plans.
■ Existing photography (both aerial and ground)
■ Existing maps.
■ Legal property descriptions.
■ Local land owners.
■ Government agency contacts.
a) Survey Control Data
Horizontal and vertical control is crucial to performing an accurate and correct

survey. Whenever practical, all survey shall be based on the National Triangulation
Network (NTN) and on the National Geodetic Benchmarks (NGBM).
The horizontal and the vertical control information can be obtained from the
government authorized body for National Geodetic Survey of Kenya, i.e. Survey of
Kenya, Kenya National Spatial Data Infrastructure (KNSDI).
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a) Horizontal (triangulation stations) and vertical Control (Benchmarks). The

Survey of Kenya publishes a map showing the status of the horizontal control that
exists in Kenya. Triangulation maps may also be available. These triangulation maps
show the triangulation stations monumented points and their general location
throughout Kenya. Where available the Surveyor should request the following
information for each monument:
■ BM or Triangulation station type and Identification Code. (The ID code is
generally stamped on the monument cap)Location (Province, town, etc.).
■ Year the monument was established
■ Geodetic latitude and longitude
■ Order of accuracy
■ Elevation
■ UTM coordinates in metre based on ARC1960 Datum
■ Monument description and historic data
■ Azimuths and distances to neighbouring monuments
■ Station recovery/condition notes
b) As-Built Plans
Since the majority of highway construction activity concerns the rehabilitation and/or
reconstruction of existing highway facilities, as-constructed plans can be an excellent
source of preliminary information. Depending on the composition of the construction
plans, a surveyor may obtain the position and condition of existing control points,
right-of-way monuments, bench marks, and construction BMs.
It is also recommended that the as-built plans from adjoining projects be used to
achieve consistency between projects. Use of adjacent plans allows for the continuity
of stationing and control throughout an entire route.
As-built plans and original survey notes can be obtained from the Ministry of Roads
or Roads Authority, responsible for that particular section of highway.
c) Aerial Photography
The use of photography as a source of preliminary surveying information is

somewhat limited. General project layouts can usually be obtained from readily
available maps rather than from photographs. On the other hand, existing aerial
photographs for a current project can often be used by the photogrammetric surveyor.
If the physical topography of the route has not been altered, the photographs may be
usable.
Aerial photographs are usually available from highway agencies, appropriate

Mapping agencies such as Survey of Kenya, or private consulting firms.
d) Existing Maps
Generally scales of 1:50000 and 1:250000 topographic maps are available covering
the desired project area. These maps should be collected from appropriate Survey
offices. They provide a wide variety of control, land use and terrain information.
Lists of map types containing survey information are as follows:

1. Topographic, and index maps
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2. Triangulations stations and Benchmark locations, level data and tables of

elevations
3. Stream flow data
4. Water resources
5. Geologic maps
6. Topographic maps
7. Coastline charts
8. Topographic and hydrographic studies of inland lakes and reservoirs
9. Plane coordinate tables and UTM projections
10. Seismological studies
11. Charts of the Great Lakes and connecting waters
12. Township plots, showing land divisions
13. Soil charts, maps, and indexes
14. Forest resource maps including topography, culture, and vegetation
classification
e. Property Descriptions
Property descriptions provide information concerning the identity and location of

property corners. The surveyor shall make ties to the property corners during the
cadastral survey portion of the field work. This data is used by the designer and right-
of-way engineer when acquiring additional property for road projects.
f. Government Local Agency Contacts
Before any surveying activity begins on a project contacted the local representatives
of any concerned agency should be to inform the agency that a survey is about to be
performed. Special restrictions desired by these agencies, such as fire restrictions,
recreational uses, scenic routes, limitations on cutting vegetation, and noise
requirements, should be discussed. The agency contact will often provide additional
information about availability of existing survey data and the type of ground survey
desired. The names of specific agency contacts are usually identified in the
reconnaissance report or in the scoping document.
Affected property owners should also be contacted. Where contact cannot be made
or permission granted, the surveyor should contact an immediate supervisor rather
than trespass.
4.4.2 Physical Ground Information
The type of information gathered during preliminary surveys can be broken down into
three different categories: planimetric, topographic, and cadastral.
a. Planimetric
Planimetric data consists of natural and political boundaries, natural vegetation, and
cultural items such as sign posts, trees, buildings, etc. Using ground surveying
techniques these items are located relative to control survey stations monuments.
b. Topographic
The intent of topographic data gathering is to obtain enough ground points to

accurately describe the general relief of a specific area. This may be done using one
of the alternative methods described below:
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The first method is using a preliminary alignment. Cross sections are measure at
regular intervals (usually 20m) along this alignment. Additional cross-sections are
measured so as to represent breaks in the topography such as high and low points
when located between two consecutive cross sections.
The second method used to obtain topographic information is the use of radial
surveying. The instrument is set up on a point with known elevation, and coordinates
and readings are taken in a radial pattern around the instrument. Major breaks in the
terrain (such as edges of shoulders, catch points, and drainages) are usually strung
together in a series of sequential shots. These data points are called discontinuities
and are treated differently from other random shots. The intent is to obtain a general
description of the terrain, using a digital terrain model (DTM) to build an accurate
contour map.
The third method is the use of aerial photography to plot topographic data. Aerial
photographic shots are taken along the flight lines (or runs). The overlap between
consecutive images is usually 60% while the side lap between flight lines is 30%.
After collection of ground photo controls (performed using GPS instruments), the
aerial photos are processed using a photo imaging software in order to produce ortho
rectified images. Based on these orthorectified images, a Digital Terrain Model
(DTM) is extracted. The same process is applied in orthorectiying satellite images.
c. Cadastral
A cadastral survey is used to locate property boundaries and monuments and

determine coordinates. This information may be obtained disregarding elevation.
Since property and right-of-way documents are often based on the actual location of
cadastral monuments, the surveyor should verify these points by running traverses
through them or by using the mean of two independent side shots.
4.5 Surveying Applications
The following topics are covered under survey application:

• Measurement of horizontal distances.
• Levelling procedures
• Measurement of angles
• Traverse surveys and computations
• Horizontal and vertical curves
• Coordinate systems
• Topographic surveys
• Photogrammetry
• Global positioning satellite systems (GPS)
The recording and documentation required for each of these particular surveying
operations is discussed in Section 4.6.
a) Measurement of Horizontal Distances
One of the basic operations of surveying is determining the horizontal distance

between two points on the surface of the earth. The distance between two points at
different elevations is obtained either by computing the horizontal distance from a
measured slope distance or by direct horizontal measurement. Distances may be
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measured by pacing, odometer, stadia, taping, light waves, radio waves, infrared
waves, or GPS.
The use of stadia has essentially been replaced by electronic distance measuring
(EDM) devices, the stadia method of determining distances will not be discussed.
Details of this method may be found in any standard surveying textbook.
Most distances are now measured using electronic distance measurement (EDM)
devices. These machines use light, radio, micro, or infrared waves to determine the
distances between two points. The systems typically consist of a transmitter/receiver
unit and a reflector device. The reflector is generally a glass prism. These EDMs are
capable of high accuracies over both short and long distances.
b) Levelling Procedures
Levelling is the surveying operation performed to determine elevations of points, to

determine differences in elevations between points, and to control grades and
roadway templates in construction surveys. The traditional instrument used is a spirit
level
Other instruments used for determining vertical distances are the transit, total station,
and hand level. GPS may also provide sufficiently accurate elevations for many
purposes.
When differences of elevation are determined either trigonometrically or by using a

level and a rod, the effects of curvature and refraction must be considered. This is
particularly true when the horizontal distances are long and when a high degree of
precision is required.
Levelling with a total station is the fastest and simplest method of determining
elevation differences. A total station includes an electronic transit/theodolite
combined with an EDM.
A bench mark (BM) may be established by the engineer or surveyor at

predetermined intervals along the survey. The elevations of bench marks are
determined to varying degrees of accuracy by the particular field operation.
Profile levelling is used to determine the elevations of the ground surface along a
given line. In highway applications, profile levels are often performed on centreline
stations and on cross section reference points.
c) Measurement of Angles
A horizontal angle is the angle formed by two intersecting vertical planes. Currently,
total stations of high level accuracy are used to measure angles.
The requirements of surveying accuracy for various types of survey projects are
listed in Section 4.5.2.
d) Traverse Surveys and Computations
A traverse is a series of connected lines of known length and course direction. The
lengths of the lines are determined by direct measurement of horizontal distances, by
slope measurements, or by other methods as described in section 4.3.1.
Some of the many purposes for which traverse surveys are made are listed below:
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■ To determine the boundaries of individual property.
■ To determine the position of arbitrary points from which data may be obtained for
preparing various types of maps.
■ To establish ground control for photogrammetric mapping.
■ To establish control for gathering data regarding earthwork quantities for highway
construction.
■ To establish control for locating highway projects.
In general, traverses may be of two classes. The first class is an open traverse. It
starts either at a point of known horizontal position with respect to a horizontal datum
or at an assumed horizontal position, and ends at an unknown horizontal position.
The second type of traverse is known as a closed traverse. A closed traverse starts
at an assumed or known horizontal position and ends at either the same point, or at
another known horizontal position. A known horizontal position is defined by one or
more of the following:
■ Geographic latitude and longitude.
■ X and Y coordinate on a grid system.
■ Location on, or in relation to, a fixed boundary.
To make an open traverse more reliable, several techniques may be employed:
(1) Each distance can be remeasured; (2) The measurements of the angles at the
stations can be repeated; (3) The directions of the lines can be checked by magnetic
bearings or other observations.
A traverse that closes on itself affords a check on the accuracy of the measured
angles, as well as an indication of the consistency of measuring distances.
A closed traverse that starts at one known position and closes on another is the most
reliable, because the position of the final point checks both the linear and angular
measurements of the traverse.
e) Horizontal and Vertical Curves
The horizontal alignment of a highway consists of a series of curves connected with

straight lines. The grade line on a profile is likewise made up of straight lines and
curves. These curves may be arcs of circles, parabolas, or spiral curves. The
parabola is generally used as a vertical curve on grade lines, while the circle and/or
the spiral curves are used as horizontal curves.
f) Coordinate Systems
Computations of traverse point locations are reduced to a series of X and Y

coordinate pairs.
When practical, the highway survey must be converted to the National plane
coordinate system, which is the UTM Zones 36 and 37 grid system. The following are
advantages of using the National coordinate system:
■ A traverse of relatively low accuracy run between a pair of control points is

actually raised in accuracy after an adjustment between the control points is
made.
■ The use of well-established control points in a traverse eliminates many serious

mistakes often made in measuring both distances and angles.
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■ A point whose X- and Y- coordinates have been determined can, if lost, always
be replaced with the degree of precision with which it was originally established.
■ Maps that have been controlled by coordinated points will always conform when
joined, no matter how unrelated the projects which necessitated the maps.
■ The use of a common reference system for surveys reduces or eliminates costly
duplication of control surveys over the same area by various engineers and
surveyors.
■ The use of the National coordinate system permits surveys to be carried over
nationwide distances by using plane surveying methods with results which
approach those obtained by geodetic methods.
■ Photogrammetric mapping can be conducted at much less expense when all

control points in the area to be mapped are on the same system.
Where an assumed datum of coordinate system is used, it should be stated in all

field notebooks and any maps or plans compiled from the data.
f) Topographic Surveys
Topography measurements can be obtained by total station, theodolite and EDM,

level and tape, arc and tape, or any other method of measuring elevation and
distance. The choice of equipment is usually based on the degree of accuracy
desired.
In compiling topography, the positions of all planimetric features (such as buildings,

fences, and streams) are located with respect to the control line. These items are
also plotted on the topographic map (See Section 4.2.2 b).
h) Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements on photographs. Terrestrial

photogrammetry applies to the measurement of photographs that are taken from a
known ground station, while aerial photogrammetry applies to the measurement of
photographs taken from the air. Aerial photogrammetry is most often used in highway
design applications.
Usually a system of control points are located on the ground then targeted so they
can be identified in the aerial photographs. Special points called tie points are
located on the aerial photographs. The aerial photographs are then scanned with a
high resolution special scanner. These images are then processed using
photoimaging software to extract a DTM as discussed in Section 4.4.1 C.
The main advantages in compiling topographic maps by using aerial photographs

over ground methods are as follows:
■ Expandable map widths.
■ Reduced compilation time.
■ Reduced control surveying time.
■ Highly accurate location of planimetric features.
■ No interference by adverse weather and inaccessible terrain.
■ Uniform accuracy throughout the map.
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By the proper selection of flying heights, focal lengths, plotting instruments, and
placement of ground controls, photogrammetric mapping can be designed for any
map scale ranging from 1:100 to 1:20 000 and smaller.
The following are some of the disadvantages of mapping using aerial photographs:
■ Difficulty plotting areas containing heavy ground cover, such as high grass,
timber, and underbrush.
■ High cost per hectare to map areas of 2 hectare or less.
■ Difficulty locating positions of contour lines on flat terrain
■ Difficulty scheduling photographic flights (most jobs can not be flown in winter or
summer).
Supplemental ground survey is required where the ground cannot be seen in the
spatial model because of ground cover and where such planimetric features as
overhead and underground utility lines must be located on the map. Editing is
necessary to include road classification; property boundary lines not shown on the
photography; drainage classification; and names of places, roads, and other map
features.
i) Global Positioning Satellite System
Global positioning satellite (GPS) systems are the methods and equipment used to
determine the three-dimensional coordinates of any point within the spherical world
using satellite technology. The system consists of NAVSTAR satellites that transmit
signals toward the earth. Special receivers record these signals and using computer
programs interpret the signals and determine the coordinates and elevation of the
location of the antenna receiver. There are a wide variety of receivers and data
processing programs now available.
At present there are more than 21 satellites in NAVSTAR system transmitting signals
back to the earth. This coverage means that a receiver is able to record the signals
from at least four satellites at the same time. The more satellites a receiver
processes, the higher the accuracies and the less time spent recording data.
In areas where geodetic control is difficult and costly to use, GPS surveying should
be considered.
4.5.1 Instrument Care and Adjustments
As surveying equipment becomes increasingly complex and expensive, care and

maintenance becomes more imperative. Total station, theodolites, levels, data
collectors, EDMs, and all other equipment should be placed in their protective cases
when not in service.
Similarly, tripods, rods, and range poles should be kept clean and stored in either
carrying cases or bins built into the survey vehicles.
All of the electronic surveying equipment will require periodic calibration to ensure
their accuracy and should be checked regular;y.
4.5.2 Classification and Accuracy
Surveys are ranked into order and class on the basis of the accuracy and precision
used in the survey. Required accuracy depends on the objectives of the survey. It
also depends on the quality of the instruments and equipment employed, the
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methods and procedures used, the repeatability of measurements, and the ability
and experience of the personnel.
The following equation gives the recently applicable accuracy required for survey for
road projects:
C=±K
Where: C = maximum permissible error of closure in centimetres,
K = distance between bench marks in kilometres
4.5.3 Specific Survey Procedures
By using the methods discussed in the previous section, the surveyor can perform
the more common highway surveying assignments. The survey system used in
Kenya is based on UTM grid and ARC1960 Datum.
Typical highway surveying projects include the following:
■ Control surveys for both ground and aerial projects.

■ General surveys.
■ Property surveys.
■ Construction surveys.
■ Bridge surveys.
■ Sundry surveys.
a. Control Surveys
Control surveying is the process of establishing a line or grid of points throughout the
project limits. These points are the traverse points on a traverse line running between
two or more points of known geodetic position. This traverse line contains the points
from which all measurements within the project are made. Since the entire project will
be relative to these points, extra care should be given to their accuracy and location.
Depending on whether the project will be measured by ground methods or by aerial

photogrammetry, different requirements exist for the frequency and location of the
traverse points. The next two sections describe in more detail the specific procedures
to be followed when placing control survey points.
i. Ground Control
The control survey should begun and end on a first or second order geodetic BM
monument. The coordinates for the BM monument should be on the National plane
coordinate system. When this is not practical, a circuit should be run from the end of
the survey back to the start point to achieve a closure or establish beginning and
ending coordinates using GPS systems.
When placing supplemental points for an aerial survey or when establishing a

centreline, the circuits shall be closed traverses of the same accuracy as the primary
control circuit.
Reference control lines with approved permanent type BM monuments at a

recommended maximum spacing of three kilometres. Set BM monuments to prevent
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water from ponding above the caps and to ensure visibility to other control line
monuments, triangulation points, or monumented azimuth markers. The monuments
shall have their field locations referenced with approved witness type markers. It is
recommended that these witness markers be a steel post with an aluminium
identification plaque attached or equivalent. The documentation should also describe
bearings and distances from the monument to at least two other objects. The
following Figure 4-1 shows an example of a BM monument:
DOME SHAPED NAIL

REINFORCED CONCRETE PILLAR
0.15m
GROUND LEVEL
0.55m
DOME SHAPED NAIL
Dia.20mm cap
0.20m
0.18m
CONCRETE BASE
0.35m
32
0.18m
0.20m
0.24m REFERENCE NO
0.15m 0.25m
Figure 4-1: Typical BM Monument (Concrete)
When it is necessary to set semi-permanent points between monuments, place the

monuments far enough below ground to be safe from ordinary maintenance
operations. Use magnetic markers such as a 10M steel reinforcing bar capped with a
yellow plastic cap. This permits locating the markers with metal detectors.
Identification plaques need not be posted on semi-permanent points, but the points
should be referenced with an approved marker and their locations recorded.
Control surveys shall be performed with the order of accuracy mentioned in Section
4.3.3.
All monumented control survey BM points should be numbered consecutively from

the beginning to the end of the route. The monument designation should be
progressive number and letter combinations.
ii. Aerial Control
Control for aerial surveys shall consist of both horizontal and vertical control, targeted
on the ground and visible from the air.
Horizontal control shall conform to the requirements of Section 4.3.4 and usually will
be the primary project control with no supplemental control required. In all cases
involving aerial photography, those points required to control the mapping shall be
placed in accordance with the furnished flight strip map.
Targets must not be placed on steep slopes since elevation orientation on a

photogrammetric instrument becomes difficult is often inaccurate.
Vertical control shall conform in all respects to the requirements outlined in Section
4.3.3
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Those points that are required for vertical control shall be placed in accordance with
the requirements of the horizontal control points to ensure that they too are visible on
the photographs.
There are two types of targets, designated primary and supplemental control targets,
used to identify ground control points in aerial photographs. Primary control targets
are used to identify the main coordinate references from the photographs.
Supplemental control targets are used to provide additional coordinate control and to
serve as backup to the primary targets. Target composition and size shall be
determined by background and photo scale.
b. General Surveys
Reconnaissance surveys are divided into two parts, a survey of the area and an
evaluation of feasible route alternatives.
For scoping purposes, horizontal and vertical information about the area is needed
as well as information about cover and culture. This information can be obtained by
field surveys; from existing maps or maps compiled specifically for the project; or it
can be extracted from aerial photographs which is probably the most efficient
method. Vertical aerial photographs represent the ground surface with sufficient
accuracy to determine a feasible corridor.
Topography, geology, land use, ecology, and other features are immediately evident
or readily interpreted by stereoscopic examination of the photographs. DTM are
easily derived as discussed in Section 4.3.1 h.
c. Location Surveys
A location survey is the placement of the final alignment of the highway as it is to be
constructed. Typically, during a location survey, the engineer will establish the
following items along the project route. Other actions may be included in the location
survey process.
■ Centreline of the roadway alignment.

■ Right-of-way limits (ROW).
■ Reference points (RP).
■ Project control points.
Often, other actions are included in the location survey process. These include the
marking of the clearing limits, the movement of temporary bench marks from inside to
outside the construction limits, and the running of profile levels.
The centreline is marked with either a small wooden peg or a nail to indicate the
point. In addition to the cross section centreline points, the alignment control points
(i.e., PC, PT) may be staked and marked.
If required, the ROW line is designated with a stake placed along the cross section or
at intervisible limits. Major breaks in the ROW line are marked with a small wooden
peg.
Additional control points placed outside the construction limits provide an extra layer
of control coverage. Rather than running a long traverse to replace points disturbed
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by construction activities, they can easily be re-established from these additional

control points.
d. Property Surveys
A property survey is a means by which the ownership boundaries along the route can
be represented on the various survey maps. If property lines can be determined in
the field, they should be tied to the traverse line. The methods used to tie property
markers will be of an accuracy that is equal to that of the traverse. A property survey
will allow for a careful and precise measurement of land to be acquired for the project
road. The following data should be gathered related to properties
i. Land Corners
ii. Lot Corners and Subdivisions
iii. Right-of-Way Monuments
iv. Records.
• Copies of the original government field notes for Township, subdivision,

government land survey plats, etc.
• Prints of any subdivision plans within the area.

• Prints of master plans covering the general area.
• Copies of any Records of Survey made in the general area and filed in the
county.
• Copies of surveys by various organisations (such as railroad companies;

county and city authorities; irrigation, water and drainage agencies; power
companies; gas and telephone companies; other government agencies,
etc).
• Copies of any title deeds
• Roads Authority’s orders dedicating roads or establishing right-of-way
widths.
v. Political Boundaries.
• National forests and parks, and other such boundaries.

e. Construction Surveys
A construction survey is the process by which construction stakes are placed on the
ground that allow the contractor to begin building the roadway template. These points
include slope stakes, and minor structure stakes (i.e., culverts and drop inlets). The
location and elevation of these grade stakes may be determined from the plans or
from computer printout sheets.
f. Bridge Site Surveys
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The field work for a bridge site survey is similar to a normal preliminary survey. The
activities of placing project control, running levels, taking cross sections, and making
ties to the National plane coordinate system are still required. However, for bridges
and culverts locations,
The surveyor should collect the following additional information.
i. Stream cross sections
ii. Highest water mark (highest flood level)
iii. Improved land
iv. Existing bridges
v. Effect of adjacent structures
vi. Photographs
vii. Extent of flood plain
g. Sundry Surveys
Sundry Surveys is a term for describing all other miscellaneous types of survey
activities. Typical sundry surveys include those of quarry sites, landslide areas, and
parking or vista areas.
These surveys are to be monumented similarly to preliminary surveys.
h. Automated
The surveying procedures as described in the preceding sections have been the
traditional methods used to gather and process surveying information. The use of
computers has allowed surveying to be automated.
The flow of survey information as it is collected by either ground or aerial surveying

techniques. The data passes through a variety of processing equipment and is
delivered to the designer in the form of maps, paper listings, and computer files.
No matter what kind of data collector is used to record an item of survey information, a
system of feature codes is required to indicate special topographic and planimetric
items.
4.6 Records and Reports

As with any engineering activity, the process of recording activities and preparing
reports is essential to an efficient and timely operation.
The most important information that is recorded during a survey is that of actual field
measurements. This information may be recorded in a variety of formats and media.
Typically, these measurements are recorded in electronic notebooks and data
collectors although field notebooks are still in use.
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Besides the daily note keeping required during the performance of normal surveying
activities, the surveyor is required to prepare various other reports. Three such
reports are the weekly progress reports, the project cost report and finally the survey
report.
4.6.1 Field Notes for Traditional Surveys
Unless data collectors or electronic notebooks are used on the project, several
notebooks shall be maintained. Each book shall begun with an introductory
identification page and include the date, names of crew members and their
assignments, instrument ID numbers when applicable, and the weather. Depending
on the size and complexity of the survey, these notebooks may be combined.
The exact format and type of record to be maintained will be as approved by the
survey engineer.
Descriptions of the various types of notes are:

a. Index
b. Traverse Notes
c. Cross Section Notes
d. Project Notes
e. Level Notes
f. Drainage Notes
g. Classification Notes
h. Cultural Notes.
i. Section Corner/Property Tie Notes
4.6.2 Field Notes for Automated Surveys
At least one field book shall be used for each project. An index shall be provided to
show major headings. Any rolls, maps or other books that can not practically be
included directly in the field book are to be cross-referenced. There are different
formats for preliminary and location surveys. Control surveys shall be considered
preliminary surveys.
4.6.3 Mapping Guidelines

Table 4-1 gives guidance and indicates the recommended scales of mapping
required to perform various desk study and design tasks.
4-18
Table 4-1: Mapping Scales and Contour Intervals

Purpose of Maps Map Scales Contour Interval (m)
Reconnaissance
Studies Topography- 1:20000 10
Mountainous Rolling 5
to Flat
Location Studies
Topography- 1:5000 Max 5
Mountainous Rolling .1:5000 2
to Flat
Rural Design
Topography- 1:500, 1:1000 or 1:2000 2
Mountainous Rolling 1:1000 or 1:2000 1
to Flat
Urban Design 1:500 0.5
Selected Site Design 1:100 to 1:200* 0.2
Selected Site Design for 1:100* 0.2
Structures Less Than 40 m
Long
* Maps can be developed from ground survey data or by photographically enlarging

smaller scale maps.
4.6.4 Aerial Photography Mapping Scales
Table 4-2 gives guidance and indicates the optimum scales of photography required to
perform various desk study and design tasks.
Table 4-2: Aerial Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks

Optimum Air
Task Activity
Photo Scale
Feasibility Study:
Route corridor identification 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Terrain classification 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Drainage/Drainage Area mapping 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Landslide hazard mapping 1: 10,000 - 1: 20,000
Contour Mapping for preliminary estimation of quantities 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Preliminary Design:
Detailed interpretation of chosen corridor(s) for geotechnical
purposes 1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
Ground (contour) model for preliminary alignment design
and quantities 1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
Detailed Design
Ground (contour) model for detailed alignment design and
quantities 1: 5,000 - 1: 10,000
4-19
4-20
5 DESIGN ELEMENTS ....................................................................................... 5-1

5.1 General ..................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Sight Distance .......................................................................................... 5-1
5.2.1 Stopping Sight Distance ................................................................... 5-1
5.2.2 Passing Sight Distance..................................................................... 5-2
5.2.3 Control of Sight Distance .................................................................. 5-3
5.3 Horizontal Alignment ................................................................................ 5-6
5.3.1 General ............................................................................................. 5-6
5.3.2 The Straight ...................................................................................... 5-6
5.3.3 The Circular Curve ........................................................................... 5-7
5.3.4 The Transition Curve ........................................................................ 5-8
5.3.5 Switchback Curves ......................................................................... 5-11
5.4 Superelevation ....................................................................................... 5-12
5.4.1 Maximum Superelevation (emax) ..................................................... 5-12
5.4.2 Development Length of Superelevation ......................................... 5-13
5.4.3 Rate of Change of Superelevation ................................................. 5-14
5.4.4 Superelevation on Reverse and Broken-Back Curves ................... 5-14
5.4.5 Shoulder Crossfall .......................................................................... 5-17
5.5 Vertical Alignment .................................................................................. 5-19
5.5.1 General ........................................................................................... 5-19
5.5.2 Maximum Gradients ....................................................................... 5-19
5.5.3 Minimum Gradient .......................................................................... 5-20
5.5.4 Gradients Higher Than Absolute Maximum .................................... 5-20
5.5.5 Critical Length of Grades ................................................................ 5-20
5.5.6 Climbing Lanes ............................................................................... 5-20
5.5.7 Vertical Curves ............................................................................... 5-24
5.5.8 Minimum Radii of Vertical Curves .................................................. 5-26
5.5.9 Crest Curves................................................................................... 5-26
5.5.10 Sag Curves ..................................................................................... 5-28
5.5.11 Reverse and Broken Back Vertical Curves .................................... 5-30
5.5.12 The Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments ................ 5-30
Table 5-1: Desirable Stopping Sight Distance ......................................................... 5-2

Table 5-2: Minimum Stopping Sight Distance ......................................................... 5-2
Table 5-3: Passing sight distance ............................................................................ 5-3
Table 5-4: Minimum Radii and side friction coefficient for horizontal Curves: 6%
Superelevation (Rural roads) ................................................................................... 5-7
Table 5-5: Minimum Radii and side friction coefficient for horizontal Curves: 4%
Superelevation (Urban Streets)................................................................................ 5-7
Table 5-6: Desirable Horizontal Radius for Rural Motorways ................................... 5-7
Table 5-7: Rate of change of superelevation (Gr) ................................................. 5-14
Table 5-8: Shoulder Cross-fall on Straights ........................................................... 5-17
Table 5-9: Desirable Maximum Gradients except for Motorways ............................... 5-19
Table 5-10: Maximum Gradients for Rural and Urban Motorways.............................. 5-19
Table 5-11: Climbing lane criteria .......................................................................... 5-22
Table 5-12: Crest vertical curves K values, SSD as design control ....................... 5-28
Table 5-13: Sag vertical curves K values, SSD as design control ......................... 5-29
Table 5-14: Desirable Vertical Curves K Values for Rural Motorways .................... 5-29
Table 5-15: Minimum radii sag vertical curve comfort criteria ................................ 5-30
Figure 5-1: Passing manoeuvre on two-lane rural road ........................................... 5-3

Figure 5-2: Sight Distance of Horizontal Curves ...................................................... 5-5
Figure 5-3: Clothoid elements .................................................................................. 5-8
i
Figure 5-4 Switchback Curve for Passage of Single Semitrailer Vehicle ............... 5-12
Figure 5-5 Superelevation transition using Spiral Curves ...................................... 5-13
Figure 5-6: Superelevation transition using straight and circular curves ................ 5-14
Figure 5-7 Superelevation of reverse curves ......................................................... 5-15
Figure 5-8 Superelevation of compound curves .................................................... 5-16
Figure 5-9: Shoulder Superelevation ..................................................................... 5-18
Figure 5-10: Effect of length and steepness of grade on speed of typical HV (Uphill
movement) ............................................................................................................. 5-23
Figure 5-11: Effect of length and steepness of grade on speed of typical HV (Downhill
movement) ............................................................................................................. 5-23
Figure 5-12: Vertical curves typical geometry ........................................................ 5-25
Figure 5-13: Short sag curve on long tangent ........................................................ 5-32
Figure 5-14: Short humps on long horizontal curve .............................................. 5-32
Figure 5-15: Short vertical curves preceding a long horizontal curve .................... 5-33
Figure 5-16: : Broken-back curve ........................................................................... 5-33
Figure 5-17: Well-coordinated crest and horizontal curves ................................... 5-34
Figure 5-18: Minor rolling on long horizontal curve ................................................ 5-34
Figure 5-19: Well coordinated sag and horizontal curves ...................................... 5-34
ii
5 DESIGN ELEMENTS
5.1 General
The overall quality and appearance of a road will be determined by the quality of the
alignment design (horizontal and vertical) and its relationship to the surrounding
environment. The geometry of the road alignment is presented in three projections:
the horizontal, vertical alignment and cross-section. Other elements of alignment are
sight distance and superelevation. These design elements will be discussed in detail
in the following sections.
5.2 Sight Distance
Throughout the length of any road, sight distances must be provided that are sufficient to
enable drivers to absorb all relevant features of the road and the traffic conditions ahead
and take the necessary actions to avoid hazards and proceed in a safe, efficient and
orderly way. The following sight distance concepts are applicable to geometric design:
i. Stopping Sight Distance
ii. Meeting Sight Distance
iii. Passing Sight Distance
iv. Visibility Splays
5.2.1 Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance is the distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling at a

given speed to bring his vehicle safely to a stop before reaching an object that becomes
visible on the carriageway ahead. It includes the distance travelled during the perception
and reaction times and the vehicle braking distance.
Stopping Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance requirement for all types of road
and must be provided at every point along the road. It is the sum of two distances:
a) The braking distance (V2/254(f+g))

b) brake reaction distance (0.278 x prt x V), where prt is perception
reaction time in seconds.
Therefore stopping sight distance is calculated combining the above:
⎛ ⎞
2
V
SSD = 0.278 × prt × V + ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 254(f + G ) ⎟ (5-1)
⎝ ⎠
Where:
SSD = stopping sight distance [m]
prt = perception reaction time [sec]
V = Vehicle speed [km/hr]
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction
G = percent grade, + for up grade and – for down grade
5-1
Values for desirable and minimum Stopping Sight Distance for various design speeds
and gradients are given in Tables 5-1 and 5-2 respectively.
Table 5-1: Desirable Stopping Sight Distance

DESIRABLE STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (m)
Design FOR GRADIENTS
Speed (UP) (DOWN)
(km/h)
9% 6% 3% 0 -3% -6% -9%
40 40 40 45 45 45 45 50
50 55 50 60 60 60 65 65
60 - 75 50 80 80 85 90
70 - 35 100 100 105 110 120
80 - 120 125 130 135 145 155
90 - 145 155 165 170 185 200
100 - - 185 200 215 235 255
110 - - 230 250 270 295 -
120 - - 285 310 340 - -
Table 5-2: Minimum Stopping Sight Distance

MINIMUM STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (m)
Design FOR GRADIENTS
Speed (UP) (DOWN)
(km/h)
9% 6% 3% 0 -3% -6% -9%
40 40 40 40 40 40 45 45
50 50 55 55 55 60 60 65
60 - 65 70 70 70 75 80
70 - 80 85 85 90 95 100
80 - 95 100 100 105 110 120
90 - 110 115 120 125 135 145
100 - - 135 140 145 155 170
110 - - 155 165 170 185 -
120 - - 175 190 20O - -
5.2.2 Passing Sight Distance
Most roads are two-lane two way on which vehicles frequently overtake slower moving
vehicles, the passing of which must be accomplished on a lane regularly used by the
opposing traffic. Passing sight distance for use in design should be determined on the
basis of the length needed to safely complete a normal passing manoeuvre.
The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is determined as the sum of
four distances:-
a. distance traversed during the perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on the passing lane.
5-2
b. distance travelled while the passing vehicle occupies the passing lane
c. distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its manoeuvre and the
opposing vehicles.
d. distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the passing lane (2/3 of (b))
The above four distances are illustrated in the following Figure 5-1.
Opposing Vehicle Appears when

Passing Vehicle Passing Vehicle reaches point A.
FIRST PHASE
A
a
1
d1 3d2
SECOND PHASE
2
3 d2
d1 d2 d3 d4
Figure 5-1: Passing manoeuvre on two-lane rural road
Table 5-3: Passing sight distance

Normal Reduced
Design speed (km/h) Passing Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance
(m) (m)
40 270 175
50 345 225
60 410 275
70 485 325
80 540 350
90 615 375
100 670 400
110 730 450
120 775 500
5.2.3 Control of Sight Distance
Available sight distances should be checked throughout the road length in the early stages of
the design of the alignment, and any necessary adjustments to the line should be made to
meet the minimum requirements for sight distance. The following guidelines for control of sight
distances apply:
5-3
1. Available sight distance should be checked separately for each type of sight distance
and for each direction of travel.
2. The following values should be used for determination of sight lines:

• Driver’s eye height 1.15m
• Object height for Stopping Sight Distance 0.10m
• Object height for Meeting and Passing Sight Distance 1.10m
3. In horizontal curves it may be necessary to remove obstructions or widen cuttings on

the insides of the curves to obtain the required sight distance. Required sight areas
for various radii and sight distances are given in Figure 5-2. Within the sight area the
terrain should be the same level as the carriageway and other obstructions should be
removed. In cases where the provision of the sight area requires extensive earth
works or costly removal of obstructions, it may be necessary to adjust the alignment.
4. Sudden reductions of available sight distance should be avoided. Where reductions

are necessary, they should be logical in relation to the physical surroundings.
Appropriate changes to assumed design speed may also need to be made.
5-4
Centre- line of road

Sight d i s t a n c e S, m e a s u r e d along
c e n t r e - l i n e of inside lane
Figure 5-2: Sight Distance of Horizontal Curves
5-5
5.3 Horizontal Alignment
5.3.1 General
The horizontal alignment is the plan view of the road and it is a combination of:
i. the straight or tangent
ii. the circular curve
iii. the transition curve or spiral, and
iv. superelevation
5.3.2 The Straight
From an aesthetic point of view, the straight may often be beneficial in flat country but rarely
in rolling or mountainous terrain. However, long straights increase the danger from
headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. Overtaking opportunities must
however be provided at reasonable intervals and straights are often the most appropriate
solution.
Short straights between curves in the same sense should be avoided ("broken back" effect).
If such straights have to be used, the unfavourable appearance may be improved by the
introduction of a sag curve.
The minimum allowable length of straight is that which accommodates the rollover of
superelevation in a reverse curve situation. It has been found that extremely long
straights, e.g. lengths of twenty kilometres or more, have accident rates similar to
those on minimum length straights, the lowest accident rate occurring in a range of
eight to twelve kilometres. This range is recommended for consideration in fixing the
maximum length of straight on any route. This maximum is based on the assumption
of a design speed of 120 km/h or more. At lower design speeds it is necessary to
consider maximum lengths considerably shorter than eight to twelve kilometres, as
discussed below.
As used in current practices (rule of thumb), the maximum length of straight in metres
should not exceed ten to twenty times the design speed in km/h for design speeds
less than 100 km/hr. If the achievable maximum length of straight across the length
of the route is regularly greater than this guideline value, thought should be given to
consideration of a higher design speed.
At a design speed of 120 km/h or higher, a maximum straight length of 1200 to 2400
metres would clearly be meaningless.
This oscillation in speed is inherently dangerous, thus consistency in design dictates

that the difference between design speed and 85th percentile speed, and variations
in 85th percentile speeds between successive elements should be limited as far as
possible. These differences and variations should be less than 10 km/h but ensure
that an acceptable design still results if they are less than 20 km/h. Differences in
excess of 20 km/h constitute poor design so that, at a greater level of precision than
the proposed rule of thumb.
The 85th percentile value of speed has been used as the basis of design in this
guide. Thus, 15 per cent of the vehicles could be considered to be exceeding the
design speed on any section of road.
Based on the above discussion, the following guidelines apply for the lengths of straights:
5-6
1. straights should not have lengths greater than (20 x VD ) metres (VD in km/h)
for VD <100km/hr
2. straights should not have lengths greater than 4km metres (VD in km/h) for
VD >=100km/hr
3. Straights between circular curves following the same direction should not have
lengths less than 200m to allow superelevation run-off.
5.3.3 The Circular Curve

The minimum radius of a horizontal curve for a given design speed can be
determined from the formula given below:
2
VD
Rmin =
127(e + f )
Where:
VD = design speed (km/h)
e = Maximum superelevation (%)
f = side friction coefficient
Values of “f” for rural and urban roads accepted superelevation rates are given in Tables
5-4 and 5-5.
Table 5-4: Minimum radii and side friction coefficient for horizontal curves: 6%
Superelevation (Rural roads)
VD (km/h) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Rmin (m) 55 90 135 195 250 335 435 560 755 950
f 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08
(Source AASHTO, 2001)
Table 5-5: Minimum radii and side friction coefficient for horizontal curves: 4%
Superelevation (Urban Streets)
VD (km/h) 30 40 50 60 70 85 90
Rmin (m) 30 50 85 125 175 270 375
f 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.13
Side friction coefficients are dependent on vehicle speed, type, condition and
texture of roadway surface, weather conditions, and type and condition of tires.
Tables 5-4 and 5-5 were developed based on the results of several studies.
Table 5-6: Desirable Horizontal Radius for Rural Motorways
Element Limit Preferred
Horizontal Radius R=1000m min. R>3780m#
.# It is preferable to adopt horizontal alignments that

do not require superelevation.
Values for minimum radius for other applicable superelevation rates can easily
calculated using the equation given above.
5-7
5.3.4 The Transition Curve

A transition curve or spiral is sometimes used in horizontal alignment design to
provide a gradual and smooth transition between straight sections and circular curve
sections or between two circular curves.
The purpose of introducing transition curves is:
a. to provide a length over which superelevation run-off and/or transition for

widening is applied.
b. in some cases, to improve appearance such as on a bridge where a rigid
handrail follows the exact geometry of the lane.
c. improve aesthetics of circular curves that are visible at the end of a long straight
d. provides a length over which smooth steering adjustment can be made,
especially between reverse curves
Generally, the Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid, is used in the design
of spiral transition curves. The radius varies from infinity at the straight end of the
spiral to the radius of the circular arc at the end that adjoins that circular arc.
The equation for applicable clothoid transition curve is:

where:
A 2 = R.Lcl
A = Clothoid Parameter
R = Radius at the end of the clothoid
L cl = Lengths of the clothoid
R
Ym R
L
ΔR
R =∞ τ Y Start tangent
Inflexion point Xm Tk
Tl
X
R = final radius Xm = abscissa of centre point
Δ R = circular shift Ym = centre Y-coordinate
τ = direction change X = final clothoid X-coordinate
Tl = long tangent Y = final clothoid Y-coordinate
Tk =short tangent
Figure 5-3: Clothoid elements
5-8
The clothoid parameter, A, expresses the rate of change of curvature along the clothoid.
Large values of A represent slow rates of change of curvature while small values of A
represent rapid rates of change of curvature.
The most rapid rate of change of curvature is represented by the minimum permissible
value of Amin. The determination of Amin is based upon considerations of the rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration, superelevation run-off, aesthetics and the ratio of the
radii of consecutive curves of a compound curve as described below:-
a) Rate of Change of Centrifugal Acceleration:
By stipulating 0.5 m/s as the maximum value for the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration, the minimum value of A is:
Amin = 0.21 VD
3
where VD = Design Speed (km/h)
b) Length of clothoid:
The clothoid must have sufficient length to accommodate the superelevation run-
off (see Section 5.4) i.e.
Amin = R.L0
Where
LO = minimum length of superelevation run-off, Calculated as shown in
Section 5.4.3
c) Aesthetics:
In order to see the characteristic shape of the clothoid it should consume an angle of at
least 3°; from this requirement follows the relationship:
Amin = R
3
Where: R = Radius of circular curve
d) Different use of clothoids and compound curves
5-9
i) Transition Curve : Circle-Circle, S-Compound Curve
1. CIR
CL E
1( R 1
1)
R =8
R
ECC A CL
OT
HO
ID
(A 1 CLO
) TH
CT SHORT TC O ID
(A 2
S T R A IG H T )
BCC
2 )
R R2
2(
A
2. C
IR
CLE
To ensure an harmonic alignment and uniform rate of change of superelevation both
clothoid branches should have approximately the same parameters. The following
condition should be fulfilled:
2 A1 3
≤ ≤
3 A2 2
For practical reasons (e.g. small errors in surveying) it is advisable to incorporate a
short straight of 10-20m between the two clothoids. This straight shall not be
considered as an independent design element, and thus the superelevation run-off
shall be carried through the short straight.
ii) “O” compound curves
BASE TANGENT
OF CLOTHOID
1 CLOT
VE HOID
R CUR SECT
ION
A
CUL
CIR
A(R 1)
R1
CI
RC
UL
R 2)
AR
R
2
A(
CU
RV
E
2
The use of compound curves allows flexibility in design as it helps to fit curves to the
terrain. However, caution should be taken when applying compound curves as the
driver does not expect repeated curvature in the same direction with changing radii.
Comparison should be made between use of compound curves or use of a single
curve which can closely fit the compounded curvature. The following limits for the
clothoid parameter are recommended when using compound curves:
5-10
R2
< A < R2
2
Where: R2 is the smaller of the two radii
In cases where use of compound curves is unavoidable, the ratio between the length of
the clothoid and the length of the curve should be such that the clothoid length is not less
than 1/3 of the curve length.
iii) Double "0" - Compound Curve
If the circular curves lie outside of each other, if they intersect each other or if they
have a common centrepoint, then the connection can be achieved with an enveloping
circular curve. In this case, two successive clothoid constructions are necessary as
shown below:-
BASE TANGENT OF A1 BASE TANGENT OF A2

ENVELOPING
SEC
OF CIRCULAR T
ION CLO ION O
SECT OID 1 CURVE 2 THO F
H ID 2
CLOT
ULAR 2)
CIRC E 1
A 1 (R 2)
CI URV
V
1)
2)
A2 (R
CUR
C
RC E
R2
R1
A1(R
UL 3
R1
R 2 (R
AR
3
A
5.3.5 Switchback Curves
Switchback or hairpin curves are used where necessary in traversing mountainous

and escarpment terrain. These curves, employing a radius of 20m or less, with a
minimum of 10m, are non-compliant with road design standards, but may be used
where circumstances demand and using the guidelines listed in the Departure from
Standards section (chapter 2).
Switchback curves require careful design to ensure that all design vehicles can travel
through the curve. They must therefore provide for the tracking widths of the design
vehicles, as indicated in Figures 3-1 through 3-3 (Chapter 3). These figures show
that the minimum outer radii for design vehicles Single Unit Truck through Semitrailer
combination are 12.5m, 14.1m, and 12.5m, respectively. Minimum inner radii are
8m, 7.4m, and 6m, respectively.
Switchback requirements can be determined which allow for:

Passage of two opposing Semitrailer vehicles.
Passage of a single Semitrailer and a Passenger car
Passage of only a single Semitrailer
5-11
Figure 5-4 Switchback Curve for Passage of Single Semitrailer Vehicle
Requirements vary depending on vehicle size, radius, deflection angle, and design
standard, and a template or software shall be used based on the design vehicle
turning radii to ensure that the vehicles can negotiate each switchback.
It is important to provide relief from a severe gradient through the switchback.

Where switchback curves are unavoidable in mountainous terrain, there is a need to
reduce the maximum allowable gradient at any point through the curve. The
maximum allowable gradient through a switchback curve is 4 percent.
5.4 Superelevation
One of the most important characteristics of alignment is the application of

superelevation to horizontal curves in order to counteract centrifugal forces. It is a
primary feature of safety in geometric design.
5.4.1 Maximum Superelevation (emax)
Use of maximum superelevation will be considered where the radius of a curve is

approaching the minimum for the design speed; i.e. towards the minimum radius
provided in Tables 5-4 and 5-5.
5-12
The practical factors limiting superelevation are:

• Weather
• Low speed
• Vehicle characteristics such as high centre of gravity
Therefore, the emax is selected based on the climate, and the likelihood of slow moving
traffic.
Recommended values for values of emax:

⇒ The maximum superelevation for rural areas is 6%
⇒ The maximum superelevation in urban areas where slow moving traffic is expected
is 4%
⇒ Superelevation is not recommended in urban areas where congestion is expected,
and vehicle movement is slow because of nearby junctions, traffic signals, etc.
5.4.2 Development Length of Superelevation
The development of superelevation is achieved by rotating the carriageway about its

axis most commonly the centreline. In special cases it may be necessary to rotate
the carriageway about the inside carriageway edge, e.g. on dual carriageway roads
with central reserve or through at-grade junctions.
The development length has two components:
a) Superelevation runoff: this is the length from the point where the pavement
has been rotated to zero crossfall to the point where the full curve
superelevation has been attained.
b) Superelevation runout: this is the residual length from the point of normal
crossfall to the point of zero crossfall.
If transition curves are applied the superelevation run-off should take place within the
length of the transition curve as shown in Figure 5-6
Figure 5-5 Superelevation transition using Spiral Curves
Normal Crown Tangent-Runoff length Super Runoff length(L)
Remove Adverse Crown
Full Super Elevation
Start of equal Superelevation
Edge of
O utside
ent
P avem
Start of Superelevation
Cons. CL Profile
Both Edgs of Inside Ed

ge
Pavements P avemen of
t
Profile
POT
SC
TS
A B C E
Where transition curves are not used best practice is to place approximately two-thirds of
the runoff on the straight approach and one-third on the circular curve shown in Figure 5-7.
5-13
Figure 5-6: Superelevation transition using straight and circular curves
Super elevation Runoff length(L)
2 1
3L 3L
Normal Crown Tangent-Runoff length

Full Superelevation
Start of equal Superelevation

Remove Adverse Crown Edge of
O utside
t
P avemen
Start of Superelevation
Cons. CL Profile
Both Edgs of
Pavements Inside
Ed
P avem ge of
ent
Profile
POT
PC
A B C D E
5.4.3 Rate of Change of Superelevation

This is the rate of rotation or otherwise described as the gradient between the edge
of the non superelevated edge of carriageway and the rotation axis (centreline) in
order to develop superelevation transition from the normal crown on straights to a
fully superelevated pavement on the curve.
Values of maximum relative gradients and equivalent slope ratios which is widely in
use is given in Table 5-7.
Table 5-7: Rate of change of superelevation (Gr)

VD(kph) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Max. rel.
0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.35
gradient (%)
Based on the criteria given in table 5-7, the minimum superelevation development
length (Le) is calculated from:
100W (e − e0 )
Le =
Gr
Where:
Le = superelevation development length (m)
W = maximum width from axis of rotation to edge of lane (m)
e = superelevation on circular curve for the required design speed
eo = camber or crossfall on straight (negative if opposite to e)
Gr = allowable relative grade from Table 5-7.
5.4.4 Superelevation on Reverse and Broken-Back Curves
Superelevation treatment to reverse curves shown in Figure 5-7 has an advantage of

creating pleasing aesthetics as well as making the connecting straights shorter than
by inclusion of short cambered straights.
5-14
2 5%
With Transition Curve

Without Transition Curve
2 5%
Figure 5-7 Superelevation of reverse curves
Where the use of broken back curves cannot be avoided, the minimum straight or
tangent of 200m should be used to accommodate superelevation runoff, and the
treatment of superelevation shall be as illustrated in Figure 5-8.
5-15
Without Transition Curve
With Transition Curve

2 5%
2 5%
Figure 5-8 Superelevation of compound curves
5-16
5.4.5 Shoulder Crossfall
On straights, the crossfall of road shoulders (even where they are sealed) can be up to
1.5 % steeper than the crossfall of the traffic lanes they border. On curves with
superelevated pavements, both shoulders can be superelevated to crossfalls not less
than the pavement crossfall. Application of shoulder crossfall on superelevated curves is
illustrated in Figure 5-9 Table 5-8 provides a range of shoulder crossfalls on straights that
are satisfactory and widely in use.
Table 5-8: Shoulder Cross-fall on Straights

Type of Shoulder Crossfall
Gravel 4%
Sealed 4%
5-17
Figure 5-9: Shoulder Superelevation
2.5%
2.5% -2.5%
-2.5%
4% -4%
-4%
Normal
Normalcrown
crownsection
sectionshoulder
shoulderhas
has 4%
4% crossfall
crossfall
4% 0%
0% -2.5%
-2.5% -4%
-4%
Remove
Removeadverse
adversecrown
crownand
andshoulder
shoulder
has
has4%
4%crossfall
crossfall
4% -4%
-2.5%
-4%
-4%
Normalshoulder
Normal shoulderhas
hasaa4%
4%crossfall
crossfall
4%
4%
-4%
-4% -4%
-4%
Normalshoulder
Normal shoulderhas
hasaa4%
4%crossfall
crossfall
2%
2%
-6%
-6% -6%
-6%
Outer Shoulder
Outer Shoulderflattened
flattenedtotolimit
limit
rollover to 6% and inner shoulder
rollover to 6% and inner shoulder
steepenedtotomatch
steepened matchcarriageway
carriageway
5-18
5.5 Vertical Alignment
5.5.1 General
The longitudinal profile of a road consists of a series of straight grades and vertical
curves. As well as smoothing the passage of a vehicle from one grade to another, the
vertical curves increase the sight distance over crests at the junction of the grades. They
should be simple in application and should result in a design that is safe, comfortable in
operation, pleasing in appearance and adequate for drainage.
For simplicity, the parabolic curve with an equivalent vertical axis centred on the vertical
point of intersection is used. Convex vertical curves are known as summit or crest
curves, and concave vertical curves as sag curves.
At crest curves, the minimum length may be fixed by stopping sight distance or
appearance requirements. However, lengths above the minimum may reduce the
overtaking sight distance available on the approaches. At sag curves, the length may be
fixed approximately by comfort related to vertical acceleration, appearance or, on a
slightly more deterministic basis by, drainage, headlight performance or overhead
restrictions to the line of sight.
5.5.2 Maximum Gradients
Maximum gradients in relation to design speed and terrain are given in Table 5-9. These
values should be adhered to for arterials and major collector roads where a large portion of the
traffic volume is heavy vehicles.
Table 5-9: Desirable Maximum Gradients except for Motorways
Maximum gradient [%] for design speed [km/h]

Terrain
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Flat - 5 4 3.5 3 3 3
Rolling 7 6 5.5 5 4.5 4
Mountainous 10 9 8 7
On secondary and minor roads and other roads with little traffic the values in Table 5-10
may be exceeded by 2%.
Table 5-10: Maximum Gradients for Rural and Urban Motorways
Maximum gradient [%] for design speed [km/h]

Terrain
80 90 100 110 120 130
Flat 4 3 3 3 3 3
Rolling 5 4 4 4 4 4
Mountainous 6 6 6 5 -
5-19
Steeper grades produce variation in speeds between lighter vehicles and the heavier
vehicles both in the uphill and downhill directions. This speed variation leads to
higher relative speeds of vehicles producing potential for higher accident rates, lower
traffic capacity and thus to increased operating cost.
Maximum gradient in itself is not a complete control as the length of a particular grade must
be checked, as detailed in Section 5.5.5, Critical length of gradients.
5.5.3 Minimum Gradient
To avoid standing water in side ditches, the minimum gradient (min.g) for roads in cut
sections is 0.5%. However, flat and level gradients on uncurbed paved roads are
acceptable when the cross slope and carriageway elevation above the surrounding
ground is adequate to drain the surface laterally. With curbed roads or streets,
adequate longitudinal gradients should be provided to facilitate surface drainage.
Where a flat grade is combined with superelevated horizontal curves, the rotation of the
pavement may create a situation where the flow path crosses from one side of a lane to the
other, resulting in undesirable water ponding on the pavement surface, thus, safety and
proper drainage should be carefully considered.
5.5.4 Gradients Higher Than Absolute Maximum

The following situations should justify whether grades greater than the absolute
maximum should be adopted. If it is justifiable, the proposed design should be
supported with appropriate information and the requirements of Departure from
Standards as discussed in Chapter 1 followed.
• comparatively short sections of steeper grade which can lead to significant cost
savings
• difficult terrain in which grades below the general maximum grades are not
practical
• numbers of heavy vehicles are generally low
• less important local roads where the costs of achieving higher standards are less
able to be justified.
5.5.5 Critical Length of Grades
“Critical length of grade” is used to indicate the maximum length of a designated

upgrade on which a loaded truck can operate without an unreasonable reduction in
speed. Where it is necessary to exceed the critical length of gradient on heavily
trafficked roads, it is desirable to provide either passing distances on the rise, or a
climbing lane for heavy vehicles. Where gradients induce a reduction in speed of
15km/hr a climbing lane shall be provided.
Suggested maximum desirable and critical length of gradients is given in Table 5-11.
5.5.6 Climbing Lanes
Where longitudinal gradients are long enough and/or steep enough to cause
significant increases in the speed differences between cars and heavy vehicles,
both traffic safety and road capacity may be adversely affected.
5-20
The following guidelines are to be used to determine whether the effects of such
gradients will be sufficiently severe to warrant the design and provision of climbing
lanes:-
i. Climbing lanes will not be required on roads with A.A.D.T. < 2000 p.c.u. in Design
Year 10,
ii. Where passing opportunities are limited on the gradients, then climbing lanes
must be considered on A, B and C Class roads with traffic flows in Design
Year 10 in the range 2000 p.c.u. < A.A.D.T. < 6000 p.c.u.
iii. Climbing lanes will normally be required on roads with A.A.D.T. ≥ 6000
p.c.u. in Design Year 10.
Consideration must always be given to the balance between the benefits to traffic and
the initial construction cost. For example, in sections requiring heavy side cut, the
provision of climbing lanes may be unreasonably high in relation to the benefits and
hence climbing lanes may be omitted leading to reduced "levels of service" over such
sections.
Where climbing lanes are to be provided, they shall be introduced on A Class roads when
the speed of a typical heavy vehicle falls by 15 km/h from that speed which this vehicle
would maintain on a level or downhill section of the same road. The corresponding fall in
speed applicable to B and C Class roads shall be 20 km/h.
For design purposes it may be assumed that the highest obtainable speed on a level or
downhill section of road for a typical heavy vehicle will be 80% of the Design Speed or 80
km/h whichever is the lower.
The climbing lane shall be terminated when the speed of a typical heavy vehicle reaches
the value at which the climbing lane was introduced. However, it must be ensured that a
typical heavy vehicle will regain this speed without creating a traffic hazard, i.e. passing
sight distance must be adequate. This latter requirement may lead to an extension of the
climbing lane beyond that point determined from speed considerations alone.
The introduction and termination of a climbing lane shall be effected by tapers of 60

metres length. The tapers shall not be considered as part of the climbing lanes and
should be located in the flatter section of gradient before the beginning and end of
climbing lane.
5-21
Table 5-11: Climbing lane criteria

Gradient Critical Length of Gradient Maximum
(%) above which a Climbing Desirable Length
Lane is required (m) of Gradient (m)
4 300 900
5 240 800
6 200 700
7 170 600
8 150 500
9 130 400
10 Required 400
11 Required 400
12 Required 400
In order to determine the lengths of the various gradients which would lead to the typical
heavy vehicle speed reductions and increases associated with the introduction and
termination of climbing lanes, Figures 5-10 and 5-11 shall be used. These figures relate to
the performance of a typical heavy vehicle of power to weight ratio 90 kg/h.p. and show
how its speed will vary with distance along a particular gradient.
Figure 5-11 shows how the speed of a typical heavy vehicle will reduce with distance along
a particular gradient. The distances shown on this figure refer only to a typical heavy
vehicle entering a particular uphill gradient at 80 km/h. Where entry speeds of less than 80
km/h occur at origin, the distance scale must be moved to correspond to the intercept
between the actual entry speed and the particular gradient under consideration. For
example, for an entry speed of 36 km/h onto a 6% gradient, the deceleration rate is given
by that portion of the 6% gradient curve below 36 km/h, i.e. the origin, or zero point, would
be shifted to coincide with the 500m point shown on Figure 5-10.
5-22
90
80
70
2%
60
3%
SPEED (km/h)
50
4%
40
5%
30 6%
7%
8%
20
9%
10
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
DISTANCE UPGRADE (m)
Figure 5-10: Effect of length and steepness of grade on speed of typical HV

(Uphill movement)
Figure 5-12 shows how the speed of a typical heavy vehicle will increase with distance
along a particular gradient. The distances shown on this figure refer only to a typical heavy
vehicle entering a particular gradient at 10 km/h.
90
80
-5%-4% -3% -2% -1%
-6% Level
70
1%
60
2%
SPEED (km/h)
50
3%
40
4%
30 5%
6%
20 7%
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
DISTANCE ON GRADE (m)
Figure 5-11: Effect of length and steepness of grade on speed of typical HV

(Downhill movement)
Where entry speeds higher than 10 km/h occur the zero point (or origin) on the distance
scale must be shifted, as for Figure 5-11, to correspond to the intercept between the actual
entry speed and the particular gradient under consideration.
5-23
5.5.7 Vertical Curves
Generally, the type of vertical curve used is a parabolic curve with the following
formula:
y = k x²
where:
y = vertical offset
k = a constant
x = horizontal distance
Figure 5-12 details the above parameters. There are three associated parameters
which are radius, length, and grade difference and their correlation is also shown.
Traditionally, the parabola has been used because of its simplicity and because all
formulae are exact whereas the same formulae used with the circle would be
approximate. When drawn to the distorted scales of the longitudinal section (usually
10:1) the curve is distinctly parabolic but a circle to the same scale would also look
parabolic. The vertical offsets .y. from a tangent are proportional to the square of the
distances .x. measured horizontally from the tangent point to the offset point. Being
parabolic does not mean that the curve has any transitional properties. That portion
of the parabola within the grade angles is so close to a circle that the difference is
negligible.
5-24
Figure 5-12: Vertical curves typical geometry
Length of vertical curve is equally spaced horizontal about I.P

( g 2 − g1 ) x 2
y = kx 2 =
200 L
Where
y = offset of parabola down from grade line (m)
x = horizontal distance from tangent point to the offset point (m)
g 1 = 1st grade (%)
g 2 = 2nd grade (%)
L = Length of vertical curve (horizontal projection)
100 L
R=
( g 2 − g1 )
x2
y=
2R
Where
R= Equivalent radius of vertical curve (m)
5-25
L( g 2 − g1 )
m=
800
Where
m = mid ordinate (m)
The length of curve is not the length of arc but the horizontal projection of the arc.
The axis of the parabola is always vertical.
A common parameter used to define the size of the vertical curve is the equivalent
radius ‘R’ or the rate of change of curvature K value. Radius or K values are used in
this manual to designate the limiting curvature required for a given design speed.
Radius is a single number and is a constant for the curve irrespective of the grades
and length of the curve. The parameter, K, is described as the determinant of the
shape of the parabolic curve, it is the distance in metres required for a 1 % change of
gradient.
5.5.8 Minimum Radii of Vertical Curves
Usually, the largest radii vertical curves should be used provided they are reasonably
economical. However in difficult situations, vertical curves approaching the minimum
may be considered where the cost of providing larger curves makes their use
prohibitive.
The following three factors control the selection of minimum radii of vertical curves:
• aesthetic or appearance
• riding comfort
• sight distance.
5.5.9 Crest Curves
For a particular design speed, the minimum radius of a crest vertical curve is usually
governed by sight distance requirements. However, for small changes of grade, the
appearance criterion may suggest larger values of radius to provide satisfactory
appearance of the curve. Riding comfort is generally not considered on crests as the
sight distance requirements almost always require the use of large radius vertical
curves and thus fulfils the riding comfort requirement.
In projects where the requirement is upgrading of an existing road with widening and
overlay of existing pavement, if the existing alignment includes short vertical curves
for the required design speed, it may be possible to retain the existing vertical curve
geometry by adopting the passing sight distance criterion as discussed in Section
5.2.2.
a) Appearance
At very small changes of grade, a vertical curve has little influence on sight distance,
hence, may be omitted. At any significant change of grade, short vertical curves
detract from the appearance.
5-26
b) Sight distance
Two conditions exist when considering length of vertical curves. The first is where
sight distance is less than the length of the vertical curve, and the second is where
sight distance extends beyond the vertical curve.
The basic formulas for length of parabolic vertical crest curve in terms of algebraic
difference in grade when stopping sight distance is taken as a control are:
When S is less than L,

2
GS
L=
100 ( 2h1 + 2h 2 )2
When S is greater than L,
(
200 h1 + h 2 )2
L = 2S −
G
Where: L= length of vertical curve [m]

S= Stopping sight distance [m]
G= algebraic difference in grades, [%]
h 1= height of eye above roadway surface, 1.07 m.
h 2= height of object above roadway surface, 0.15 m.
When the height of eye and height of object are 1.07 m and 0.15 m respectively, as it
is used in the stopping sight distance the above formulae become:
When S is less than L,

2
GS
L=
404
When S is greater than L,

404
L = 2S −
G
Note that the crest vertical curves are not generally designed for overtaking sight
distance. The resulting curve is generally too long for practical purposes. However,
long crest curves may be appropriate for appearance reasons on curvilinear
alignments on flat plains. These should be designed on their merits for each case.
5-27
Table 5-12 gives values of constant K, rate of change of vertical curvature based on
stopping sight distance requirement from the above equations
Table 5-12: Crest vertical curves K values, SSD as design control

Stopping
Design Assumed
sight Rounded
Speed Design Speed
distance K Values
[km/hr] [km/hr]
[m]
30 30 29.7 3
40 40 44.4 5
50 45-50 57.5-62.8 9-10
60 55-60 74.3-84.6 14-18
70 63-70 94.2-110.8 22-31
80 70-80 112.9-139.5 32-49
90 77-90 131.3-168.8 43-71
100 85-100 157.0-205.2 62-105
110 91-110 179.6-246.5 80-151
120 98-120 203.1-285.8 103-203
5.5.10 Sag Curves

Sag curves are generally designed as large as possible if economically feasible using
the comfort criterion as a minimum. The following three criteria may be used to
determine the required length of sag curves:
• Headlight distance
• Rider comfort
• Drainage
Usually, provision of the headlight sight distance criteria is more practically

applied among the above three for determination of minimum length of sag curves.
When S is less than L: L=GS2/(120+3.5S)
When S is greater than L: L= 2S-((120+3.5S)/G)
Where:
L length of sag vertical curve, [m]
S stopping sight distance, [m]
G algebraic difference in grades, [%]
It is again convenient to express the design control in terms of the K value. Table 5-13
indicates the minimum K values that are to be used.
5-28
Table 5-13: Sag vertical curves K values, SSD as design control

A s su m e d Stopping
Design
D e si g n si g h t Rounded
S p e ed
Speed d i s t an c e K Values
[ km / h r ]
[km/hr] [m ]
30 30 29.7 4
40 40 44.4 8
50 47-50 57.5-62.8 11-12
60 55-60 74.3-84.6 15-18
70 63-70 9 4 . 2 - 1 1 0. 8 20-25
80 70-80 1 1 2. 9 - 1 3 9 . 5 25-32
90 77-90 1 3 1. 3 - 1 6 8 . 8 30-41
100 85-100 1 5 7. 0 - 2 0 5 . 2 37-51
110 91-110 1 7 9. 6 - 2 4 6 . 5 44-62
120 98-120 2 0 3. 1 - 2 8 5 . 8 50-73
Table 5-14: Desirable Vertical Curves K Values for Rural Motorways

Element Limit Preferred
Sag Vertical Curve K=150 min. K>150
Crest Vertical Curve K=135 min.* K>135
a) Rider comfort
Discomfort is felt by a person subjected to rapid changes in vertical acceleration. To
minimise such discomfort when passing from one grade to another, it is usual to limit
the vertical acceleration generated on the vertical curve to a value less than 0.05g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2). On low standard roads, at
intersections or where economically justified, a limit of 0.10g may be used. The
minimum sag curve radii for comfort requirement can be calculated using equation:
R=V2/12.96a
where
R = Sag curve radius (m)
V = Design speed (km/h)
a = Vertical acceleration (m/s/s)
Values of minimum radii for sag curves for specific design speeds and vertical
accelerations of 0.05g and 0.10g are shown in Table 5-15. Since this is a subjective
criterion, values have been rounded and should not be regarded as precise
requirements.
5-29
Table 5-15: Minimum radii sag vertical curve comfort criteria

Design Comfort Criteria
Speed a=0.05g a=0.1g
(km/h)
50 390 200
60 570 280
70 770 390
80 1000 500
90 1300 640
100 1600 790
110 1900 950
120 2300 1100
130 2700 1300
b) Drainage
Drainage of kerbed pavements are especially important on sag vertical curves where a
grade line passes under railway bridges or bridge underpasses. Where underpasses are
required for these structures and at grade separated junctions which may not
necessarily fit the terrain, particular attention should be given to ensure that drainage
design is adequate.
c) Overhead obstructions
Overhead obstructions such as road or rail overpasses, sign gantries or even
overhanging trees may limit the sight distance available on sag vertical curves. With
the minimum overhead clearances normally specified for roads, these obstructions
would not interfere with minimum stopping sight distance.
5.5.11 Reverse and Broken Back Vertical Curves
Reverse vertical curves with common tangent points are considered quite
satisfactory and this geometry is often used in grading interchange ramps to achieve
the maximum elevation in the shortest acceptable distance.
Broken back vertical curves consist of two curves, either both sag or both crest,
usually of different radii, joined by a short length of straight grade should be avoided,
and it is usually easy to do so.
5.5.12 The Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments
The horizontal and vertical alignments shall not be designed independently. The
horizontal and vertical alignment design must be coordinated to ensure a safe
aesthetic and economic design. The following guidelines shall be applied:-
i. Generally a satisfactory alignment is obtained when the intersection points of

vertical and horizontal curves nearly coincide (within about 10% of the horizontal
curve length). The start of the horizontal curve is then clearly visible to the driver
5-30
on crest sections, and surface water drainage is facilitated by the maximum

longitudinal gradient corresponding to sections of changing superelevation and
the minimum longitudinal gradient corresponding to sections of maximum
superelevation.
ii. The lengths of the vertical and horizontal curves should be almost equal. If
however, the curves are not of equal length, then the horizontal curve should be
longer than the vertical curve. The equivalent radius of the vertical curve should
be at least 5 times the radius of the coincident horizontal curve.
iii. A larger number of horizontal intersection points than vertical intersection points
is undesirable particularly when the road is visible to the driver for a considerable
distance ahead.
iv. The beginning of a horizontal curve shall always fall within the available sight
distance. Thus, a horizontal curve should never be introduced near the top or
end of a sharp crest curve. The same applies for sharp horizontal curves at the
bottom of steep grades.
v. where the horizontal alignment is straight, a sequence of crest and sag curves
which allow the driver to see the road appear and disappear must be avoided as
this may cause dangerous overtaking.
vi. On straights, crest curves in cuttings should be avoided as they will be visible
over a long distance and often appear as scars on the landscape.
vii. On dual carriageways, variations in the width of the central reserve and the use of
separate horizontal and vertical alignments should be considered so as to derive
the design and operational advantages of one-way roads.
viii. At junctions, the horizontal and vertical curvature shall be such as to facilitate the
required visibility splays (see Chapter 7 Safe intersection stopping sight
distance).
Where there is doubt about the three-dimensional appearance of any alignment, it

should be more thoroughly investigated by preparing perspective drawings which will
enable any visual discontinuities to be detected.
Figures 5-13 to 5-19 illustrate how coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment
can be achieved.
5-31
Figure 5-13: Short sag curve on long Figure 5-14: Short humps on long
tangent horizontal curve
5-32
Figure 5-15: Short vertical curves Figure 5-16: : Broken-back curve

preceding a long horizontal curve
5-33
Figure 5-17: Well-coordinated crest

and horizontal curves
Figure 5-18: Minor rolling on long Figure 5-19: Well coordinated sag and
horizontal curve horizontal curves
5-34
6 THE CROSS-SECTION ................................................................................... 6-2

6.1 General ..................................................................................................... 6-2
6.2 Lane Width ............................................................................................... 6-2
6.3 Shoulders ................................................................................................. 6-4
6.4 The Choice of Cross-Section ................................................................... 6-4
6.5 Typical Cross Sections ............................................................................. 6-5
6.6 Normal Cross Fall ..................................................................................... 6-5
6.7 Side Slope and Back Slopes .................................................................... 6-6
6.8 Drainage Channels ................................................................................... 6-7
6.8.1 Scour Protection ............................................................................... 6-9
6.9 Widening on Curve and Fill ...................................................................... 6-9
6.9.1 Curve widening ................................................................................. 6-9
6.9.2 Fill widening .................................................................................... 6-10
6.9.3 Widening in Urban Areas................................................................ 6-12
6.10 Clear (or Safety) Zone ............................................................................ 6-14
6.11 Four – Lane and Divided Roads ............................................................. 6-14
6.12 Single Lane Roads and Passing Places ................................................ 6-15
6.13 Median .................................................................................................... 6-15
6.14 Cross–section Over Bridges and Culverts ............................................. 6-16
6.15 Headroom and Clearances .................................................................... 6-16
6.16 Provision for Pedestrians and Cyclist ..................................................... 6-16
6.16.1 Footpath ......................................................................................... 6-16
6.16.2 Cycle Tracks ................................................................................... 6-17
6.16.3 Pedestrian Overbridge.................................................................... 6-17
6.16.4 Pedestrian and Cyclist Underpasses (Subways) ............................ 6-17
6.17 Provision for Motorcyclists ...................................................................... 6-19
6.18 Service Roads ........................................................................................ 6-19
6.19 Design Standards ................................................................................... 6-20
Table 6-1: Recommended Lane Widths of Rural Roads.......................................... 6-3

Table 6-2: Recommended Lane Widths of Urban Roads ........................................ 6-3
Table 6-3: Detailed Side and back slope ratio table for cut and fill (V:H) ................ 6-7
Table 6-4: Drainage problem mitigation ................................................................... 6-8
Table 6-5: Widening on curves .............................................................................. 6-11
Table 6-6: Curve Widening .................................................................................... 6-13
Table 6-7a: Rural Road design class .................................................................... 6-21
Table 6-8a: Urban Road design class .................................................................. 6-22
Figure 6-1: Simple bus bay mainly for use in rural areas ......................................... 6-5
Figure 6-2: Bus bay for urban areas ........................................................................ 6-5
Figure 6-3: Roadside Feature .................................................................................. 6-6
Figure 6-4: Scour Checks ........................................................................................ 6-9
Figure 6-5: Fill widening and benching .................................................................. 6-12
Figure 6-6: Reduction of fill height ......................................................................... 6-12
Figure 6-7 : Cyclist Envelope ................................................................................. 6-18
i
6 THE CROSS-SECTION
6.1 General
The cross section of a road is a vertical plane, at right angles to the road control line,
viewed in the direction of increasing chainage. It shows the various elements that
make up the road’s structure such as traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as
acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes, and passing lanes, bus bays,
shoulders, side slopes and back slopes.
For urban areas, cross-section elements also include facilities for pedestrians, and
cyclists including curbs, footpaths, and islands. Provision for parking lanes will also
be included, For dual carriageways, the cross-section will include medians. The
cross section of urban roads usually varies with drainage due to one or more of the
following:
• variation to accommodate wider lane widths on low radius curves and junctions
• widening to provide space in the median for bridge piers to support overpass
structures
• widening to accommodate barrier systems and their associated dynamic
deflection or working width requirements
• widening to provide for horizontal sight distance past obstructions such as bridges
and safety barriers
• changes in the number of lanes and carriageways at intersections, U-turn
facilities, interchanges, collector-distributor roads and local roads
• provision for public transport
• variations in the width of the border
• provision for on street parking
• use of minimum dimensions to avoid major constraints such as land use
Typical cross-sections which include the above road elements are illustrated in
Appendix B.
6.2 Lane Width

The width of lanes influences the road user comfort and safety. Lane widths also
affect the width of carriageway. Most lane widths are in the order of 3 to 3.5m metres
for road classes A, B, C and D. Narrower lane widths are appropriate for the lower
volume roads.
In paved road classes A to D, it is important to consider the required width for road
marking. Road marking will affect lane width and allowance should be included when
defining lane width., An additional lane width of 0.15m will provide the necessary
allowance for road markings as well as sufficient passing clearance between large
commercial vehicles.
Recommended lane and carriageway widths for rural and urban road classifications
are given in tables 6-1 and 6-2 respectively.
6-2
Table 6-1: Recommended Lane Widths of Rural Roads

Width (m)
Traffic Design
Functional Road indicator Surface Carriage- speed
Class Class ADT Type Lane width way (kph)
Arterial or
Trunk S >3,000 Paved 3.65 14.6 Min. 80 - 130
Major
Arterial A > 2,500 Paved 3.65 14.6 70 - 110
Minor
Arterial B > 1,500 Paved 3.65 7.3 70 - 110
Major
Collector C > 500 Paved 3.4 6.8 60 - 110
Minor Paved /
Collector D > 150 Gravel 3.15 6.3 50 - 80
Major
Local E > 50 Gravel 2.5 5 50 - 80
Minor Improved
Local F < 50 Earth 4 4 40 - 50
Table 6-2: Recommended Lane Widths of Urban Roads

NMT Provision
Indicative Design Standards
Target Traffic
Functional Road
Access Cycle Indicator Width in metres, m
Class Class Footpath Design
Restriction track ADT*
Lane Carriage- speed
width way (kph)
17 -
Major Separate Separate 18,000
H High 3.65 14.6-21.9 70 - 90
Arterial track track
per lane
10 -
Minor Separate Separate
J Moderate 12,000 3.65 7.3 - 14.6 50 - 60
Arterial track track
per lane
Major Separate Separate 9,000 per
K Low 3.65 7.3 30 - 50
Collector track track 2 lanes
Minor Separate Separate

L Low 3.5 7 30 - 50
Collector track track
3.0
Lane
Major Separate MT,
M None next to 8 30 - 50
Local track 2.0
MT lane
Cycle
Minor Separate
N None None 3.5 7 30 - 50
Local track
Local 400 per
Separate
P None None 1,000 4 4 30 - 50
Access track
popn.
6-3
6.3 Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway continuous with the carriageway for
accommodation of stationary vehicles, for emergency use and for lateral support of
the pavement. Their main functions are:
a. To provide space for emergency stopping free of the traffic lane.

b. To provide space for the occasional motorist who desires to stop for various
reasons.
c. To provide space to escape potential accidents or reduce their severity.
d. shoulders of adequate width contribute to driving comfort and minimises the
risk of accidents when vehicles stray from the carriageway
e. sight distance is improved in cut sections, thereby improving safety.
f. lateral clearance is provided for signs and guardrails.
g. structural support is given to the pavement.
h. Allows passage of traffic during blockage due to accidents
i. enables non-motorised traffic (pedestrian and cyclist) in rural areas to
travel with minimum encroachment on the carriageway;
j. To act as barrier for moisture seepage to the carriageway.
For shoulders to function effectively, they must be durable to support occasional

vehicle loads, in all kinds of weather without failure. Paved or stabilized shoulders are
required to minimise the risk of such structural failure. Paved shoulders of the same
strength and standard as the pavement should be considered for road standards
DR1, DR2 and DU1, DU2. For other road standards the type of surfacing shall be as
recommended by Part 3 of the Design Manual - Materials and Pavement. For
unpaved roads the strength of shoulders shall be improved on steep gradients to
prevent erosion.
All shoulders shall be sloped sufficiently to drain carriageway surface water rapidly as
given in Table 6-7
6.4 The Choice of Cross-Section
The choice of the cross-section elements depends on a number of factors, the most
important of which are:
a. The traffic volumes which the road will have to accommodate.
b. The selected design speed.
c. The road function, i.e. the predominant type of traffic that the road serves, for
example, "long-distance" versus "access", or "heavy goods" versus
"passenger cars".
For the selected cross-section the most appropriate types of side ditches and cut-off
ditches are to be chosen in accordance with the guidelines given in Section 6.7.7.
Elements complementary to the normal cross-section include bus bays, parking
bays, cycle tracks and footpaths.
Cycle tracks and footpaths, shall be provided for different road classes as indicated
in Table 6-2.
Wherever possible the cycle track/footpath should be separated from the road in
urban areas. In flat and rolling terrain or rural areas this can usually be achieved
6-4
easily. However in hilly and mountainous terrain the cycle footpath may have to be
designed as a widening of the shoulder.
Bus bays and parking bays are provided in order to prevent vehicles from stopping
and standing on the carriageway. The siting of bus bays (which will also be used by
minibuses and other public transport) and parking bays will depend greatly upon local
conditions. The long established habits of public service and other vehicle drivers
and their passengers shall not be disregarded. Bus bays shall not be sited where
visibility is restricted. Typical layouts for these facilities are shown in Figures 6-1 and
6-2.
Figure 6-1: Simple bus bay mainly for use in rural areas
Figure 6-2: Bus bay for urban areas
6.5 Typical Cross Sections
Typical cross sections for standard classes of rural and urban roads are illustrated in
Appendix B of this manual.
6.6 Normal Cross Fall
Undivided pavements with two or more lanes on tangents or flat curves shall have a high
point, or crown, along the centreline with uniform downward slopes towards each edge in
order to facilitate surface water run-off and to prevent mud from the verge from spreading
over the carriageway. This downward slope is termed crossfall.
For rural and urban roads with bituminous pavements the minimum crossfall shall be 2.5%
and for rural roads with gravel pavements 4.0%. Auxiliary lanes shall have a crossfall of
the same direction and rate as the adjacent lane. The crossfall on gravel or grass
shoulders shall in all cases be 4.0%.
In curves, the carriageway will be superelevated in order to counter balance part of the
centrifugal acceleration. The relationships between design speed, curvature and
superelevation are described in Section 5.4
6-5
6.7 Side Slope and Back Slopes
Side slopes are the slopes extending outward and downward from the hinge point at
the edge of the shoulder to intersect the natural ground line. Back slopes are those
extending upward from the ditch bottom. These are illustrated in Figure 6-3. The
slope criteria depend upon the cut height; fill height, urban/rural location and the
presence of kerbs and safety. Other parameters such as right-of-way restrictions,
utility considerations, roadside safety and roadside development shall be considered
in determining the appropriate cut and fill slope for the site conditions.
(1) Hinge Point
Carriage Way (2) Side slope

(S) Back slope
(4) Ditch bottom

1
1
H1 H2
Shoulder Variable
width
(3) Toe of slope
Figure 6-3: Roadside Feature
Embankment or fill slopes parallel to the flow of traffic may be defined as

recoverable, non-recoverable, or critical. Recoverable slopes include all
embankment slopes, 1:4 (1 vertical to 4 horizontal) or flatter. Motorists who encroach
on recoverable slopes can generally stop their vehicles or slow them enough to
return to the roadway safely. Fixed obstacles, such as culvert head walls, should not
extend above the embankment within the clear zone distance.
A non-recoverable slope is defined as one which is traversable, but from which most
motorists will be unable to stop or to return to the roadway easily. Typically, vehicles
on such slopes can be expected to reach the bottom. Embankments between 1:3
and 1:4 gradient generally fall into this category.
A critical slope is one on which a vehicle is likely to overturn. Slopes steeper than
1:3 generally fall into this category.
Where recoverable slopes cannot be provided vehicle restraint systems should be

provided where the height of the embankment is over ‘x’ metres.
The selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations,
depth/height of cut or fill, characteristic of soil or natural ground material, and
economic considerations. Further, the guideline in this section may be most
applicable to new construction or major reconstruction. On maintenance and
rehabilitation projects, the primary emphasis is placed on the roadway itself.
In urban areas, it may not be cost-effective or practical because of environmental

impacts or limited right-of-way, to bring these projects into full compliance with the
side slope recommendations provided in this guide. For such cases other safety
measure shall be adopted if steeper slopes are used.
6-6
Two recommendations should be made regarding roadside slopes that are to be

adopted in design: i.e at preliminary and detailed design stages.
Slopes indicated for earth or soil type in Table 6-3 can be used during the preliminary
design stage in order to satisfy side drain requirements as well as earth work quantity
estimates. Side and back slopes given in Table 6-3 vary according to the material
type and height of cut and fill. However, these are indicative values only and the
steepest slope that can be applied is dictated by the angle of repose and erodibility of
the in-situ material.
The detailed design stage should therefore include geotechnical analysis, which will
indicate the steepest batters appropriate for slopes in-situ material.
Table 6-3: Detailed Side and back slope ratio table for cut and fill (V:H)
Fill side Cut
Height of Type of
Material type slope Back Slope Side Slope
Slope slope
V:H V:H
0 -1m 1:3 1:3 1 : 3* Recoverable

Earth or Soil
1 – 3m 1:2 1:2 1:2 Critical
(non-expansive)
>3m 1 : 1.5 1 : 1.5 1 : 1.5 Critical
0 -1m 1:4 1:3 1 : 4* Recoverable

Expansive soil
1 – 3m 1:2 1:2 1:2 Critical
>3m 1 : 1.5 1 : 1.5 1 : 1.5 Critical
0 -1m 1:3 1:2 1 : 3* Recoverable

Compacted Lateritic
1 – 3m 1:2 1 : 1.5 1:2 Critical
gravel
>3m 1 : 1.5 1:1 1 : 1.5 Critical
0 – 2m 1 : 1.25 3:1 1 : 1.25 Critical
Hard Rock
>2m 1:1 4:1 1:1 Critical
0 – 2m 1 : 1.5 3:1 1 : 1.5 Critical
Weathered Rock
>2m 1:1 3:1 1:1 Critical
6.8 Drainage Channels
Drainage channels such as side ditches, cutch water drains and chutes are essential
for the following key reasons:
a. to remove water from the road pavement and cross section;

b. to convey the water from any cut section and from adjacent slopes and
surrounding to the natural watercourse;
c. catch water channels placed back of the top of cut slopes to intercept surface
water;
d. chutes to carry collected water down steep cut or fill slopes
e. to protect stagnation of water thus protect spread of malaria
6-7
General drainage problems and their preventive measures are given in Table 6-4.
Table 6-4: Drainage problem mitigation

Drainage problem Preventive measures
Water getting on to the road Catchwater drains
Drain water off the road Suitable camber or pavement cross-fall
Drain water across the road Cross drainage structures, culverts
Erosion control in side ditches Scour checks
Erosion control of culverts outfall Chutes, cascades, and vegetation
Siltation in ditches and culverts Cleaning and maintenance
In urban populated areas deep and open road side drain channel are hazardous to
vehicles & pedestrians. It is therefore recommended to use covered drain channel or
under drain system depending on the size of the town, design class of the road, as
well as the construction and maintenance cost of side drainage.
Key points to consider in the design of safe side drains are:

• There should be sufficient discharge points and culverts to ensure that the drain
never gets very deep;
• Open drains are best located outside the clear zone;
• With open drains, the slope next to the road should as much as possible be flat
enough to reduce the risk of errant vehicles overturning;
• In urban areas channel drains deeper than 250mm should be covered or under-
drain system be used for the safety and convenience of both pedestrians and
vehicles;
• The drain should terminate or discharge in a satisfactory manner without risk of
causing erosion or other problems; and,
• The drain should be cleaned and maintained easily.
The type of side ditch selected must be checked to ensure that it will carry the expected
flow without running so deep as to wet the road pavement nor so fast as to cause scour.
Due to their location, cut-off ditches are usually difficult to maintain and should therefore,
whenever possible, be constructed as "natural permanent depressions" with as gentle side
slopes as possible.
6-8
6.8.1 Scour Protection
It is important to note that a side ditch will only perform as designed if the design cross-
section is maintained, i.e. excessive scour must be prevented. In practice, due to local
inconsistencies; in roughness and surface level, no side drain in any will be immune from
scour except the hardest materials. Thus, for long lengths of side ditch at gradients in
excess of 4%, scour checks should be considered.
Scour checks should be designed as control sections and will thus match the side ditch
cross-section so as not to cause an obstruction which would raise the water level. Careful
consideration must be given to the spacing of scour checks; such spacing will not be
constant but should reduce as the flow increase. The distance between the scour checks
depends on the gradient and the soil condition of the road. The steeper the slope or the
softer the soil, the closer the spacing of the scour checks. A typical example of concrete
scour check profile is illustrated in Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-4: Scour Checks
6.9 Widening on Curve and Fill
6.9.1 Curve widening
Pavements should be widened on curves to maintain the lateral clearance between

vehicles equal to the clearance available on straight sections of road. Widening is
required for two reasons:
a. A vehicle travelling on a curve occupies a greater width of pavement than it

does on a straight as the rear wheels at low speeds track inside the front, and
the front overhang reduces the clearance between passing and overtaking
vehicles. (At high speeds the rear wheels track outside the front.).
b. Vehicles deviate more from the centreline of a lane on a curve than on a

straight.
The amount of widening required depends on:
6-9
(a) the radius of the curve,

(b) width of lane on a straight road,
(c) vehicle length and width,
(d) vehicle clearance.
Other factors such as overhang of the front of the vehicle, wheel base and track
width also affect requirement for curve widening.
Curve widening shall generally be applied to both sides of the roadway. It should
start at the beginning of the transition curve and be fully widened at the start of the
circular curve.
Recommended values to be adopted for curve widening in the design are given in
Table 6-5.
6.9.2 Fill widening

Fill widening is another factor which modifies the road width independent of travelled
road width (see Figure 6-5).
Fill widening should be considered:

• in order to maintain proper compaction of the road in cases where there are
high fills and where edge compaction can not be achieved to the required
specification
• in order to give sufficient space for road side furniture such as guardrails,
traffic signs and guide posts
In such cases, the 0.60m of fill widening for fill height, Hf >=2 is recommended. Fill
height in excess of 6.00 m should be avoided, and if unavoidable potential stability
problems should be studied.
6-10
Table 6-5: Widening on curves
WIDENING IN METRES FOR 2-LANE PAVEMENTS, FOR PAVEMENT WIDTH ON TANGENT OF:
RADIUS 7.00 m 6.50 m 6.00 m
(m) DESIGN SPEED (km/h) DESIGN SPEED (km/h) DESIGN SPEED (km/h)
40 50 60 70 80 100 40 50 60 70 80 100 40 50 60 70 80 100
50 1.00 1.25 1.75
80 0.50 0.50 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.25
100 0.50 0.50 NOT APPLICABLE 0.75 1.00 NOT APPLICABLE 1.25 1.25 NOT APPLICABLE
125 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.00 1.00
150 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.00
180 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00
200 NO WIDENING 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75
250 REQUIRED 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.75
300 NO WIDENING 0.50 0.75
400 REQUIRED NO WIDENING 0.50 0.50
500 REQUIRED 0.50 0.50
6-11
Where fill widening is applied or widening made of existing roads in fill, benching
should be used as illustrated in Figure 6-5.
Benching
Figure 6-5: Fill widening and benching
Cut slopes are inherently more stable than fill slopes. The designer should try to
minimize fill slope length by "pushing” the alignment into the hill side in order to
minimize erosion. If economical, this will result in longer cut slopes and add slight to
moderate cuts at the centreline. The result will be a moderate fill slope as shown in
Figure 6-6 with no additional fill widening required.
Figure 6-6: Reduction of fill height
6.9.3 Widening in Urban Areas
i) Curve Widening
The swept path of vehicles moving on a curved path increases in width with
decreasing curve radius. Turning templates or AutoTrack software or similar
6-12
should be used to determine the curve widening requirements. It is undesirable to

widen lanes to more than about one metre as cars tend to form two lanes in wide
lanes. This means that multi-lane roads should not use radii of less than about 100m
(except within intersections).
Curve widening may not be required on low flow single carriageway roads where
vehicle speeds and or flows are low, for instance within urban residential areas not
regularly frequented by commercial vehicles and car traffic is low.
Table 6-6: Curve Widening

Radius (m) Design Vehicle Single Design Vehicle 19m Semi-
Unit Truck or Bus (m) trailer (m)
30 Use AutoTrack software Use AutoTrack software

40 1.03 Use AutoTrack software
50 0.82 Use AutoTrack software
60 0.71 1.27
70 0.59 1.03
80 0.52 0.91
90 0.46 0.81
100 0.41 0.71
120 0.36 0.63
140 0.32 0.56
160 0.28 0.49
180 0.24 0.42
200 0.24 0.35
250 0.29
300 0.23
ii) Widening for guard rails

Freeways and arterial roads require guard rails (dependent upon design
speed) to protect vehicles from roadside hazards, control movement of
pedestrians, and prevent head on collisions with road side features. In
addition crash barrier systems require space as well as space for the
deflection of the barrier when a collision occurs. The space provision for these
barriers affects verge width, outer separator width, and median width.
iii) Widening at intersections and interchanges

On arterial roads and freeway ramps connecting to at grade intersections,
additional lanes are usually necessary to provide for turning traffic. Arterial
roads may incorporate frontage roads. Similarly, interchanges, collector-
distributor roads and frontage roads on freeways require additional road
reserves.
iv) Facility for Public Transport

New freeways and arterial roads may provide a suitable location for public
transport facilities such as transit lanes, bus only lanes, busways, and light
rail. Hence, any future requirement for widening of such location shall be
considered during planning and design.
6-13
v) Other widening requirements

Widening requirement for the following cases shall be taken in to account in
urban areas.
• Landscape requirements
• Noise barrier requirements
• Need for NMT such as footpaths and cycle tracks
• Space for storm water and other drainage structures
• Space for maintenance access
6.10 Clear (or Safety) Zone
If a vehicle leaves the roadway, an accident may occur. The end result of an
encroachment depends upon the physical characteristics of the roadside
environment. Flat, traversable, stable slopes will minimize overturning accidents,
which are usually severe. Elimination of roadside furniture or its relocation to less
vulnerable areas are options in the development of safer roadsides. If a fixed object
or other roadside hazard cannot be eliminated, relocated, modified, or shielded, for
whatever reason, consideration should be given to delineating the feature so it is
readily visible to a motorist.
For adequate safety, it is desirable to provide an unencumbered roadside recovery

area that is as wide as practical on a specific highway section. The cleared width
should be a minimum of 15 meters each side from the edge of the roadway for the
higher road standards.
For lower standard roads, the clear zone can be reduced to such width as may be
practical. It should however extend beyond the toe of the slope. Lateral clearances
between roadside objects and obstructions and the edge of the carriageway should
normally be not less than 1.5 meters. At existing pipe culverts, box culverts and
bridges, the clearance cannot be less than the carriageway width; if this clearance is
not met, the structure must be widened. New pipe and box culvert installations, and
extensions to such structures, must be designed with a 1.5-meter clearance from the
edge of the shoulder.
Horizontal clearance to road signs, marker posts, etc. shall be a minimum of 1.0m
from the edge of the carriageway.
6.11 Four – Lane and Divided Roads
The number of lanes and carriageway widths is given in Section 3.7.with regard to
operating speed and traffic volumes. It is also to be a roadway is increased to a four-
lane facility when a certain volume is reached or for certain road classes.
Four lane and divided roads are required when the design traffic volume is sufficient
to justify their use. They are more frequently used in urban areas.
A minimum median width of 5.0 metres is required to allow the provision of right
turning lanes outside of the adjacent carriageway, and to avoid having a turning
passenger vehicle from the minor road protrude into the through lanes.
6-14
6.12 Single Lane Roads and Passing Places

For low traffic volume roads such as Class F and Local Access roads, single lane
operation is adequate as there will only be a small probability of vehicles meeting,
and the few passing manoeuvres required can be undertaken at very reduced
speeds using passing bays. Provided sight distances are adequate for safe stopping,
these manoeuvres can be performed without hazard, as the design speeds for such
roads is low. The need for widening on curves is also not relevant on these roads.
The increased width at passing bays should be such as to allow two design vehicles
to pass, i.e. a minimum of 5.0 metres width, and vehicles would be expected to stop
or slow to a very slow speed. Some heavy vehicles must not be allowed to use these
classes of roads, and appropriate restriction notices erected.
Normally, passing bays should be located every 300 to 500 meters depending on the
terrain, geometric conditions and availability of space. However, adjacent passing
bays must be intervisible. Account should be taken of sight distances, the likelihood
of vehicles meeting between passing bays and the potential difficulty of reversing.
The length of individual passing bays will vary with local conditions and the type of
design vehicle but, generally, a length of 20 meters including tapers will cater for
most light commercial vehicles.
6.13 Median
A median is the strip of road that separates opposing travelled ways. Medians have
the following advantages:
• significantly reduce the risk of collision with opposing traffic (clear zone principle)
• provides space for median barriers
• provide space for street lighting
• provide space for traffic signals
• provide space for direction and regulatory signs
• improve capacity by restricting access to property and minor side streets
• provide a safety refuge for pedestrians making it easier and safer to cross busy
roads
• prevent irregular u-turn movements
• provide a space to collect run-off from the road and carry the water to the
drainage system
• accommodate glare screening
• provide space for landscape planting
• provide space for public transport (HGV) lanes and bus stops, and light rail tracks
and platforms when required)
• provide space for future additional traffic lanes
• provide space for underground utility lines
• provide space for overpass piers
• provide space for skylights to pedestrian underpasses
• provide space for visibility offset on horizontal curves
• provide space for parking (in urban centres’ slow speed streets only)
Medians are provided on all dual carriageway roads such as urban Major and Minor
Arterials roads and International trunk roads.
If an existing road is being upgraded and the road reserve is constrained, then
consideration may need to be given to a cross section without a median.
6-15
However, if a median can be included by reducing the width of other cross sectional
elements such as traffic lanes and footpaths, this may be preferable. The use of a
variable median width should be considered where the road reserve is narrow and it
is not feasible to widen it in some areas.
6.14 Cross–section Over Bridges and Culverts

On major arterial roads, bridge widths shall accommodate the full width of the
carriageways including the full shoulder widths and any widening required for sight
distance if the bridge is on a horizontal curve.
On other class of roads shoulders for rural areas and footpaths for urban roads shall
be accommodated.
6.15 Headroom and Clearances
The standard minimum headroom or clearance under bridges or tunnels shall be 5.3m and
5.5m is desirable for all classes of roads. This clearance should be maintained over the
carriageway(s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance of the carriageway is likely to
lead to a raising of the road level, then an additional clearance of up to 0.1m may be
provided. Where the existing headroom exceeds the standard minimum and a reduction
would affect local industry, a greater clearance may exceptionally be justified. The minimum
headroom or clearance over cycle tracks and Footpaths shall be 2.20m.
The minimum horizontal clearance between the carriageway edge and the face of an
abutment or pier shall generally be 1.50m. In exceptional cases this standard may be
reduced to 1.00m.
The minimum horizontal clearance between the edge of a cycle track and footpath and
the face of a structure shall be 0.25m.
Minimum headroom and clearances for traffic signs are given in the Kenya Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges Part 5 a) Traffic Signs.
6.16 Provision for Pedestrians and Cyclist
6.16.1 Footpath
All urban roads should be provided with footpaths on both sides of the roadway and
the clear unobstructed width should not be less than 1.5m minimum and preferably
2m. The width of the footpath should be estimated on the basis of 0.6m for each 20-
30 pedestrians per minute plus 0.5m dead space. Footpaths should have a minimum
crossfall of 2.5%.
Footpaths may be constructed from interlocking concrete blocks, stone cobbles,

bricks; double seal surface dressing, asphalt or murrain. Pre-cast concrete paving
blocks of sizes more than 20x20cm are not recommended.
In commercial areas it may be prudent to increase the width of footpath depending

on space availability between the road edge and the building line. In the city centre
and other areas where pedestrian and traffic volumes are high, consideration should
be give to the introduction of a barrier between the traffic and the pedestrians and
provision of footbridges.
6-16
In designing footpaths the designer needs to be aware that the provision of street
lighting, signs, barriers and posts reduce the effective width of footpaths and this
needs to be allowed for in any design process.
6.16.2 Cycle Tracks
A separate cycle track should be provided on those urban roads where pedal cycle
traffic is high and also to encourage bicycle use in traffic congested areas. The cycle
track needs to be provided on both or one side of the road based on the design
standard and the width should not be less than 2m. Where high cycle volumes are to
be accommodated, the cycle tracks should be designed for one-way traffic. Careful
consideration needs to be given to designing the grade of the cycle tracks and to the
details at road crossing places. Cycle tracks should be separated from the trafficked
road by a 2m wide verge and from pedestrian footpaths by at least 1m. Cycle tracks
may be constructed in a similar manner to the footpaths, with the exception of stone
cobbles.
Where open drainage ditches are provided adjacent to the main carriageway, it may
be more relevant to provide the Non Motorised Traffic facilities beyond the drainage
ditch and away from the carriageway.
6.16.3 Pedestrian Overbridge
The minimum clear width of a pedestrian bridge should be 1.8m. This width is
adequate for the passage of up to 300 people per hour and allows two wheelchairs to
pass.
For shared bicycle/pedestrian bridges, the minimum width is 3.0m. Where the
volumes of pedestrians and/or cyclists is high, the two functions should be
segregated and the appropriate width for each function shall be allowed.
Care is needed in the design process to ensure that the pedestrian overbridge
provides a more direct and attractive route than attempting to cross at grade. Even
the provision of pedestrian barrier in the central reserve will not prevent pedestrians
crossing at grade if it is perceived that the at grade route is more direct.
6.16.4 Pedestrian and Cyclist Underpasses (Subways)
Pedestrian underpasses are not the preferred method of providing for grade
separated pedestrian crossings. They are not favoured by pedestrians and cyclists
because of the potential danger posed by the “hidden” nature of the crossing.
However, it is sometimes the case that an underpass is the only reasonable
alternative.
Underpasses should be lit and care taken with the design to ensure that “hiding”
places not occur. There should be a clear line of sight from one end to the other and
this should preferably be available from the adjacent street. Entrances should be free
from any obstacles that may hinder visibility of pedestrians. Access should be by
means of ramps or a combination of ramps and stairs provided that wheel chair
access is fully available. The access should be designed to cater for the needs of
sight-impaired people and the necessary features incorporated to guide them.
Landscaping and services should be located so as not to obscure sight lines. High
6-17
quality, vandal proof lighting will be required in underpasses to enhance personal

security.
See Figure 6-7 for typical illustration of cyclist envelopes
Figure 6-7 : Cyclist Envelope
6-18
6.17 Provision for Motorcyclists
Motorcyclists have their own safety needs in the physical layout and construction of a
road. The characteristics of the motorcyclist set out in Chapter 3 provide the reasons
for these particular needs.
The fact that motorcycles have only two wheels highlights the importance of traction
on the road surface. The entire operation of the motorcycle depends on adequate
continuous traction and on consistency in the available friction between the tyre and
road surface. Two wheels also provide challenges for stability of the vehicle and the
rider has to provide continuous attention to the riding task to maintain stability. It is
the case that the inherent instability of the vehicle can lead to loss of control at points
of sudden change, particularly where surface irregularities occur, with hazardous
consequences for the rider.
These consequences can be serious if solid objects are located in the path of the
motorcycle as it slides out of control. Care is therefore required when providing
roadside and road surface furniture, which may be a positive safety feature for other
road users. The complexity of the riding task means that the rider is capable of
absorbing limited amounts of information in addition to the needs of traffic monitoring
and vehicle control. Designers must therefore provide appropriate information; at the
same time limiting it to that which is necessary for the particular situation.
The following should be provided to benefit Motorcyclists:

• uniformity of road design
• familiar and standard treatment with no surprises
• use of optimum values of design parameters rather than minimum
• a high standard of workmanship and maintenance practices
• advance information, warning and good delineation of the road
• sufficient clear zone; as the motorcycle envelope can extend beyond the edge of
the traffic lane such as leaning into a curve, hence road furniture must be placed
outside the potential line of this encroachment
• consistency of road surface condition; since the motorcyclist must lean into the
curve, or into the wind on a straight, any change in traction with the road due to a
change in surface conditions should be avoided
6.18 Service Roads
Service roads are roads that are constructed between the principal carriageway and
the property line. They may be continuous or discontinuous, and are usually
restricted to one way traffic. They provide property access, and commercial access to
link detached local roads, and may provide through traffic function if continuous.
The number of lanes for service roads depends on expected traffic volumes and
demand for on-street parking. The width of the separator between the service road
and the adjacent arterial road should be evaluated to allow the placement of
necessary roadside furniture such as streetlights, access control fencing, bus bays,
and planting. The traffic flow on the access road and the adjacent through traffic
carriageway shall usually be in the same directions, to avoid driver confusion and
headlight glare.
6-19
6.19 Design Standards

There are six Design Standards for Rural roads and 7 Design Standards for Urban roads.
These were described in Chapter 2, Section 2.6.2. The division into Road Design Standards
is governed by the design speed, design traffic and functional classification. However, a road
classified to a certain category as indicated in Tables 6-1 and 6-2 may fall under different
design standards. This depends upon the actual traffic capacity of the road, its targeted
upgrade, and function.
Design standards proposed in Table 6-7 and 6-8 are to be used as a guide and should be
read in conjunction with Tables 6-1 and 6-2. The designer should compute other design
parameters corresponding to the design speeds given for each design class.
6-20
Table 6-7a: Rural Road design class
Capacity Maximum Design speed (Km/h)

Design
[ADT x Functional Classification
Class Flat Rolling Mountainous Town
1,000/day]
Motorway
DR1 >3.0 120 100 80 -
(S)
DR2 > 2.5 110 90 70 50
Major Arterial
DR3 1.5 t o2.5 100 90 70 50
Minor Arterial
Major Collector
DR4 0.5 to 1.5 90 85 60 50
DR5 0.15 to 0.5 80 65 50 40
Minor Collector
Major Local
0.05 to
DR6 70 65 50 40
0.15
Minor
Local
DR7 <0.05 50 40 30 30
Table 6-7b: Rural Road design class (continued)

Shoulder Median
Carriageway
Right of width width
Design
Way Lane
Class
width [m] width No. of Width [m] [m]
lanes
[m] [m]
Multi, Min (2x2.0) &
DR1 60 3.65 Min. 5
4 (2x1.0)
(2x2.0) &
DR2 40-60 3.65 4 14.6 1.5 – 5.0
(2x1.0)
DR3 40-60 3.65 2 7.3 2 x 2.0 -
DR4 40 3.4 2 6.8 2 x 2.0 -
DR5 25 3.15 2 6.3 2 x 1.5 -
DR6 9-20 2.5 2 5 2 x 1.5 -
DR7 9-20 4 1 4 2 x 1.5 -
6-21
Table 6-8a: Urban Road design class

Maximum
Capacity Design speed
Design
[ADT x (Km/h) Functional Classification
Class
1,000/day] Urban Urban
Type 1 Type 2
Major Arterial ‘H’

DU1 > 18/lane 90 70
Minor Arterial ‘J’

10 to
DU2 60 50
12/lane
Major Collector ‘K’

9 to
DU3 50 40
10/lane
Minor Collector ‘L’

DU4 0.15 to 0.5 50 40
Major Local ‘M’

0.05 to
DU5 50 30
0.15
Minor Local ‘N’

DU6 <0.05 50 30
‘P’
Access
Local
DU7 <0.05 50 30
Table 6-8b: Urban Road design class (continued)

Cycle Median
Right of Carriage way Footpath
Track width
Design Way
Lane No. of
class width Width [m] [m] [m]
width lane
[m]
[m] [m]
DU1 60-80 3.65 6 21.9 2 2 2.5 – 5.0
DU2 20-45 3.65 4 14.6 2 2 2.5
DU3 18-40 3.65 2 7.3 2 2 -
3.5 MT,
DU4 15 2 7.2 2 2 -
2.0 NMT
DU5 12-25 2.5 2 5 2 2 -
DU6 9-12 3.5 2 7 2 -
DU7 9-12 4 1 4 2 -
6-22
7 AT GRADE INTERSECTION DESIGN ........................................................................ 7-1

7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2 Design Principles ................................................................................................ 7-1
7.2.1 General ........................................................................................................... 7-1
7.2.2 Elements Affecting Design .............................................................................. 7-1
7.2.3 Traffic Manoeuvres and Conflicts ................................................................... 7-3
7.2.4 Capacity.......................................................................................................... 7-4
7.2.5 Intersection Types and Selection .................................................................... 7-5
7.2.6 Location of Intersections ................................................................................. 7-8
7.2.7 Spacing of Intersections ................................................................................. 7-9
7.2.8 Channelisation ................................................................................................ 7-9
7.3 Geometry of Approaches at Intersection ........................................................... 7-11
7.3.1 General ......................................................................................................... 7-11
7.3.2 Angle of Intersection ..................................................................................... 7-12
7.3.3 Horizontal Geometry ..................................................................................... 7-12
7.3.4 Vertical Alignment ......................................................................................... 7-13
7.3.5 Intersection Sight Distance ........................................................................... 7-14
7.3.6 Islands and Medians ..................................................................................... 7-19
7.3.7 Corner Radii ................................................................................................. 7-24
7.3.8 Other Geometric Features ............................................................................ 7-25
7.4 Requirements for Pedestrians, Equestrians and Cyclists .................................. 7-31
7.5 Roundabouts .................................................................................................... 7-33
7.5.1 General ......................................................................................................... 7-33
7.5.2 Siting of Roundabouts .................................................................................. 7-34
7.5.3 Roundabout Legs ......................................................................................... 7-35
7.5.4 Roundabout Number of Lanes ...................................................................... 7-36
7.5.5 Geometric Design of Roundabout ................................................................. 7-39
7.5.6 Road User Requirements at Roundabouts ................................................... 7-45
7.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages ................................................................... 7-46
7.6 Design of Signalised Intersection ...................................................................... 7-47
7.6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 7-47
7.6.2 Control Strategy and Layout ......................................................................... 7-48
7.6.3 Visibility......................................................................................................... 7-49
7.6.4 Lane Design ................................................................................................. 7-50
7.6.5 Swept Paths and Corner Curves .................................................................. 7-53
7.6.6 Signals .......................................................................................................... 7-54
7.6.7 Spacing of Signalized Intersections .............................................................. 7-56
7.6.8 Pedestrian and Cyclist Facilities ................................................................... 7-57
Table 7-1: Values of human factors appropriate to intersection design ................................ 7-1
Table 7-2: Vehicle characteristics applicable to design of channelised intersections ........... 7-2
Table 7-3: Features contributing to accidents at intersections and remedial measures........ 7-3
Table 7-4: Typical maximum traffic volumes for priority intersections................................... 7-7
Table 7-5: Minimum radii for location of intersections on curves .......................................... 7-8
Table 7-6: Recommended minimum intersection separations ............................................ 7-11
Table 7-7: Intersection Sight Distance for Level Pavement ................................................. 7-15
Table 7-8: Grade corrections to ASD and SISD ................................................................. 7-16
Table 7-9: Gap acceptance time ........................................................................................ 7-18
Table 7-10: Table of Distances for various speeds (m) ...................................................... 7-19
Table 7-11: Minimum median length L (m) ........................................................................ 7-21
Table 7-12: Minimum median width W (m) ......................................................................... 7-21
Table 7-13: Minimum curve corner radii and carriageway width ......................................... 7-26
Table 7-14: Tapers for Islands ........................................................................................... 7-28
Table 7-15: Direct Taper Length ........................................................................................ 7-28
Table 7-16: Deceleration Length (m) for Ghost Island and Single Lane Dualling .................... 7-29
Table 7-17: Deceleration Length (m) for dual carriageway ................................................. 7-29
Table 7-18: Merging length ................................................................................................ 7-30
Table 7-19: Minimum Central Island Diameters of Single Lane Roundabouts.................... 7-39
Table 7-20: Minimum Central Island Diameters of Two Lane Roundabouts ....................... 7-39
i
Table 7-21: Visibility requirement ....................................................................................... 7-44

Table 7-22: Roundabouts advantage/disadvantage ........................................................... 7-46
Figure 7-1: Junction Manoeuvres ......................................................................................... 7-3

Figure 7-2: Approximate Level of Provision of T-junctions ................................................... 7-4
Figure 7-3: Typical intersection types ................................................................................... 7-6
Figure 7-4: Capacity of Minor Road Flows ........................................................................... 7-7
Figure 7-5: Intersection control cases ................................................................................ 7-10
Figure 7-6: Typical Reverse curves arrangement showing Short Straight necessary in an
Urban Environment ............................................................................................................ 7-12
Figure 7-7: Desirable and Minimum Arrangements for a Curved Approach in a Rural
Environment ....................................................................................................................... 7-13
Figure 7-8: Measurement of Safe Intersection Sight Distance ........................................... 7-15
Figure 7-9: Isolated median ............................................................................................... 7-20
Figure 7-10: Painted median treatment .............................................................................. 7-22
Figure 7-11: Detailed Island Offsets ................................................................................... 7-24
Figure 7-12: Compound curve design ................................................................................ 7-25
Figure 7-13: Major / Minor Priority Junction with a Ghost Island ........................................ 7-25
Figure 7-14: Major / Minor Priority Junctions with Single Lane Dualling ............................. 7-26
Figure 7-15: Dual Carriageway Major/Minor Priority Junction ............................................ 7-27
Figure 7-16: Minor road approaches .................................................................................. 7-27
Figure 7-17: Taper development ........................................................................................ 7-28
Figure 7-18: Major / Minor Priority Junctions with Nearside Diverging Taper ..................... 7-28
Figure 7-19: Major/Minor Priority Junction with Nearside Auxiliary Lane ............................ 7-29
Figure 7-20: Major / Minor Priority Junction with Nearside Merging Taper ......................... 7-30
Figure 7-21: Major/Minor Priority Junction with Nearside Merging Taper ........................... 7-30
Figure 7-22: : Major / Minor Priority Junction with Skew Minor Road ................................. 7-31
Figure 7-23: Typical Urban Separation Island for Pedestrian crossing ............................... 7-33
Figure 7-24: Single lane or compact roundabout in Urban area ......................................... 7-36
Figure 7-25: Multilane roundabout with legs aligned at 90 degrees.................................... 7-37
Figure 7-26: Configuration of Left-Turn Slip Lane with a High Entry Angle ........................ 7-38
Figure 7-27: Configuration of Left-Turn Slip Lane with Acceleration Lane .......................... 7-38
Figure 7-28: Inscribed circle diameter (ICD) ....................................................................... 7-40
Figure 7-29: Approach half width and entry........................................................................ 7-42
Figure 7-30: Entry Angle .................................................................................................... 7-42
Figure 7-31: Determination of entry path radius ................................................................. 7-43
Figure 7-32: Measurement of stopping sight distance in curved approach ......................... 7-44
Figure 7-33: Forward visibility required at Entry ................................................................. 7-44
Figure 7-34: Pedestrian crossing at roundabout ................................................................ 7-45
Figure 7-35: Primary motor vehicle conflicts ...................................................................... 7-47
Figure 7-36: Protected right turn stage sequence .............................................................. 7-48
Figure 7-37: Right turn lanes with protected right turn........................................................ 7-49
Figure 7-38: Right turn lanes with permissive right turn ................................................ 7-49
Figure 7-39: Visibility requirements on intersection approach ............................................ 7-49
Figure 7-40: Intervisibility zone without pedestrian crossing ........................................ 7-50
Figure 7-41: Right turn lane design .................................................................................... 7-51
Figure 7-42: Ghost island layout ................................................................................... 7-51
Figure 7-43: Sight shadow design problem at permissive right turns ............................ 7-51
Figure 7-44: Lane drop design principles ...................................................................... 7-52
Figure 7-45: Left turn slip lane with taper to facilitate large vehicles ............................. 7-52
Figure 7-46: Combinations of tapers and corner radii ................................................... 7-53
Figure 7-47: Examples of swept path checks ............................................................... 7-54
Figure 7-48: Signal location advice ............................................................................... 7-54
Figure 7-49: Primary signal location advice .................................................................. 7-55
Figure 7-50: Alternative signal locations for right turn lanes.......................................... 7-55
Figure 7-51: Desirable signal spacing ........................................................................... 7-56
Figure 7-52: Traffic signal island and pedestrian refuge ............................................... 7-57
Figure 7-53: Example of a signal-controlled intersection with a staggered pedestrian
crossing 7-57
ii
7 AT GRADE INTERSECTION DESIGN
7.1 Introduction
The design of an at-grade intersection requires understanding of the principles of
both traffic and highway engineering. The operation of an intersection is influenced
by its capacity, queue lengths and delays, accident potential, vehicle operating
characteristics and traffic control. The physical layout of an intersection is defined by
its horizontal and vertical alignment, roadway cross-sections, diameter, entry angles,
surface texture and drainage.
The successful integration of all these factors is required for good design, which must
overcome the potential safety and operational conflicts that are inherent when traffic
streams interact at intersections.
Although some guidance on capacity and traffic control is offered, the focus of this
chapter is on application of the geometric principles that govern the physical layout
and location of an intersection.
7.2 Design Principles
7.2.1 General
The unique characteristic of intersections is that vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles
travelling in many directions, must share a common area, often at the same time.
The mitigation of the resulting conflicts is a major objective of intersection design.
This conflict resolution is, in turn, influenced by construction and maintenance costs,
environmental factors and the ease of implementation.
Table 7-1: Values of human factors appropriate to intersection design

Human factor Design values Design
elements
affected
Perception/reaction time 2.0-4.0 seconds Intersection sight distance
Gap acceptance 5.5-7.5 seconds Intersection sight distance
Driver height of eye 1.15 metres Sight distance
Pedestrian walking speeds 1-1.5 metres/second Pedestrian facilities
7.2.2 Elements Affecting Design
Human factors drivers

The driver's response, discussed in sub-section 3.2.1, is a major factor in intersection
design. The recommended perception and reaction time of 2,5 seconds is normally
used as an input to models determining intersection sight distance. However,
because of heightened awareness at controlled intersections, circumstances may
indicate a lower acceptable value of 2,0 seconds at busy urban intersections. The
concept of driver expectancy is crucial in the evaluation of drivers' response and
tasks within intersections.
7-1
Human factors Pedestrians/Cyclists

Pedestrians are a diverse group of people representing all parts of society with a
wide range of abilities. All age groups are represented and all road users are at one
time or another, pedestrians. Almost all trips start and end with a walking component,
at which times the driver or public transport user becomes a pedestrian. Sufficient
consideration of pedestrian behaviour shall be considered in the intersection design.
The following affects the size and type of facility for intersection at grade:
• Presence of road users and pedestrians at potential points of conflict
• Time and location of high levels of pedestrian and cyclist activity
• Guides for drivers and pedestrians to minimise points of conflict
• requirement for special facilities for control of driver and pedestrian movements
• requirement for clear paths for all users
• requirements for mobility impaired road users
Vehicle Characteristics
The size and manoeuvrability of vehicles is a governing factor in intersection design,
particularly when channelisation features are being selected. Because of the
importance of vehicle characteristics in the operation of an intersection, the selection
of an appropriate vehicle, as described in sub-section 3.4.4, will influence the
elements in the above table. In selecting an appropriate vehicle, the designer should
carefully evaluate the expected traffic mix in context. Various vehicle characteristics
and their influence on the design of channelised intersections are described in Table
7-.2.
Table 7-2: Vehicle characteristics applicable to design of channelised intersections

Vehicle Characteristics Intersection Design Elements Affected
Physical Characteristics:
Length Lengths of storage lanes
Width Widths of lanes
Widths of turning roadways
Height Placement of overhead signals and signs
Wheelbase Nose placement
Corner radius
Widths of turning roadways
Operational characteristics
Acceleration capability Acceleration tapers and lane lengths
Gap acceptance
Deceleration and braking capability Lengths of deceleration lanes and tapers
Stopping sight distance
Environmental Influences
7-2
The type of highway and area, surrounding landuse and the prevailing climate all
have an influence on the type of design selected. Flexibility of approach is essential
and the concepts as outlined in Chapter 2 should be applied
7.2.3 Traffic Manoeuvres and Conflicts

Typical manoeuvres that result in vehicle conflict at intersections are:
• Crossing;
• Merging;
• Diverging; and
• Weaving.
Figure 7-1: Junction Manoeuvres
Diverging and merging may be either to the left or right, mutual or multiple. Crossings
may be direct, if the angle of skew is between 750 and 1200, or oblique if the angle is
in the range of 600 to 750. Oblique skews should be avoided if at all possible. If the
angle of skew is less than 600, the possibility of replacing the skew by a staggered
intersection should be considered. Angles of skew greater than 1200 should be
replaced by relocation of the intersection to an angle of skew closer to 900.
Weaving is a combination of merging and diverging traffic moving in the same

direction. It may be simple or complex.
The conflict at intersections created by the various manoeuvres leads to a unique set
of operational characteristics. Understanding these is central to intersection designs
and the most important characteristics are safety and capacity. Traffic volumes are
the most important determinant of intersection accidents. This is not surprising as the
accident potential caused by conflict increases as traffic on the approach legs
increases.
The type of traffic control also influences accidents. More rear-end and sideswipe
accidents tend to occur at signalised intersections than at other types of control. Stop
and Give Way controls tend to increase the frequency of crossing accidents. Table
7.3 lists many of the condition that can lead to accidents and also the geometric and
control measures that are used to mitigate the number and severity of accidents.
Table 7-3: Features contributing to accidents at intersections and remedial
7-3
measures
Geometric features or conditions contributing to Traffic engineering actions that reduce accident
adverse accident experience at intersections experience or severity
Poor approach sight distance Addition/installation of exclusive turning
movements-lanes Speed management?
Poor corner sight distance Upgrading of traffic control scheme
Steep grades at intersections Improvement of sight distance
Inappropriate traffic control ? Lack of conspicuity Installation of lighting
particularly at night
Multiple approaches Removal of fixed objects
Presence of curves within intersection Increasing of corner radii
Number of adjacent driveways or access Application of channelisation
points Inappropriate curb radii Improved signage
Narrow lanes Removal of clutter signs, and removal of
hawkers
Poor drainage and skid resistance Improve drainage paths and roughen surface
7.2.4 Capacity
To operate successfully, an intersection should be able to handle peak traffic
demands. The analysis of capacity is based on the operational characteristics of
conflicting vehicles separated by the time constraints imposed by traffic control
devices and geometric constraints. The measuring and forecasting of traffic flows
and capacity analysis is a specialized subject and designers should refer to the
manuals and references commonly used. Commonly used software programmes are
OSCADY for Signal Control and ASCADY and PICADY are used for roundabout and
priority junctions respectively. The following is a brief summary of capacity as it
relates to design.
Minor Road Flow (2-way AADT)
8000 Roundabout (or other type)
7000
6000 Single Lane Dualing
5000
Ghost Island
4000
Simple
3000
2000
1000
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Major Road Flow (2-way AADT)
Figure 7-2: Approximate Level of Provision of T-junctions
Signalised intersections
The idealised flow rate through an intersection is known as the saturation flow rate
per hour of green time. Initial driver reaction, vehicle acceleration and the behaviour
of following vehicles will all affect this flow rate. The capacity of an approach or leg of
an intersection is proportional to the green time for that approach within the signal
cycle in accordance with the following equation:
7-4
C = s x g/c
where C = capacity (veh/h)
s = saturation flow (veh/h)
g/c = the ratio of green time to signal cycle time.
The important factors affecting saturation flow are:

• Number of lanes;
• Widths of lanes;
• Proportion of heavy vehicles;
• Gradients in excess of 3%;
• On-street parking;
• Pedestrian activity; and
• Type and phasing of signals
• Side friction
The critical factors are the total number of lanes and the need for exclusive turning
lanes at each approach.
Unsignalised intersections
The capacity of the major road at Stop- and Give Way-controlled intersections is not
affected by the presence of the intersection. The capacity of the minor road is
dependent on the distribution of gaps in the major road traffic and the gap
acceptance of the minor road traffic. Gap acceptance is dependent on the
reaction/response time, vehicle acceleration and vehicle length. Gap acceptance
times used in determining capacity are usually somewhat shorter than those used to
compute intersection sight distance as described in Section 6.4.
Factors affecting capacity include:

• Operational speed of the major road;
• Intersection sight distance; also visibility from minor roads
• Radii of turning roadways;
• Intersection layout and number of lanes;
• Type of area; and
• Proportion of heavy vehicles
The critical factors are intersection sight distance and the number and arrangement
of traffic lanes.
7.2.5 Intersection Types and Selection
There are four basic types or classes of intersection: three-legged T or Y, staggered-

T and Y intersections, four legged intersections with a defined crossing path; multi-
legged intersections; and roundabouts, with the last-mentioned encompassing all
three of the previous types. These are illustrated in Figure 7-3. The designer's
selection of the basic intersections type is normally predicated on the design context,
as intersections can vary greatly in scope, shape, degree of channelisation and traffic
control measures. An example for choice of T-junction for single carriageway roads
can be selected from Figure 7.3.
Important factors to be considered in the selection of an intersection type are:
7-5
• Cost of construction;
• Type of area;
• Land use and land availability;
• Functional classes of the intersecting roads;
• Approach speeds;
• Proportion of traffic on each approach and
• Volumes to be accommodated.
Careful consideration of these factors, together with the warrants for selecting
appropriate traffic control devices, will lead to an appropriate choice or to a limited
number of alternatives from which to make the final selection.
Figure 7-3: Typical intersection types
Table 7.4 below is a guide to the maximum traffic volumes that these intersections
can accommodate. When volumes exceed the above, the capacity of the intersection
should be analysed in detail which may lead to a choice of adopting grade separated
junction instead. Figure 7-4 also provides information regarding capacity of minor and
major road flows.
7-6
Table 7-4: Typical maximum traffic volumes for priority intersections

Road Type Design volume (two-way veh/h)
Major road 500 1 000 1 500
Minor road 500 250 100
Minor road flow P.C.U/hr
Major Road Flow P.C.U/hr
Figure 7-4: Capacity of Minor Road Flows
7-7
7.2.6 Location of Intersections
The fact that safety at intersections is the most important requirement for any road
network, it follows that their location deserves serious attention by the designer. It is
necessary to minimise both the likelihood of crashes occurring and the
consequences of the crashes that do occur. There are thus various constraints for
the location of intersections that should be considered. The need for drivers to
distinguish and perform the manoeuvres necessary to pass safely through an
intersection demands that decision sight distance be available on the major road
approaches. The driver on the minor road requires adequate intersection sight
distance either side, in order either to merge with traffic on the major road or to cross
safely. It may be necessary to modify the alignment of either the major or the minor
road, or both, to ensure that adequate sight distance is available. If this is not
possible, the designer shall come up with other options such as:
• relocate the intersection;
• provide stop control; or
• grade separated interchange
The location of an intersection on a curve can create problems for the drivers on both
legs of the minor road. Drivers on the minor road leg on the inside of the curve will
have difficulty in seeing approaching traffic because this traffic will be partly behind
them. Furthermore, there is a possibility that a portion of the sight triangle may fall
outside the limits of the road reserve, which could hamper efforts to obtain a clear
line of sight for the driver on the minor road. Table 7.5 provides minimum radii for
location of intersections on curves.
Drivers on the outside of a curve typically have little or no difficulty in seeing

opposing vehicles on the major road.
Table 7-5: Minimum radii for location of intersections on curves
Design speed (km/h) Radius (m)

40 250
50 375
60 550
70 750
80 1000
90 1220
100 1500
110 1850
120 2200
130 2600
Further Limitations for the location of at-grade intersections are detailed in the
following section on spacing.
7-8
7.2.7 Spacing of Intersections
The minimum distance between consecutive junctions for rural roads shall preferably be
equal to (10 x VD -) metres where VD is the major road design speed in km/h .
Where it is impossible to provide this minimum spacing, then the design shall be considered
a departure from standard and-shall incorporate either, or both, of the following:-
i. A distance between minor road centrelines equal to the passing sight distance
appropriate for the main road Design Speed plus half the length of the widened
major road sections at each junction, or
ii. A grouping of minor road junctions into pairs to form staggered T-junctions and a
distance between pairs as in (i) above
In urban areas designers seldom have any influence on the spacing of roadways in a
network as it is largely predicated by the original or developed land use.
Nevertheless, the spacing of intersections impacts significantly on the operation,
level of service and capacity of a roadway. It follows that intersection type and
spacing is usually based on road function and traffic volume, as well as whether
unsignalised or signalised intersections are provided. In road classes where access
is restricted, it may be necessary to eliminate entry from minor roads to the major.
For example Figure 7-5 illustrates three types of access controlled Urban junctions.
These are:
• Full access, which allows for all possible movements at an intersection
or access;
• Partial access, which allows left-in, left out and right-in movements to
and from a development or access road; and
• Marginal access, which allows only left in and/or left-out movements to
and from a development or access road.
Guidance on separation of junctions is given in Table 7-6.
7.2.8 Channelisation
The intersection treatments may be:

• plain
• flared
• channelised (including roundabouts)
• unsignalised or signalised
The layout of intersections in urban or rural areas will be highly dependent on the
pattern of the road system, the volumes and directions of the traffic using the
intersection, and the constraints of the site and surrounding development. Options
must be developed for the conditions prevailing at the particular site. A channelised
intersection is one where conflicting vehicle travel paths are separated by raised,
depressed, or painted medians and/or islands. Additional turning lanes are often
used in conjunction with channelisation.
7-9
a). Full access
Left-in/ Left-out/ Right-in only
b). Partial access
Left-in/ Left-out only
c). Marginal access
Figure 7-5: Intersection control cases
7-10
Table 7-6: Recommended minimum intersection separations

Design speed (km/h) Upstream access class
Unsignalised marginal (m) All other access types (m)
40 20 80
50 35 110
60 50 130
70 70 175
80 100 200
100 170 300
120 250 350
The purpose of channlisation is to achieve safe and efficient operation by managing

the conflicts that are inherent to intersections and has particular application in the
following areas:
• intersections at odd angles (Y Junctions, skewed cross roads), or multi leg

intersections
• sites where turning traffic movements are particularly heavy
• locations where the safety record of an intersection is shown to be susceptible to
particular accident types, such as opposing side swipe and head on crashes, right
turn opposing, and high speed, rear end collisions
• sites where a refuge area for pedestrians is desirable
• sites where unusual manoeuvres are occurring, or where unwanted movements
are to be eliminated
A channelised layout may be the only solution appropriate at some sites. These
include some multi-lane divided roads, and sites where it is necessary to provide
positive protection of the furniture (signs, traffic signal posts, lighting columns etc.)
associated with the form of traffic control adopted.
Channelised intersections always require good sight distance to the starting point of
the median (especially raised). The median or island may have to be extended over a
crest or around a horizontal curve to meet this requirement. A few large islands are
always preferable to a large number of small islands . Preferred practice is to have a
minimum area of 8m² for each island in urban areas.
Where traffic volumes are high, the number of approach lanes, including auxilliary
lanes, will increase and channelisation (in some form) is required.
7.3 Geometry of Approaches at Intersection
7.3.1 General
The design of the preferred intersection option starts with the alignment of the
approach legs of the intersection. Designers should take care in the planning and
evaluation phases to ensure as far as practicable that all issues are identified at that
time. A level of interaction with the requirements of this part of the process could help
in avoiding surprises at the start of the detailed design.
7-11
7.3.2 Angle of Intersection

The angle of intersection of two roadways influences both the operation and safety of
an intersection. Large skews increase the pavement area and thus the area of
possible conflict. Operationally they are undesirable because:
• Crossing vehicles and pedestrians are exposed for longer periods;
• The driver's sight angle is more constrained and gap perception becomes more
difficult;
• Vehicular movements are more difficult and large trucks require more pavement
area;
• Defining vehicle paths by channelisation is more difficult.
• For new intersections the crossing angle should preferably be at 90O or in the
range 75° to 120°. The absolute minimum angle of skew is 60° because drivers,
particularly of trucks with closed cabs, have difficulty at this angle of skew in
seeing vehicles approaching from their left.
7.3.3 Horizontal Geometry

Road centre lines are to be designed to intersect as close to 90° as possible; simple
layouts are preferred, or in the range given in Section 7.3.2 above. The best site for
an intersection is in a sag vertical curve, with a straight alignment on each approach
leg. Where this is not possible it is desirable that the horizontal alignment for the
major movements should be as constant as possible (i.e. either straight or curved
through the intersection). This is particularly important at wide intersections to
maintain good lane discipline.
Careful attention to the design of the approach legs in a high-speed environment is

required. It is important to provide treatments on the .minor. leg to reduce the
approach speed thereby reducing the potential relative speed of the approaching
vehicles. This may involve applying reverse curves on the approach. Locating
intersections on the inside of small radius curves should be avoided unless adequate
sight distance can be provided on all legs. Specific detailing may be required to
ensure this happens.
Where curved horizontal alignments are involved it is inevitable that some reverse
curvature will have to be provided. This creates many difficulties, particularly with
crossfall.
In urban environments a short length of straight, with a minimum 10 to 15m in length,

should be provided between reverse curves. This provides approximately one to two
seconds of travel allowing the driver to reverse the steering wheel. See Figure 7-6
Figure 7-6: Typical Reverse curves arrangement showing Short Straight necessary in
an Urban Environment
7-12
In rural situations a curved approach requires a length of straight to allow for plan,
and/or cross fall transition. The desirable and minimum requirements are illustrated in
Figure 7-7. If these requirements cannot be met, the length of straight in the side
road should be extended. This will depend on the grade of the through road.
Source Mainroads,2002
Figure 7-7: Desirable and Minimum Arrangements for a Curved Approach in a Rural
Environment
7.3.4 Vertical Alignment

Designers should take care to avoid situations where sight distance is impaired when
locating intersections. Where less than desirable situations arise, remedial treatment
is required to ensure that the intersection will operate safely. These situations are
described below : .
• Near Crests: If an intersection must be located within a crest vertical curve, it
should be on the top of the crest (not either side) and, preferably, on a straight
horizontal alignment.
• In Cuttings: Large volumes of additional excavation can result if adequate sight
distance is to be provided for through and entering traffic.
• On high embankments: Large quantities of fill may be required to obtain the
required geometry.
• Where one or more of the legs have a steep upgrade to the intersection: This
results in both sight distance and operational problems. Upgrades greater than
3% on the minor approach to an intersection are undesirable, especially where
traffic has to stop before entering. Where such approach grades are necessary,
preferred practice is to grade the road for a minimum distance of 10m from the
kerb line or edge line, at 3% or less. . Where a leg of an intersection is on the
outside of a superelevated curve, a similar requirement applies. At some sites a
short length of median may assist by drawing the attention of drivers to the
intersection ahead.
• Where a road is identified as a key cycling route, a cycle lane treatment on the
uphill leg(s) may be appropriate to account for side-to-side movement of the
7-13
bicycle and the large speed differential uphill. A bicycle lane is also desirable, on
the downhill leg(s).
7.3.5 Intersection Sight Distance

The provision of adequate sight distances and appropriate traffic controls is essential
for safe intersection operation as intersection performance is dependent upon
adequate horizontal and vertical sight distance for all entering traffic. Sight lines are
often required at large angles to the users’ normal view point. The driver may have to
look through the side windows; pedestrians may be required to make observations
over an arc of 180° (or more). Additionally the paths travelled are often significantly
curved which means that stopping distances (measured along the travel path) are
more difficult to determine.
Intersection location is influenced by available sight distance. Both horizontal and

vertical sight lines must be taken into account to check for disruption by natural
objects, (eg. trees), and structures, (eg. fences and buildings). Illustrations are given
in Figure 7-8 for details required to check the sight distances for all intersections.
Specific requirements are also given in Tables 7-8 to 7-9.
The following four parameters of sight distances shall be checked
a. Approach sight distance

The approaching driver must be able to understand intersection geometry and
pavement markings in order to negotiate the intersection, or stop whichever is
required. Approach Sight Distance, appropriate to the approach speed, should be
provided on each leg. It is measured between a point 1.15m (the assumed eye height
of a light vehicle driver above the travelled way) and zero (pavement surface). See
Table 7-7 for recommended values.
b. Safe intersection sight distance (SISD)

Safe intersection sight distance is the minimum sight distance which should be
available from vehicles on intersection legs with priority to vehicles which could
emerge from non signalized legs. SISD comprises stopping sight distance plus three
seconds of travel time (observation time). This provides sufficient distance for a
driver on an approach with priority to observe a vehicle entering from a side street,
decelerate and stop prior to a point of conflict. It also provides sufficient sight
distance to see an articulated vehicle, which has properly commenced a manoeuvre
from a leg without priority, but still creating an obstruction because of its length. This
requirement provides sufficient distance for an articulated vehicle to cross the non-
terminating movement on two lane two way roads, or undertake two-stage crossings
of dual carriageways with design speeds of 80km/h or more. SISD is viewed between
two points 1.15m above the road surface. One point is the driver’s eye height on the
leg with priority and the other represents the height of a vehicle in the side street,
5.0m (minimum of 3.0m) from the edge line projection. Refer to Figure 7-8
7-14
Source from Mainroads,2002

Figure 7-8: Measurement of Safe Intersection Sight Distance
Table 7-7: Intersection Sight Distance for Level Pavement

Design Dece- Entering ASD - Approach Sight SISD - Safe Intersection Sight
Speed leration Sight Distance (1.15m to 0.0m) Distance (1.15m to 1.15m)
(g)(1) Distance
(km/h) Absolute Desirable Absolute Desirable
minimum 2.5 secs(5) minimum 2.5 secs(5)
2.0 secs(5) 2.0 secs(5)
(m2) min R(4) (m2) min R(4) 2
(m ) min R(4) (m2) min R(4)
40 0.56 100 33 500 39 800 66 500 72 600
50 0.52 125 47 1100 54 1400 89 900 96 1100
60 0.48 160 63 1900 71 2500 113 1500 121 1700
70 0.45 220 82 3200 91 4000 140 2300 149 2700
80 0.43 305 103 5100 114 6300 170 3400 181 3900
90 0.41 400 128 7800 140 9400 203 4900 215 5500
100 0.39 500 157 11700 170 13900 240 6900 253 7600
110 0.37 500 190 17200 205 20000 282 9400 297 10500
120 0.35 500 229 25000 245 28600 329 12900 345 14200
NOTES:
1. Average deceleration adopted, given in terms of acceleration due to gravity
(g).
2. For grade corrections to ASD and SISD, See Table 7-8.
3. Limiting values of Entering Sight Distance (ESD) based on the assumption
that drivers are unlikely to seek gaps greater than 500m.
7-15
4. Vertical curve radius (m).

5. Reaction times.
Table 7-8: Grade corrections to ASD and SISD

Design Correction
Speed Upgrade Downgrade
(km/h) 2% 4% 6 8% 2% 4% 6% 8%
40 - - -1 -1 - - 1 2
50 - -1 -2 -3 - 2 3 4
60 -1 -2 -3 -4 1 3 4 6
70 -2 -4 -5 -7 2 4 7 9
80 -3 -5 -7 -9 3 6 10 13
90 -4 -7 -10 -13 4 8 13 19
100 -5 -9 -14 -17 6 12 18 26
110 -7 -13 -18 -23 7 16 25 36
120 -9 -17 -24 -30 10 21 34 48
NOTES:- Corrected stopping distances should be rounded conservatively to the
nearest 5 metres.
c. Minimum Gap Sight Distance (MGSD)
MGSD requires vehicles to be oriented so that drivers are able to see traffic which
will conflict with the intended manoeuvre (both at the front and to the side or rear
simultaneously) and judge whether there is a gap of sufficient length to make the
manoeuvre.
For left turns the sighting angles are restricted to a maximum of 120°, or between
160° to 180° for the left turn merge. For right turns the sighting angles are restricted
to a maximum of 110°, or between 170° to 180° for the right turn merge.
The sight distance required for an entering vehicle to see a gap in the conflicting
streams sufficient to safely commence its desired manoeuvre is dependent upon:
(a) length of the gap being sought (gap acceptance time ta),
(b) the observation angle to approaching traffic
MGSD is measured from the point of conflict (between approaching and entering
vehicles) back along the centre of the travel lane of the approaching vehicle. This is
shown as.‘gap’. in the sketch diagram in Table 7-9 below.. It is measured from a
point 1.15m (drivers eye height) to a point 0.6m (object height typically the traffic
indicator) above the travelled way.
• Gap acceptance time will vary according to:

• type of manoeuvre - left turn/right turn/ crossing;
• width of carriageway - increased time required for greater widths;
• one way or two way traffic flows – increased time required to look both ways;
• type and speed of vehicles, (for example, large heavy vehicles; the presence of
bicycles).
7-16
Gap acceptance times for various manoeuvres into, from and across various through
carriageway widths for both one way and two way traffic are given in Table 7-9 and
corresponding distances in Table 7-10. Table 7-9 should be read in conjunction with
Figure 7-4.
7-17
Table 7-9: Gap acceptance time
7-18
Table 7-10: Table of Distances for various speeds (m)

85th percentile Speed (km/h) of approaching
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
4 11 22 33 44 55 67 78 89 100 111 122
Gap 5 14 28 42 55 69 83 97 111 125 139 153
Acceptanc 6 17 33 50 67 83 100 117 133 150 167 183
Time (ta) 7 19 39 58 78 97 117 136 155 175 194 214
(secs) 8 22 44 67 89 111 133 155 178 200 222 244
9 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275
10 28 56 83 111 139 167 194 222 250 278 305
7.3.6 Islands and Medians

Medians separate opposing traffic flow; Islands separate traffic flowing in the same
direction. Medians and islands can be raised, depressed, or defined by markings on
the pavement. Medians and islands defined in paint of various types, or depressed,
have the same degree of legal control as raised installations, i.e. they should not be
crossed by traffic. However, they do not have the same degree of physical control or
attract attention as much as raised installations. Therefore raised medians and
islands are generally preferred.
Islands at intersections should be designed to suit turning paths of design vehicles

and maintain continuity of the major road through the intersection.
Raised medians are defined using semi-mountable or non-mountable kerbs. (See

Chapter 10). Depressed medians can also be outlined using kerbs. The use of such
kerbs has the following advantages:
a. physically restricts turning or crossing movements;
b. guides traffic around signposting and traffic signal hardware;
c. defines refuge areas for pedestrians acting as a deterrent to vehicles;
d. provides positive guidance for turning and through vehicles
The following types of kerb are in general use in Kenya:
1. Half battered/non-mountable kerbs: This kerb has a high upstand that is

intended to prevent vehicles from mounting it. It is used to separate the
vehicle running surface from pedestrian or no parking areas and should be
provided where footpaths or cycle tracks are adjacent to the trafficked lane.
2. Mountable: The low profile mountable kerb is intended to allow a vehicle to

mount it with ease without damage to the vehicle or the kerb. This type of
kerb is suitable for use at intersections where turning radii are relatively small
and it is acceptable that vehicles will occasionally cross the line of the kerb.
3. Flush/block or Channels: These consist of plane channel blocks

approximately 100 x 125mm in size. This type of kerb is intended to
demarcate the edge of the running surface or shoulder and protect the edge
of the pavement construction without preventing vehicles or NMT from
crossing it. It would be used where vehicles commonly leave the carriageway
or in conjunction with an upstand kerb as part of a drainage channel. The use
of flush concrete blocks to demarcate the edge of cycle tracks or footpaths is
7-19
usually expensive and their economic justification needs to be considered

carefully
Semi-mountable kerbs are usually used but, in some cases, a non-mountable type
may be appropriate (e.g. near traffic signal posts). However, kerbs are an obstruction
on the road, so they must be highly visible and have properly designed approach
delineation, eg paint lines and reflectors. Consequently, there are restrictions on the
length, area and offset from the edge of lanes for medians and islands. These are the
following are types of medians and island:
a. Raised medians
b. Painted medians
c. Raised islands
d. Painted islands
a. Raised medians
A typical isolated raised median is illustrated in Figure 7-9
Figure 7-9: Isolated median
The following clearances are considered desirable for raised medians:

• Edge of lane at lit intersection, speed zoned 80km/h or less: 0.0m
• Edge of lane at lit intersection, more than 80km/h: 0.5m
• Edge of lane at unlit intersection, 80 km/h or less: 0.5m
• Edge of lane at unlit intersection, more than 80 km/h: 1.0m
• Non-mountable and mountable kerb, single lane: 5.5m
• Painted island, single lane: 3.0m
• Safety barrier, single lane: 5.5m
These clearances may need to be increased for small radius turns. Turning path
tracking widths using AutoTrack or similar software should be used as a check.
Recommended minimum lengths and widths are given in Tables 7-11 and 7-12
respectively.
7-20
Table 7-11: Minimum median length L (m)

Speed Length
(km/h) (m)
60 10
80 20
100 40
Table 7-12: Minimum median width W (m)

Conditions Desirable Absolute
Minimum Minimum
Width Width
No signs, signals or 0.6 0.3*
pedestrians
Size A signs, no signs but 1.2 0.9

some pedestrians, signal
posts
Single 200mm lanterns 2.4 1.2
Dual 200mm lanterns 2.4 1.5
Pedestrian Refuge/Size B signs 2.0 1.25
* Painted medians only.
b. Painted medians
Painted medians can be used in the following situations:-
• approaches to a raised or depressed median;
• where an intersection is unlit;
• where the resultant width between kerbs would be too narrow for a raised median
Minimum Dimensions for Painted Medians The minimum length of a painted median
at an intersection should be in accordance with Table 7-10. This length excludes any
transition between the median width and centreline road marking.
Treatment for various widths of painted median is shown in Figure 7-10. The
minimum width is 0.3m.
Desirable Clearances to Painted Medians Clearances from outer edge of painted

median line to:-
• Offside edge of lane lit or unlit, speed zone of 100 km/h, or less:0.0m
• Barrier kerb, single lane: 5.5m
• Mountable kerb, single lane 5.5m
• Painted island, single lane: 3.0m
• Safety barrier, single lane. 5.5m
7-21
W=0.5m, B=1m@45deg
W = 150m
S </ 2xB
B </ 600m
For long medians, gaps (S) range from 5-20m
with an appropriate increase in bar width if
required.
NOTES:
1. Diagonal rows of raised reflective pavement marker within the marked median
should be considered as alternatives to raised reflective pavement markers
along the outline. The two sets of will not normally be required together.
2. Diagonal markers to be placed centrally between diagonal painted markings in
every second space.
3. Markers to be white bi-directional.
Figure 7-10: Painted median treatment
Details of markings and raised reflective pavement marking are to be in accordance

with the Design Manual, Part 5 Traffic Control Devices b) Road Marking,
c. Raised islands
For definition purposes raised islands should have a minimum area as follows:-
• urban - 8.0m² (unsignalised)
• urban - 25.0m² (signalised)
• rural – 40 to 50.0m²
In addition, the size of the island should be sufficient to accommodate the expected
group of pedestrians that may accumulate on the island waiting for their crossing
opportunity. This will require analysis of pedestrian volumes.
7-22
Dimensions of raised islands are site specific. At signalised sites, where pedestrian
and cyclist crossings are to be provided, the side of the island abutting the crossing
should be a minimum of 10.0m long. Islands must be large enough to accommodate
all of the necessary equipment and treatments
A clearance of 0.5m from a face of kerb to signal lantern target board is required
(from both sides).
Desirable Clearances to Raised Islands from point CP (see details of Kerbs on

design manual for traffic furniture’s) to:-
• Edge of lane at lit intersection, speed zoned 80km/h or less: 0.0m
• Edge of lane at unlit intersection, speed zoned more than 80 km/h: 0.5m
• Barrier kerb, single lane: 5.5m.
• Mountable kerb, single lane: 5.5m
• Painted median, single lane: 3.0m
• Safety barrier, single lane: 5.5m
These minimum clearances may need to be increased for small radius turns. Turning
paths have to be used to check the layout for such turns.
Offsets from the edge of traffic lanes to raised islands should be considered for
different cases. These offsets are to the edge line and must be provided even if the
minimum clearances have been met. Offsets vary from 0.3m to 2.0m depending on
the geometric features of the island as shown (see Figure 7-11)
Intersections are areas of high conflict and are difficult for bicycles to traverse. It is
important to consider the needs of cyclists in traversing intersection and provide
0.6m offsets from the edge of lane to kerb faces (see Figure 7-11). It may be possible
to provide specific pathways through the intersection by means of a differently
coloured pavement surface for the bike path. This differentiation is generally
respected by both motorists and cyclists, producing a more comfortable result for
both users.
Kerbed islands can also cause adverse issues for pedestrians if they are not
provided with ramps/dropped kerbs at preferred crossing points.
7-23
Figure 7-11: Detailed Island Offsets
d. Painted islands
Painted islands can be used in the following cases

where:-
• an intersection is unlit;
• the resultant width between kerbs would be too narrow for a raised median.
Where the area in the approach to a median or island is too small to accommodate
standard edging, the area should be fully painted, with the edges offset 200mm from
the edges outline. Refer to KRBDmanual Part 5B) Road Markings for details.
7.3.7 Corner Radii

It is recommended that the minimum circular corner radius at simple junctions should
be 6m in urban areas and 10m in rural areas if no provision is made for large goods
vehicles. Where provision is to be made for large goods vehicles, the recommended
circular corner radius is:-
a. 10m at urban simple junctions,
b. 15m at rural simple junctions,
c. 15m at ghost island junctions,
d. 15m at simple staggered junctions
e. 20m radius in all other circumstances.
Where large goods vehicles comprise a significant proportion of the turning

movements, use of the compound curve shown in Figure 7-12 is recommended.
7-24
Figure 7-12: Compound curve design
7.3.8 Other Geometric Features
Various geometric features that appear at an at-grade intersection are:-
• Carriageway widths: such as minor road approaches, widths around curves

• Tapers:, ghost island taper, physical island tapers
• Diverging tapers and lanes
• Merging tapers
A detailed geometry for different types of at grade-intersection are illustrated in

Figures 7-13 to 7-23 and applicable dimensions are also given in respective tables.
a Turning Length (+ Queuing length, if required) d Turning Lane width

b Deceleration Length e Direct Taper Length
c Through Lane Width
Figure 7-13: Major / Minor Priority Junction with a Ghost Island
7-25
Table 7-13: Minimum curve corner radii and carriageway width

Single Lane Width Two Lane Width
Single Lane Width with space to pass for One Way or
Inside Corner Radius Two Way Traffic
(excluding hardstrip Stationary Vehicle
or Curve Radius (excluding hardstrip
provision) (including hardstrip
(m) provision)
(m) provision)
(m) (m)
Inside Outside
Total
Lane Lane
10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9
15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9
30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3
40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6
Source from DMRB, 2006
Figure 7-14: Major / Minor Priority Junctions with Single Lane Dualling
7-26
a Turning Length (= Queuing Length, if required) e Direct Taper Length

b Deceleration Length f Physical Island Width
c Through Lane Width g Minimum Physical Island Width
d Turning Lane Width h Central Reserve Opening
All radii shown in metres
Figure 7-15: Dual Carriageway Major/Minor Priority Junction
a. 7.3m nominal width

b. 4.0m in all cases
c. 4.5m for ghost island
5.0m for single lane dualling, dual carriageway
d. 4.0m for ghost island
4.5m for single lane dualling, dual carriageway
5.5m if two lane approach
Figure 7-16: Minor road approaches
7-27
a. Ghost Island taper b. Physical island taper

Figure 7-17: Taper development
Table 7-14: Tapers for Islands

Design Speed Taper for Ghost Island and Taper for Dual
Carriageways
(kph) Single Lane Dualling
50 1:20 1:40
60 1:20 1:40
70 1:20 1:40
85 1:25 1:45
100 1:30 1:50
120 -- 1:55
Table 7-15: Direct Taper Length

Design Speed Direct Taper Length
(kph) (m)
50 5
60 5
70 15
85 15
100 25
120 30
a. Deceleration length
Figure 7-18: Major / Minor Priority Junctions with Nearside Diverging Taper
7-28
a. deceleration length b. direct taper length
Figure 7-19: Major/Minor Priority Junction with Nearside Auxiliary Lane
Table 7-16: Deceleration Length (m) for Ghost Island and Single Lane Dualling
Design Speed Up Gradient Down Gradient
(kph) 0-4% Above 4% 0-4% Above 4%

50 25 25 25 25
60 25 25 25 25
70 40 25 40 40
85 55 40 55 55
100 80 55 80 80
120 110 80 110 110
Table 7-17: Deceleration Length (m) for dual carriageway

Design Up Gradient Down Gradient
Speed
(kph)
0-4% Above 4% 0-4% Above 4%
50 25 25 25 25
60 25 25 25 40
70 40 25 40 55
85 55 40 55 80
100 80 55 80 110
120 110 80 110 150
7-29
a. Merging length
Figure 7-20: Major / Minor Priority Junction with Nearside Merging Taper
a. Merging length
b. Nose
Figure 7-21: Major/Minor Priority Junction with Nearside Merging Taper ( Alternative
for Dual Carriageway with a Design Speed of 120kph
Table 7-18: Merging length

Design Speed Merging Length
(kph) (m)
85 90
100 110
120 130
7-30
a Turning Length d Turning Lane Width

b Deceleration Length e Minor Road Entry Width
c Through Lane Width
Figure 7-22: : Major / Minor Priority Junction with Skew Minor Road
7.4 Requirements for Pedestrians, Equestrians and Cyclists
It important that the above road users are provided with a safe passage through the
intersection, and that the design of any facilities should take into account both their rights
as road users and their particular vulnerability.
Such facilities may include:
7-31
a. Shared use by pedestrians and cyclists of a displaced cycle track/footway with a

controlled or uncontrolled crossing.
b. A signposted alternative cycle route away from the junction.
c. Full grade separation, for example by means of a combined pedestrian/cyclist
subway system or overpass (footbridge)
d. If provision of any of these is not possible, then greater emphasis should be
placed on the safety aspects of the design of the major/minor at grade priority
intersection layout, by careful attention to the provision of crossing places.
In urban areas, if the volume of cyclists pedestrian is significant, but not high enough to
justify economically a grade separated crossing, then consideration may be given to
signalising the whole junction.
Where there are particular locations in rural area that equestrians such as ridden horses
are expected at intersection approaches a provision for dedicated crossing should be
considered. An adequate margin of safety for crossing should be allowed as horses
require longer headway between vehicles than cyclists and pedestrians,. Therefore, the
location of such crossings should preferably be at some distance from the junction to
permit suitable visibility by the rider.
The requirements for pedestrian facilities should be carefully considered in the design choice
and location of at-grade intersection. The following facilities should be considered for safe
movement of pedestrians :
a. A minor road central refuge at an unmarked crossing place

b. Zebra crossing, with or without a central refuge
c. Displaced controlled pedestrian crossing
d. Subway or footbridge.
The type of facility will depend upon the volume and movements of both expected
pedestrians and traffic. A typical urban pedestrian crossing point is illustrated in Figure.7-
23.
In urban areas, where large numbers of pedestrians are present, guard rails or other
barriers should be used to prevent indiscriminate crossing of the carriageway. The
design of guard railing should not obstruct drivers' visibility requirements. Guard rails
which are designed to maintain drivers' visibility of pedestrians through them, and
vice versa, are available, and should be in accordance with the details given in
Chapter 10.
7-32
Figure 7-23: Typical Urban Separation Island for Pedestrian crossing
7.5 Roundabouts
7.5.1 General
Before and after studies have shown that in general, fewer vehicle accidents occur at
roundabouts than at intersections containing traffic signals, or other priority
intersections. The primary reason for this is that the potential relative speeds of
vehicles are considerably lower for a well designed roundabout than for other types
of at-grade intersections.
Pedestrians usually find it hard to cross unless facilities are provided (signals or
underpasses).
Roundabouts internationally operate on the "Give Way on entry" rule so that, where
vehicles drive on the left, vehicles Give Way to vehicles from the right. The same rule
applies in Kenya.
The at-grade intersections will generally record significantly higher multiple vehicle
accident rates than at roundabouts. Roundabouts achieve a lower potential relative
speed of vehicles on the cross roads primarily because of entry curvature. Entry
curvature limits the speed at which drivers can enter the circulating carriageway.
Conversely, a poorly designed roundabout with little entry curvature or deflection
results in high speeds through the roundabout creating high potential relative speeds
between vehicles. Multiple vehicle accident rates at these roundabouts can actually
be higher than for an equivalent at-grade intersection.
For roundabouts to perform effectively they must be easily identified in the road
system, the layout must be apparent to approaching drivers and the approaches
must encourage drivers to enter the intersection slowly. Adequate sight distance
7-33
should be provided to enable drivers to observe the movements of other vehicles,

cyclists, and pedestrians.
Roundabouts operate as a series of separate T-intersections. The approaching

drivers are assumed to give way to the circulating vehicles on the roundabout and
look for an acceptable gap in the circulating traffic to enter in a safe manner. The
behaviour of the driver is related to the geometry of the roundabout and prevailing
traffic conditions.
7.5.2 Siting of Roundabouts
Roundabouts can be used satisfactorily at a wide range of sites: .

• intersections on arterial roads in urban areas
• intersections on rural roads
• highway interchanges
• intersections at highway terminals
Roundabouts perform better at the intersection of roads with roughly similar traffic
flows and a high proportion of right turning traffic. Roundabouts can improve safety
by simplifying conflicts, reducing vehicle speeds and providing a clearer indication of
the driver’s right of way compared to other forms of channelisation.
It is preferable that roundabouts should be sited on level ground or in sags rather

than at or near crests because it is difficult for drivers to appreciate the layout when
approaching on an up gradient. However, there is no evidence that roundabouts on
crests are intrinsically unsafe if correctly signed and where the visibility standards
have been provided on the approach to the give way line. Roundabouts should not
be sited at the bottom of or on long descents.
Roundabouts in urban areas are not compatible with Urban Traffic Control (UTC)
systems. These systems move vehicles through their controlled areas in platoons by
adjusting traffic signal times to suit the required progress. Roundabouts without
signals can interfere with platoon movement to the extent that subsequent inflows to
downstream traffic signals cannot be reliably predicted, and thus the sequence
breaks down. However, in some cases, for example, where there is a heavy right turn
flow, the roundabout may be a better option.
Where several roundabouts are to be installed on the same route, they should be of
similar design in the interests of route consistency and hence safety, to the extent
that this is possible with the traffic volumes concerned.
Generally, roundabouts may be appropriate in the following cases:
• at intersections where traffic volumes on the intersecting roads are such that stop
or give way signs or the T junction rule result in unacceptable delays for the minor
road traffic - in these situations, roundabouts would decrease delays to minor road
traffic, but increase delays to the major road traffic
• at intersections where traffic volumes on the intersecting roads are such that
traffic signals would result in greater delays than a roundabout - it should be noted
that in many situations roundabouts provide a similar capacity to signals, but may
operate with lower delays and better safety, particularly in off-peak periods
7-34
• at intersections where there are high proportions of left-turning traffic - unlike most
other intersection treatments, roundabouts can operate efficiently with high
volumes of left-turning vehicles
• at intersections with more than four legs, if one or more legs cannot be closed or
relocated or some turns prohibited, roundabouts may provide a convenient and
effective solution where only one lane circulation provides adequate capacity - two
lane roundabouts with more than four legs may cause operational problems and
should be avoided
• at cross intersections (including those in high speed areas) at which there is an
accident problem involving crossing or left turn (vs. opposing) traffic
• at intersections of arterial roads in outer urban areas where traffic speeds are high
and left turning traffic flows are high – a well designed roundabout could have an
advantage over traffic signals in reducing left turn opposed type accidents and
overall delays
• at “T” or cross intersections where the major traffic route turns through a right
angle
• where major roads intersect at Y or T junctions, where a high proportion of left
turning traffic exists
• at locations where traffic growth is expected to be high and where future traffic
patterns are uncertain or changeable
• at intersections of local roads where it is not desirable not to give priority to either
road
• where pedestrian volumes are low
Cases which are not listed in the above may be considered as inappropriate sites for
roundabouts.
7.5.3 Roundabout Legs

a. single lane roundabouts
Single lanes are usually applicable in compact roundabouts. In such cases aligning
roundabout legs at approximately 90° is the most preferable treatment because it
results in the least amount of driver confusion. This treatment limits the number of
roundabout legs to four. However, the provision of a greater number of legs on a
single lane or compact roundabout is allowable if economic constraints dictate.
Figure 7.24 illustrates the single lane type roundabout.
7-35
Central overrun area may be

required
On urban roundabouts entries

are more perpendicular to
promote lower speeds
Figure 7-24: Single lane or compact roundabout in Urban area
b. Multi lane or normal roundabouts

A normal oundabout has a kerbed central island at least 4 metres in diameter. Its
approaches may be dual or single carriageway roads. Usually, a normal roundabout
has flared entries and exits to allow two or three vehicles to enter or leave the
roundabout on a given arm at the same time.
Three and four leg multi-lane lane roundabouts allow legs to be formed at
approximately 90°, which helps motorists determine the appropriate lane choice for
their path through the roundabout.
c. Mini roundabout
A mini-roundabout does not have a kerbed central island. In its place is a flush or
domed circular solid white road marking between 1 and 4 metres in diameter,
capable of being driven over where unavoidable.
d. Line Marking
The line-marking system for multi-lane roundabouts places pavement arrows on the
approach legs to direct motorists to the correct lane choice for the particular exit they
require. The guideline for roundabout line marking is outlined in KRBD Manual Part
5B
7.5.4 Roundabout Number of Lanes
In general, the minimum number of roundabout lanes (entry, circulating and exit
lanes) to achieve the desired capacity and operating requirements for the projected
future traffic volumes should be provided. A single lane roundabout may be provided
initially and upgraded in the future (say beyond 10 years) to a dual lane facility as
traffic volumes dictate. In cases where this is applicable, the outside diameter of the
7-36
roundabout and the left side approach and departure lane edges should be designed
in the ultimate dual lane location.
Figure 7-25: Multilane roundabout with legs aligned at 90 degrees
a. Circulating lanes
The number of circulating lanes from any particular approach must be equal to or
greater than the maximum number of entry lanes on that approach.
b. Exit lanes
The number of exit lanes must not be greater than the number of circulating lanes.
On multi-lane roundabouts, the number of exit lanes is based on the lane usage as
determined by the pavement arrows on the approaches.
c. Left turn slip roads

If there is sufficient space available on site, provision of a left turn slip lane is
beneficial on approaches where a significant proportion of the traffic turns left. In
some cases, the use of a left turn slip lane can avoid the need to build an additional
entry lane.
Examples of left turn slip road provision at roundabouts are given in Figure7.26 and
7.27.
7-37
High Entry Angle *
Taper Length*
Figure 7-26: Configuration of Left-Turn Slip Lane with a High Entry Angle
Taper Parallel Accelleration

Length Lane Length*
Taper Length*
Note: Criteria for sight distance, taper and acceleration lanes shall be as
described in Section 7.3
Figure 7-27: Configuration of Left-Turn Slip Lane with Acceleration Lane
7-38
7.5.5 Geometric Design of Roundabout
a. Central Island diameter
Guide dimensions for initial minimum central island diameter for single lane and
multi-lane roundabouts are given in Tables 7-19 and 7-20 respectively. These
dimensions have been based on limiting the values of a number of parameters to
achieve the lowest acceptable balance between safety, practical construction and
cost. Use of larger diameters will enable greater safety benefits to be obtained.
The adopted in derivation of the tabulated values are based on the following:
• four leg roundabout
• each leg is in the same speed environment
• each leg is at 90° to adjacent legs
• good geometry can be provided on each leg
• kerbing exists on both sides of all carriageways
• there are no medians on any of the approaches.
Table 7-19: Minimum Central Island Diameters of Single Lane Roundabouts

Speed Minimum Island Dia. of
Environment Single Lane
Central (km/h) Roundabout (m)
40 10
50 10
60 15
70 20
80 25
90 25
100 25
110 25
Table 7-20: Minimum Central Island Diameters of Two Lane Roundabouts

Speed Minimum Central
Environment Island Dia. of
(km/h) Two Lane
Roundabout
(m)
40 15
50 15
60 25
70 30
80 40
90 40
100 40
110 40
b. Inscribed circle diameter
7-39
The inscribed circle diameter D of the roundabout is the diameter of the largest circle
that can be fitted into the junction outline. Figures 7-28 illustrate this for a circular
roundabout.
D:- Inscribed circle diameter
Figure 7-28: Inscribed circle diameter (ICD)
The following points should be considered in determining ICD

i. The inscribed circle diameter of a Normal Roundabout should not exceed
100m. Large inscribed circle diameters can lead to vehicles exceeding 50
Km/h on the circulatory carriageway.
ii. The minimum value of the inscribed circle diameter for a Normal or
Compact Roundabout is 28m. This is the smallest roundabout that can
accommodate the swept path of the ‘Design Vehicle DV1, articulated
vehicle with a single axe at the rear of the trailer.
iii. If the inscribed circle diameter lies between 28m and 36m, a Compact
Roundabout should be considered if the traffic flows can be
accommodated.
c. Circulatory carriageway
The circulatory carriageway of Normal or Compact Roundabouts should generally be

circular and of constant width. However, at complex roundabouts, for example where
spiral markings are used, the width should be in line with traffic demand. Tight bends
should be avoided as they can increase the likelihood of load shedding by large
goods vehicles. They can also cause loss of control , particularly for
Important points to consider with regard to circulatory carriageway:

• The width of the circulatory carriageway must be between 1.0 and 1.2 times the
maximum entry width
7-40
• At Normal Roundabouts, the width of the circulatory carriageway should not

exceed 15m. At Compact Roundabouts, it should not exceed 6m,
• Short lengths of reverse curve, where two consecutive tangential circular arcs
curve in opposite directions, should be avoided between entry and adjacent exits.
• The inscribed circle diameter, the width of the circulatory carriageway and the
central island diameter are interdependent: once any two of these are established,
the remaining measurement is determined automatically.
d. Splitter Islands
Splitter islands are used on each arm, located and shaped so as to separate and
direct traffic entering and leaving the roundabout. They are usually kerbed, but if
there is insufficient space to accommodate a kerbed island, they may consist entirely
of markings. Markings may also be used to extend a splitter island on the approach,
the exit or the circulatory carriageway. Kerbed splitter islands can act as pedestrian
refuges provided that they are large enough to give adequate safe standing space for
accompanied wheelchair users and pedestrians with pushchairs or pedal cycles.
Signs and other street furniture can be sited on kerbed islands provided that there is
sufficient room to maintain the required clearances.
Alignment of splitter islands should encourage the vehicle path through the
roundabout to be tangential to the central island. Sharp deviations within the
circulating area can lead to increased vehicle collisions. Alignment on the approach
and through the roundabout should also seek to control vehicle speeds
e. Entries
The following number of variables need to be considered in selecting an entry design

which is safe and has adequate capacity (see Figure 7.29 for illustration):
• approach half width: The approach half width, v, is the width of the approach
carriageway, excluding any hatching, in advance of any entry flare.
• entry width: The entry width, e, is the width of the carriageway at the point of
entry. It is measured from the point A at the right hand end of the give way line
along the normal to the nearside kerb. For capacity assessment it is taken as the
total width of lanes that drivers are likely to use. It is a key factor affecting
capacity, in conjunction with length and sharpness of flare.
Lane widths at the give way line (measured along the normal to the nearside kerb,
as for entry width) must be not less than 3m or more than 4.5m, with the 4.5m
value appropriate at single lane entries and values of 3 to 3.5m appropriate at
multilane entries. On multilane entries, it is important to ensure that entries are
used equally in order to avoid the situation where some lanes exceed capacity
and others are underused.
7-41
A
e
e:- Entry width

v:- Approach half width
Figure 7-29: Approach half width and entry
• entry flaring: Entry flaring is localised widening at the point of entry. Normal
Roundabouts usually have flared entries with the addition of one or two lanes at
the give way line to increase capacity. Single lane entries e.g. those at Single
Lane Roundabouts, should be slightly flared to accommodate large goods
vehicles. The sharpness of flaring is defined by the relationship:
S=1.6[e-v]/l”
Where:
e = Entry width
v= approach half width
l” = length of flare
The value of S will depend on the available land-take and the capacity required.
Values of S greater than unity correspond to sharp flares and smaller values (0 <
=S < 1) to gradual flares. Long gradual flares are most efficient as they make
better use of the extra width but sharp flares are more easily achieved in terms of
land take.
• Entry Angle: The entry angle, φ, serves as a geometric proxy for the conflict
angle between entering and circulating traffic streams.
F
C B
F
E
D
F :- Entry Angle
Figure 7-30: Entry Angle
7-42
The entry angle, φ, should lie between 20 and 60 degrees. Low entry angles force
drivers to look over their shoulders or use their mirrors to merge with circulating
traffic.
• Entry path radii: The entry path radius (or its inverse, the entry path curvature) is
a measure of the deflection to the left imposed on vehicles entering a roundabout.
The path is assumed to be 2m wide and starts 50m in advance of the give way
line. This is illustrated in Figure 7-31
1m min.
1m min.
1m min.
a
Figure 7-31: Determination of entry path radius
The entry path radius must be not exceed 70m at Compact Roundabouts in urban
areas (where the speed limit and the design speed within 100m of the give way
line on any approach do not exceed 60 km/h and 70km/ph respectively). At all
other roundabout types, the entry path radius must not exceed 100m.
• Exit Width The exit width is the width of the carriageway on the exit and is
measured in a similar manner to the entry width.
f. Visibility
Visibility on the approach (Desirable Minimum Stopping Sight Distance for the design
speed of the road) must be met. Refer to Figure 7-32 and 7-33 for illustration and
corresponding recommended values given in Table 7-21.
7-43
7.3m
a
5.5m
7.3m:- Dual Carriageway
Figure 7-32: Measurement of stopping sight distance in curved approach
15m
c
a
a:- Visibility Distance along Area of circulatory carriageway over
centre line
b:- Half lane width
which visibility must be obtained
c:- Limit of visibility splay from viewpoint
Figure 7-33: Forward visibility required at Entry
Table 7-21: Visibility requirement

Inscribed Circle Diameter Visibility Distance (“a’ in Figure 6-33)
< 40 Whole junction
40 – 60 40
60 – 100 50
> 100 70
g. Crossfall and Longitudinal Gradient
Steep gradients should be avoided at roundabout approaches or flattened to a

maximum of 2% before entry. Crossfall and longitudinal gradient combine to provide
the necessary slope to drain surface water from the carriageway. Although the
following paragraphs are written in terms of crossfall for simplicity, the value and
direction of the greatest slope should always be taken into account when considering
drainage.
On the approaches and exits, superelevation can assist drivers in negotiating the
associated curves. Its value, when used, should be appropriate to the speed of
vehicles, and equal to or greater than those necessary for surface drainage, but
7-44
should not exceed 5%. Superelevation should be reduced to 2% at 20m from the
give way line, since with adequate advance signing and entry deflection, speeds on
approaches should be reducing.
h. Crossfall on circulatory carriageway
Crossfall is required to drain surface water on circulatory carriageways. The normal

value is 2%. It should not exceed 2.5%. To avoid ponding, longitudinal edge profiles
should be graded at not less than 0.5% which is considered the minimum. The
design gradients do not in themselves ensure satisfactory drainage and therefore,
the correct siting and spacing of gullies is critical.
For roundabouts on high speed roads it is good practice to arrange for crossfall to
assist vehicles. To do this, a crown line is formed. This line can either join the ends of
the splitter islands, or divide the circulatory carriageway in the proportion 2:1 internal
to external.
7.5.6 Road User Requirements at Roundabouts

• Pedestrians
The types of pedestrian facility available at roundabouts are as follows:
i. informal crossing;
ii. zebra crossing;
iii. stand-alone signal controlled crossing
iv. grade separated crossing (underpass for pedestrians, underpass for vehicles
or footbridge).
A dropped kerb and tactile paving must be provided at any crossing. Where provided
stand-alone pedestrian crossing facilities should be located to suit pedestrian desire
lines. If possible they should be outside the flared section to keep the crossing short.
Zebra crossings should be located between 5m and 20m from the give way line as
shown in Figure 7-34
d= distance betwee crossing

and give way line
Figure 7-34: Pedestrian crossing at roundabout
7-45
• Cyclists
When a roundabout intercepts a cycle route, several options are available, none of
them without problems. Cyclists can be routed:
• through the roundabout using the circulatory carriageway;
• around the outside of the roundabout using a peripheral cycle track;
• onto a grade separated facility; or
• away from the roundabout altogether.
7.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages
Table 7-22: Roundabouts advantage/disadvantage
Category Advantages Disadvantages

Safety • Reduced number of conflict points • Signalized intersections can
compared to signal-controlled prompt control for emergency
intersection. vehicles.
• Lower operational speeds,
resulting from intersection
geometry, Give Way fewer and
less severe accidents.
Capacity • Traffic Give Ways rather than • When a coordinated signal
stops, often resulting in the network can be used, a signalised
acceptance of smaller gaps. intersection will increase the
overall capacity of the network.
• Signals may be preferred at
intersections that periodically
operate at higher than designed
capacities.
Delay • Overall delay will probably be less • Drivers may not like the delays
than for an equivalent-volume resulting from geometries that
signalized intersection (this does force them to divert their cars
not equate to a higher level of from straight paths.
service).
• During off-peak, signalized • When queuing develops, entering
intersections with no retiming drivers tend to force into the
produce unnecessary delays to circulating streams with shorter
stopped traffic when gaps on the gaps; this may increase the
other flow are available. delays on other legs, as well as
the number of accidents.
Cost • In general, less right-of-way is • Construction costs may be higher
required. • In some locations, Roundabouts
• Maintenance includes landscaping, may require more illumination,
illumination, and occasional sign thus increasing costs.
replacement.
Pedestrian • A splitter island provides a refuge • Difficult for visually impaired
s and for pedestrians that will increase pedestrians.
Bicyclists safety. • No stopped phase for pedestrians
• Low speeds reduce frequency and who want security of a signal.
severity of pedestrian-vehicle • Longer paths increase travel
accidents. distances for both pedestrians
and bicyclists.
7-46
7.6 Design of Signalised Intersection
7.6.1 Introduction
This section deals with the geometric layout of signalised intersections and
connections to the signal control strategy. Close co-operation is necessary with the
signal control and lighting engineers throughout the design process, especially in the
early stages, to optimize and coordinate geometric layout and signal control strategy.
Signal control at a properly designed intersection, can enhance traffic safety and
efficiency by reducing congestion and conflicts between different vehicle movements.
The major advantages compared to priority-controlled intersections are:
• the maximum waiting time is fixed and known (if capacity is not reached);
• the available capacity is distributed fairly between approaches; and,
• the driver on the minor road does not have to make a judgment on when it
is safe to proceed.
Most of the safety problems that arise with signalised intersections are related to
drivers passing the signal at red, and rear-end collisions at signal changes from
green to red. This has implications for signal visibility and timings.
Primary conflicts between motor vehicles must be separated in a signalised

intersection, see Figure 7-35 below. Motor vehicles passing a steady green signal or
green arrow signal must not encounter any primary conflicts, but lower order
conflicts, i.e. with turning vehicles, may be acceptable in some circumstances.
Primary conflict
Lower order conflict
Figure 7-35: Primary motor vehicle conflicts
The control strategy of a signalised intersection is called the phases or the stage
sequence. An example of a stage sequence for a T-intersection with a protected right
turn (controlled by a green arrow) - is shown in Figure 7-36.
7-47
Stage 1 2 3
Figure 7-36: Protected right turn stage sequence
The control strategy can work on fixed timings or be vehicle-actuated - adapting to

traffic conditions by detectors. Vehicle actuated (demand-responsive) signals are
much more efficient and because of this drivers are more likely to comply with them.
Each stage has a minimum and maximum green time. There should always be an
intergreen period between conflicting stages to allow for safe stage changes. The
length of the inter green depends mainly on the size of the intersection, speed limit
and whether pedestrians and cyclists are involved. The time period between two
consecutive starts of the same stage is the cycle time.
7.6.2 Control Strategy and Layout
Signalised intersections should normally be restricted to roads with a speed limit 50

km/h. Where signals are needed on roads with speeds higher than 50km/h additional
equipment is needed to ensure safety. Signals should never be installed on roads
where the speed limit is higher than 70km/h.
Protected right turns are preferable from a safety viewpoint. They give positive
control and are easy to understand. The disadvantage is that they use up significant
intersection capacity, so waiting times are longer.
Pedestrian crossing signals may be provided at signalised intersections. They

should have their own stage, during which there should be no conflicts with vehicle
movements.
The number of traffic lanes with permitted traffic directions and signal control type
with stages and location of signal heads should be decided due to capacity, traffic
safety, road user costs, environmental and other impacts and investment and
maintenance costs. The capacity analysis should be based on expected traffic
volumes during the design hour, normally both morning and evening peaks.
The following safety requirements must be coordinated with the geometric layout:
• Protected right turns (i.e. without conflicts) must have right turn lanes
7-48
Right turn without conflict
Figure 7-37: Right turn lanes with protected right turn
• Permissive right turns (i.e. with conflict with opposing straight forward traffic) can
have separate lanes.
Right turn with opposing

straight forward traffic
Figure 7-38: Right turn lanes with permissive right turn
7.6.3 Visibility
Each traffic lane shall have clear vision of at least one primary signal head
associated with its particular movement from the desirable stopping sight distance,
70 m at 50 km/h and 110 m at 70 km/h speed limit. It is also important that the
desirable stopping sight distance is available to all possible queue tails given by the
capacity calculation. The warning sign for traffic signals must be used where the
visibility is marginal.
Signal
Height Head Envelope of Visibility
Varries 2.00m
1.05m
0.26m
Stopping Sight Distance
Figure 7-39: Visibility requirements on intersection approach
7-49
The intersection intervisibility zone is defined as the area bounded by measurements

from a distance of 2.5 m behind the stop-line extending the full carriageway width for
each arm, as indicated in Figure 7-40. Designers should aim to achieve the greatest
level of intervisibility within this zone to permit manoeuvres to be completed safely
once drivers, cyclists and pedestrians have entered the zone.
Visibility along the intersecting road must be at least equal to the standards for
“STOP” signs, as set out in Manual for Traffic Signs. This is to ensure a minimum
level of safety when the signals are out of order.
Minor obstructions to visibility caused by slender projections such as lighting

columns, sign supports, signal posts, controller cabinet and guardrails may be
unavoidable. When placing signs, street furniture and planting, consideration should
be given to ensure that their obstructive effect is minimised.
2.5m
Arm B
Arm A
2.5m
2.5m
Arm C
Figure 7-40: Intervisibility zone without pedestrian crossing
7.6.4 Lane Design
Traffic lanes should normally be 3.0 to 3.5 m wide. Nearside (kerb) lanes that are
well-used by cyclists should be widened to 4 m if possible. The lane width can be
narrowed to 2.75 m if space is very limited but only if there are few trucks or buses.
The required lane lengths depend on estimated queue lengths to be decided based
on the capacity analysis.
Entry lanes for right turners are needed, as already stated, if protected right turns are
to be used. Additional entry lanes for through traffic will improve capacity and level-
of-service but the larger intersection area can result in the need to set longer
intergreen periods.
The entry taper L in of a kerbed entry lane should be minimum 30 m (taper 1:10) to
allow a design semi-trailer to cope with it. Tapers can be narrowed to 1:5 to allow
more queuing space within the same total length.
7-50
L queue L in
Figure 7-41: Right turn lane design
Minimum design measurements for a right turn with a ghost island are shown in
Figure 7-42.
7.5 m 1
direct 10
taper ghost island taper
Figure 7-42: Ghost island layout
Opposing right turns, especially permissive right turns (i.e. with opposing traffic) on
the main road, should be aligned opposite each other to improve visibility to meeting
vehicle to avoid, if possible, safety problems as shown in Figure 7-43.
Figure 7-43: Sight shadow design problem at permissive right turns
7-51
The number of straight ahead entry and exit lanes should be balanced in order to
reduce conflicts caused by traffic merging or diverging within the intersection visibility
zone. Lane drops should take place beyond the visibility zone over a distance of at
least 100 m for a single lane reduction. The lane drop may be carried out on either
the nearside or offside dependant on traffic conditions.
>=100m
Intertvisibility
Zone
Figure 7-44: Lane drop design principles
Slip lanes (for left turners) can be signalised or uncontrolled (“give way” signs and
markings). They can be used when left turn manoeuvres for large vehicles have to be
facilitated, see example below. Uncontrolled slip lanes improve the efficiency of the
traffic signal control, as inter greens can be decreased, especially at high left turn
volumes. Uncontrolled traffic should be separated with a triangular separation island.
Taper
Set back
Figure 7-45: Left turn slip lane with taper to facilitate large vehicles
If left turn slip lanes are used, a consistent design approach should be adopted for
ease of understanding. Uncontrolled slip lanes can be confusing for pedestrians.
Uncontrolled and controlled pedestrian crossings should not be mixed within the
same intersection.
7-52
7.6.5 Swept Paths and Corner Curves
Corner curves and channel width design depend on what design vehicle and design
level-of-service is chosen (see Chapter 3).
Signalised intersections with very low volumes of large trucks and buses could have
simple 6 m corner radii to minimise the intersection area and optimise the signal
control strategy. The radius should be increased to 10 m if 12 m rigid trucks or buses
are common. The following combinations of tapers and corner radii can be used in
urban areas to accommodate semi trailers, see Figure 7-46.
Minor Minor
road road
1
T
R
Major A
T road R
Major
1
road
B
R T A B
Urban 10 5 30 30
Rural* 15 10 25 25
* or triple radii curves, see section 6.6.2
Figure 7-46: Combinations of tapers and corner radii
It is essential to ensure that adequate turning radii are provided for the swept paths
of all types of vehicles using the intersection. Swept paths must be checked for all
permitted turning movements to control locations of traffic islands, signals etc, see
examples below. The example on the left in Fig 7-47 below indicates that there is an
unnecessary taper; the example on the right indicates that the stop-line must be set
back.
Simple swept path templates are not recommended for checking whether semi
trailers can negotiate intersections. The use of specialist computer software (such as
AUTOTURN or AutoTrack) gives a much more accurate simulation.
7-53
Stop-line set back to

Unnecessary allow swept path
Taper
Figure 7-47: Examples of swept path checks
Nosing of central reserves and pedestrian refuges should be set back a minimum of
1.5 m, measured from a line extended from the edge of the intersecting roads.
Minimum clearances should be provided.
7.6.6 Signals
There should be at least two signals visible from each approach and stop-line usually
comprising a primary and a secondary signal (see also the KRBD Manual Part
5CTraffic Signals). Where separate signalling of turning movements is used this
advice applies to the approach lane(s) associated with each turning movement. One
signal post can then display information for more than one turning movement.
The primary signal should be located to the left of the approach at a minimum of 1 m
beyond the stop line and in advance of crossing marks for pedestrians if any. The
secondary signal should be located within a 30 degree angle at a maximum distance
of 50 m with priorities as shown in figure 7-48 below.
(X) priority
secondary
signal
(2) (3)
(1)
primary (4)
signal
studied approach
Figure 7-48: Signal location advice
The primary signal should preferably be located 0.8 to 1.0 from the edge of the
carriageway with 0.3 and 2.0 m as minimum and maximum. Recommended locations
in relation to the stop-line and a pedestrian crossing are shown below.
7-54
2.5m
1.0m
Figure 7-49: Primary signal location advice
The following alternative designs may be used where there are approaches with
three or more traffic lanes and protected right turns. The primary right turn arrow is
mounted on the exit separation island, Alternative 1, or on an extra separation island
in the approach, Alternative 2, being more expensive.
Alternative 1 Alternative 2
3 Colour standard signal

head
3 Colour arrow signal head
Figure 7-50: Alternative signal locations for right turn lanes
The standard traffic signal head width is 300 mm (with 450 mm as oversize), which
results in island width requirements, including clearances, of 0.3 to 0.6 m from 0.9 m
7-55
to 1.65 m. Wider islands can be needed if they are also to serve as pedestrian
refuges.
7.6.7 Spacing of Signalized Intersections
Designers seldom have influence on the spacing of roadways in a network as it is

largely predicated by the original or developed land use. Nevertheless, the spacing
of any type of intersection impact significantly on the operation, level of service and
capacity of a roadway. It then follows that intersection spacing should, inter alia, be
based on road function and traffic volume. The Road Agency should therefore play a
role in the determination of the location of individual intersections. This is of
particular concern when the provision of a new intersection on an existing road is
being considered.
Along signalised roads, intersection spacing should be consistent with the running
speed and signal cycle lengths, which are variables in themselves. If the spacing of
the intersections is based on acceptable running speeds and cycle lengths, signal
progression and an efficient use of the roadway can be achieved. These entire
variables are combined in a chart given in Figure 7-51, allowing the selection of
suitable spacing between signalized intersection.
From figure 7-51 it can be seen that the minimum spacing is 400 m. Where spacing
closer than this minimum exists, a number of alternative actions can be considered.
two-way flows can be converted to one-way operation or minor connecting roads can
be closed or diverted, and channelisation can be used to restrict turning movements.
Figure 7-51: Desirable signal spacing
7-56
7.6.8 Pedestrian and Cyclist Facilities
Pedestrian crossings should be perpendicular to the edge of the carriageway to

assist intervisibility and to benefit visually impaired people. The footway should have
a dropped kerb.
Minimum measures for pedestrian refuges for pedestrian crossings timed to permit
crossing in one movement is shown below. The normal width should be 2.5 m, with
1.5 m as the absolute minimum.
Min 1.5m
Secondary Signal
Crossings road
markings
Keep Left Normally

Bollards 2.5 to 5m
Dropped Kerbs
Primary Signal
Stop- line
Figure 7-52: Traffic signal island and pedestrian refuge
Pedestrian phases should preferably not have conflicts with turning traffic. This could
be arranged with staggered pedestrian crossings as illustrated below.
Figure 7-53: Example of a signal-controlled intersection with a staggered pedestrian

crossing
7-57
8 GRADE SEPARETED JUNCTIONS ................................................................ 8-1

8.1 General ..................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 Siting ........................................................................................................ 8-1
8.3 Design Procedures ................................................................................... 8-1
8.3.1 Choice of Scheme ............................................................................ 8-1
8.3.2 Safety ............................................................................................... 8-2
8.3.3 Recommended Layouts.................................................................... 8-2
8.3.4 The Design Process ......................................................................... 8-4
8.3.5 General Design Principle .................................................................. 8-4
8.4 Traffic Flows ............................................................................................. 8-7
8.4.1 Flow Adjustments ............................................................................. 8-8
8.5 Geometric Design Standards ................................................................... 8-9
8.5.1 Design Speed ................................................................................... 8-9
8.5.2 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment .................................................... 8-9
8.5.3 Loops .............................................................................................. 8-10
8.5.4 Merges and Diverges ..................................................................... 8-12
8.5.5 Weaving Lengths ............................................................................ 8-15
Table 8-1: Layout & Cross-Sections for Connector Roads To/From mainline to other
Roads ....................................................................................................................... 8-8
Table 8-2: Adjustment Factors for Uphill Gradients and for the presence of Large
Goods - Vehicles Mainline ........................................................................................ 8-9
Table 8-3: Adjustment Factors for Uphill Gradients and for the presence of Large
Goods Vehicles - Merge Connector.......................................................................... 8-9
Table 8-4: Connector road design speed ................................................................. 8-9
Table 8-5: Radii of loop connectors ....................................................................... 8-10
Table 8-6: Geometric Design Parameters for Merging Lanes ................................ 8-13
Table 8-7: Geometric Design Parameters for Merging Lanes ................................ 8-14
Figure 8-1: Diamond ................................................................................................ 8-3

Figure 8-2: Half Diamond ......................................................................................... 8-3
Figure 8-3: Half-cloverleaf Figure 8-4: Half-cloverleaf ...................................... 8-3
Figure 8-5: 3 Level Roundabout............................................................................... 8-4
Figure 8-6: Merging Diagram ................................................................................... 8-5
Figure 8-7: Diverging Diagram ................................................................................. 8-6
Figure 8-8: Terms Used in Weaving ........................................................................ 8-7
Figure 8-9: Types of Loops .................................................................................... 8-11
Figure 8-10: Examples of Combinations of Different Types of Loop ...................... 8-12
Figure 8-11: Extended Auxiliary Lanes (numbers in brackets refer to columns in
Table 8-6 ................................................................................................................ 8-14
Table 8-7) ............................................................................................................... 8-14
Figure 8-13: Merge, Weaving Length and Diverge ................................................ 8-15
Figure 8-14: Weaving Length Diagram for Urban Roads ....................................... 8-16
i
8 GRADE SEPARATED JUNCTIONS
8.1 General
The main difference between at-grade intersections and grade separated junctions is
that the separations of movements are in time and space respectively. At-grade
intersections accommodate turning movements either within the limitations of the
crossing roadway widths or through the application of turning carriageways whereas
the turning movements at grade separated junctions are accommodated on ramps.
• The conditions where the use of grade separation is considered are:
• When the capacity of at-grade intersections and roundabouts becomes insufficient
• If topography allows grade separation by which longer routes that are expensive
can be avoided
• For operational reasons such as access controlled high capacity roads
The use of grade separation may range from separating one traffic movement from
all other traffic movements to the complete separation of each traffic movement from
every other movement so that only merging or diverging movements remain. Where
some or all turning movements can be catered for elsewhere, a simple flyover with
few or no connections may suffice. The extent to which individual traffic movements
should be separated from other traffic movements depends mainly upon capacity
requirements and traffic safety aspects; it also depends upon the extent to which
important traffic movements should be given free flow conditions.
8.2 Siting
The location of a grade separated junction can have a significant effect on both its
operational performance and environmental impact. Therefore, consideration of the
major contributing issues should be undertaken at the initial design stage to produce
the optimum design for comparison with other junction types.
In deciding on the location of a grade-separated junction, the following factors should

be taken into account:
• Trip length (travel distance)
• Size of urban areas
• Predicted traffic volumes
• Cost of junction
• Congestion control
8.3 Design Procedures
8.3.1 Choice of Scheme

From a study of conflicting traffic movements, it will generally be apparent which
traffic streams must be grade separated, leaving the other streams to be dealt with
by at-grade junctions; the choice of these will depend upon the capacities needed to
be handled. A study of the characteristics of various types of grade-separated
junctions is necessary, and a number of alternative designs should be prepared. The
final choice of scheme depends:
• capacity requirements
8-1
• geometric standards
• operational needs
The hourly flow usually varies according to road type and according to whether the
road is major arterial, or other and whether rural or urban.
The final choice then should represent an economical, safe, and aesthetic design. In
some instances the choice of a particular design will be determined by the adoption
of two-stage construction, e.g. constructing an at-grade junction first and providing
grade separation later depending on the actual traffic growth trend.
8.3.2 Safety
The main objective of grade separated junction design is to provide a junction which
is safe for the forecast traffic flows. Certain layouts are not recommended for safety
reasons and should be avoided. These are:
• Grade separated junctions on single carriageways
• Grade separation on dual carriageways within 0.5 km of a changeover to single
carriageway standard
• Offside merges and diverges;
• Major/minor junctions, particularly those with right turning movements, on an
otherwise grade separated route
8.3.3Recommended Layouts
Recommended layouts for consideration in order of increasing traffic flow level are:
i. Diamond or half clover-leaf – simple priority junctions with the minor road;
ii. Two bridge roundabout – a single large roundabout with the circulatory
carriageway either under or over the mainline;
iii. 3 level roundabout – a junction usually between two roads of similar flow. The
two mainlines are on the upper and lower levels of the junction with the
roundabout on the central level;
iv. Interchange – a junction between major roads with all movements catered for
by free flowing connector roads.
8-2
Illustration of different layout options for grade separated junctions are shown in
Figures 8-1 to 8-.5
Figure 8-1: Diamond
Figure 8-2: Half Diamond
Figure 8-3: Half-cloverleaf Figure 8-4: Half-cloverleaf
8-3
1 & 3 Quadrants Quadrants 2 and 3
Figure 8-5: 3 Level Roundabout
8.3.4 The Design Process

The following design steps can be followed in determination of grade separated
junction design:
• The first stage would be to determine the road network strategy

• Fix a design year
• Decide whether urban or rural standards are to apply
• Derive hourly flows to be used in the design process (refer Figures 8-6 & 8-7)
• Based on the above that could lead to iteration, assess the lane provision on the
major road and connector roads
• Review network and junction strategy and Investigate alternatives
• Determine merge and diverge facilities and check weaving sections if a desirable
minimum length can be provided
• Check for desirable geometric standards
• Finally analyse junctions performance which is likely to be a cost/benefit
assessment
8.3.5 General Design Principle
The following general principles are recommended (U.K. DMRB, 2006)
a. General
Where lane drops and lane gains occur, the lane configurations ahead should be
made clear to drivers by the consistent use of signs and road marking.
Where large traffic flows are joining the through traffic in an interchange or junction
turbulence can occur, with short headways and sudden braking. A length of auxiliary
lane may be necessary to provide increased local capacity
8-4
The signing of junctions and interchanges should give clear and timely information to
drivers. This is important in situations where the drivers’ view may be obstructed by
high traffic volume or large proportion of LGVs. At such locations provision for
gantries to mount signs should be considered.
Consider correction factors to take account of gradients and the proportion of large
goods vehicles, as provided in Tables 7-2 and 7-3.
b. Merges – General Principles and Design

Interference to through traffic shall be limited for safety reasons, hence joining traffic
should be channelised into the merging areas.
If joining flows are greater than one lane capacity then an additional lane should
normally be added to the though traffic lane as a lane gain. The individual merging
area for each joining lane within a merge should be separated from the previous one
by ghost islands. The minimum width of a ghost island is 2.0m at its widest point and
the minimum width of a chevron is 0.5m. Ghost island road markings should be
designed in accordance with the KRBD Manual Part 5 b.
Hourly flows should be determined for through traffic and merge lines. They should
be used to select a merge layout from Figure 8-10. The letters A to E in Figure 8.9
refer to layout types in Appendix C of this manual.
The provision of a layout that differs from that derived from the use of Figure 8-9 is a
departure from standard, whether the proposed design is an under or over design.
Figure 8-6: Merging Diagram
8-5
Example of use of Figure 8-6

Given an upstream main line flow 4000vph and merge flow 2000vph.
1 strike a perpendicular from 4000vph on the horizontal axis
2 strike a perpendicular from 2000vph on the vertical axis
the intersection point gives layout type F which also requires a lane gain (see
Downstream Mainline axis above)
c. Diverges – General Principles and Design
Diverge traffic should be able to leave the traffic easily and without causing any
impedance to the flow of through traffic. Additionally, if the capacity of the local road
network is insufficient and causes queuing, the potential of causing accidents should
be taken care of. Drivers should be allowed to have sufficient time to react and
decelerate before the end of the queue. The minimum width of diverge ghost islands
is the same as for merges.
Similar to the merge design, a design chart is provided in Figure 8-7 to be used with
hourly traffic flows that are determined from Table 8-6. Diverge layouts are given in
Appendix C corresponding to the selection of layouts as per Figure 8-9.
Figure 8-7: Diverging Diagram
8-6
d. Emergency and Maintenance Access

Any area of pavement that can be driven over in an emergency or during
maintenance or other road works should be designed to make it safe to do so.
Although it is illegal to drive over noses and other chevron areas bounded by
continuous edge lines, they may be trafficked during road works if drivers are
directed to do so during maintenance progress or during use by emergency vehicles.
e. Weaving Sections Design

For weaving sections on dual carriageway roads, design flows must be calculated as
in Section 8.4. In measuring Lact, it will be necessary to consider whether distance is
available to adequately sign the second junction and allow adequate visibility to the
sign from all lanes. To calculate the number of traffic lanes required for weaving the
following equation must be used (and see Figure 8-12):
N = 1/D (Qnw+Qw1+Qw2 (2 Lmin/Lact + 1))
Where:
N = Number of traffic lanes
Qnw = Total non-weaving flow in vph
Qw1 = Major weaving flow in vph
Qw2 = Minor weaving flow in vph
D = Maximum through flow in vph per lane, (refer Section 7.4 for flow
values
Lmin = Desirable Minimum weaving length for the road class
Lact = Actual weaving length available (Lact must always be greater than
or equal to Lmin)
Flow 1
Flow 2 Flow 3
Flow 4
Qnw (non-weaving flow)=Flow 1 + Flow 4
Qw1 (major weaving flow)=greater of Flow 2 or Flow 3
Qw2 (minor weaving flow)=lesser of Flow 2 or Flow 3
Figure 8-8: Terms Used in Weaving
8.4 Traffic Flows
For the purpose of designing grade separated junctions, the maximum flow per lane
must be taken as 1,600 vph for all roads except motorways. This flow is not meant to
8-7
represent the maximum hourly flows, but values greater than this are associated with
decreasing levels of service and safety.
Design flows in connector roads are given in Table 8-1
The flows determine the width of lane required. The designers, however, should
consider the benefits of providing greater width for connector roads than those
derived from Table 8-1.
Table 8-1: Layout & Cross-Sections for Connector Roads To/From mainline to other Roads
Connect Merge Merge Diverge Diverge Interchange Interchange
or Road (Rural) (Urban) (Rural) (Urban) Link/Loop Link/Loop
Flow+ (Rural) (Urban)
0-800 MG1C MG1D DG1C DG1D IL1C IL1D Single

Single lane Single lane Single lane Single lane Single lane* lane*
with with with with with with
hardshoulder hardshoulder hardshoulder hardshoulder hardshoulder hardshoulde
r
801-1200 MG1C MG1D DG2E DG2F IL1C IL1D Single
Single lane Single lane Two lanes Two lanes Single lane* lane*
with with with with with with
hardshoulder hardshoulder hardstrip hardstrip hardshoulder hardshoulde
r
1201-2400 MG2E MG2F DG2E DG2F IL2C IL2D

Two lanes Two lanes Two lanes Two lanes Two lanes Two
with with with with with lanes
hardstrip hardstrip hardstrip hardstrip hardstrip with
hardstrip
2401-3200 MG2E MG2F DG2E DG2F IL2C IL2D
Two lanes Two lanes Two lanes Two lanes Two lanes Two
with with with with with lanes
hardstrip hardstrip hardstrip hardstrip hardstrip with
hardstrip
Note: + Design flow (veh/hr) adjusted for gradients and LGVs
Labels such as MG1A denote the layout types provided in Appendix C,
this particular example is Merge layout A 1 lane.
8.4.1 Flow Adjustments

The following points must be considered:
• The design flows on the mainline and merge connectors must be adjusted for
uphill gradients before using Figures 8-6 and 8-7.
• Adjustments are not made on flow for diverge connectors
• Use 1km section, 0.5km on either side of merge and diverge nose tip and
determine average gradients
• Before using the formula in 8.3.5e, flow must be adjusted for uphill gradient
• Determine the weaving length Lact and calculate average gradient over the length
8-8
To establish the mainline gradient at a weaving section, the weaving length, Lact,
must be determined and the average gradient calculated over that length.
Table 8-2: Adjustment Factors for Uphill Gradients and for the presence
of Large Goods Vehicles on Mainline
%LGVs Mainline Gradient
on mainline <2% ≥2%
5 – 1.10
10 – 1.15
15 – 1.20
20 1.05 1.25
Table 8-3: Adjustment Factors for Uphill Gradients and for the
presence of Large Goods Vehicles - Merge Connector
% LGVs Merge Connector Gradient
on Merge
Connector <2% 2% – 4% >4%
5 – 1.15 1.30
10 – 1.20 1.35
15 1.05 1.25 1.40
20 1.10 1.30 1.45
8.5 Geometric Design Standards
8.5.1 Design Speed

Recommended design speed for connector roads is given in Table 8-4.
Table 8-4: Connector road design speed

Mainline Urban Urban Rural Rural
Design Speed 90 km/h 80 km/h 130 km/h 100
km/h
Connector Interchange 70 70 85 85
Road Link
Design
Speed Slip Road 60 60 70 70
(km/h)
Link Road 100 or 85 85 or 70 120 or 100 100 or 85
8.5.2 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment
8-9
The geometric standards for horizontal and vertical alignment and stopping sight
distance for the mainline through a grade separated junction and for the connector
roads must be in accordance with Chapter 5 of this manual with reference to design
speeds noted above. Low radius connector roads must be widened in accordance
with guidelines for curve widening.
8.5.3 Loops
Minimum radii for loop connectors are given in Table 8-5. A description and
illustrations of different types of loops that are currently in use in grade separated
junctions are also provided.
Table 8-5: Radii of loop connectors

All Roads
To mainline From mainline
30 50
Basic merge A loop that passes through approximately 270o where traffic merges
with the mainline flow. This Basic Merge, when combined with the
Hook Diverge, forms the layout in Figure 8-10.
Basic diverge A loop that passes through approximately 270o where traffic diverges
from the mainline flow. This Basic Diverge, when combined with the
Hook Merge, forms the layout in Figure 8-10.
D merge The loop commences at a T-junction or roundabout and merges with
the mainline flow. The angle turned is typically approximately 180o.
D diverge The loop commences at a diverge from the mainline flow and ends at
a T-junction or roundabout. The angle turned is typically approximately
180o.
Hook merge This layout is classified as a loop and the notional total angle is
between 180o and 270o. This Hook merge, when combined with the
Basic diverge, forms the layout in Figure 8-10
Hook diverge
This layout is classified as a loop and the notional total angle is
between 180o and 270o. This Hook diverge, when combined with the
Basic merge, forms the layout in Figure 8-10.
8-10
Basic Merge Basic Diverge
D Merge D Diverge
Hook Merge Hook Diverge
Figure 8-9: Types of Loops
The following are some measures should be considered in order to sustain safety on
loops:
i. Provision of sufficient visibility throughout the loop approach
ii. Advisory traffic signs and warning signs for speed limits and bends
iii. Widening of lanes on the loops as appropriate for lower radii in accordance
iv. Provision of vehicle restraint systems on the outside of the curve;
v. Physical separation of opposing traffic streams
8-11
vi. Lighting
vii. High skid resistant surfacing
Loop
Loop
a) Basic merge plus hook diverge
Loop
Loop
b) Basic diverge plus hook merge
Figure 8-10: Examples of Combinations of Different Types of Loop
8.5.4 Merges and Diverges
The geometric parameters applicable to merges and diverges must be those in

Tables 8-6 and 8-7 respectively. Figures 8-11 and 8-12 illustrate their use in typical
layouts. Lengths are measured along the left edge of the carriageway. For merges,
the layout of the edge line shown on Figure 8-12 does not require the use of larger
radii. For diverges, the layout of the edge line should incorporate the radii shown on
Figure 8-13. Ghost island merges are not permitted for urban roads.
8-12
Table 8-6: Geometric Design Parameters for Merging Lanes

Road Class Length Nose Ratio Nose Minimum Length of Length of Reduction
of (See Note 1) Length Auxiliary Auxiliary Ghost Taper
Entry Lane Lane Island Length
Taper Length Taper Tail
m m m m m m
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Rural Motorway
Mainline 205 1:40 115 230 75 180 n/a
Within 130 1:25 75 160 55 150 n/a
Interchange
Rural All-Purpose
Design Speed
120km/h 150 1:30 85 190 55 150 n/a
100 km/h or less 130 1:25 75 160 55 150 n/a
Urban Road
Speed Limit
90 km/h 95 1:15 50 125 40 n/a see see Note 2

Note 2
80 km/h or less 75 1:12 40 100 40 n/a see see Note 2

Note 2
Note 1 Nose Ratio is the ratio of nose back width to nose length for minimum angle at
nose. The maximum angle will be limited by the ability of vehicles to negotiate
the change in direction.
Note 2 Ghost islands for merges on urban roads are not permitted and the layout in
Appendix C .2D should be used for all new or improvement work. For slip road
reduction taper, (7) on Appendix C .2D.
8-13
Table 8-7: Geometric Design Parameters for Merging Lanes

Road Class Length of Nose Ratio Nose Minimum Length of Length of
Exit Taper (See Note 1) Length Auxiliary Auxiliary Ghost
m Lane Lane Island
Length Taper Head
1 lane …. 2 lane (3) M m M M

(1) (2) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Rural 170 185 1:15 80 200 75 180

Motorway 130 130 1:15 70 150 55 n/a
Mainline Within
Interchange
Rural
Design
Speed
120km/h 150 150 1:15 70 170 55 160
100 km/h or less 130 130 1:15 70 150 55 140
Urban Road
Speed Limit
90 km/h 95 110 1:15 50 125 40 100
80 km/h or less 75 90 1:12 40 100 40 80
Merge
Nose Ghost Island Tail Taper
Extended Auxiliary Lane
(2) & (3) (6) (5)

Table 8-6)
Diverge
Dual Auxiliary Lanes
Taper Taper in parallel Diverge
Extended Auxiliary Lane
(6) (6) (5)

Table 8-7)
8-14
8.5.5 Weaving Lengths
For Rural Roads the desirable minimum weaving length must be 1 kilometre. On
carriageways up to 3 lanes wide, the maximum distance over which successive
merges and diverges are likely to interact and cause weaving is around 2 kilometres
and this should be taken as the maximum weaving length. The weaving formula is
not to be used for weaving lengths above 2km.
For Urban Roads the design flows must be inserted in Figure 8-14 to obtain a
minimum weaving length (Lmin). This must then be compared to the Design Speed
and related Absolute Minimum weaving length in the same Figure and the greater of
the two lengths taken as the minimum length of weaving section, provided that
signing requirements can be met.
For All-Purpose Roads, the minimum length between a grade separated junction
designed to this standard and an at-grade junction (including roundabouts), service
area, lay-by or direct access must be the desirable minimum weaving length as
defined above for rural roads or the minimum length of weaving section as derived
for urban roads.
Merge Nose Diverge Nose
Weaving Length "Lact"
Mainline
Merge Taper Diverge Taper
Upstream Merge Diverge Downstream
Figure 8-13: Merge, Weaving Length and Diverge
8-15
Figure 8-14: Weaving Length Diagram for Urban Roads
To determine the minimum length of weaving section (Lmin) for insertion within the formula of
Section 8.3.5 e.
1. For known total weaving flow and chosen D/V value, read off the minimum length of
weaving section from the graph above.
2. Check the absolute minimum weaving length allowable for chosen design speed from the
graph on the left.
3. Select the greater of the two lengths.
8-16
9 ROADSIDE AMENITIES .................................................................................. 9-1

9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 Rest Area ................................................................................................. 9-2
9.2.1 General ............................................................................................. 9-2
9.2.2 Rest Area Categories ....................................................................... 9-2
9.2.3 Siting of Rest Area............................................................................ 9-2
9.2.4 Design .............................................................................................. 9-3
9.2.5 Signage for Rest Area ...................................................................... 9-5
9.2.6 Services and Facilities ...................................................................... 9-6
9.3 Service Centres ........................................................................................ 9-6
9.3.1 General ............................................................................................. 9-6
9.3.2 General Requirements for Service Centres ...................................... 9-6
9.3.3 Specific Facility Requirements ......................................................... 9-7
9.3.4 Access .............................................................................................. 9-7
9.4 Stopping Places ....................................................................................... 9-7
9.4.1 General ............................................................................................. 9-7
9.4.2 Motorist Stopping Places .................................................................. 9-8
9.4.3 Heavy Vehicle Stopping Places ........................................................ 9-8
9.4.4 Facilities............................................................................................ 9-9
9.4.5 Distance between Stopping Places and Siting ................................. 9-9
9.4.6 Signage of Stopping Places ............................................................. 9-9
9.5 Interception (Inspection) Sites ................................................................ 9-10
9.5.1 General ........................................................................................... 9-10
9.5.2 Siting Interception Sites .................................................................. 9-10
9.5.3 Geometry ........................................................................................ 9-11
9.6 Roadside Vending Places ...................................................................... 9-13
Figure 9-1: Example of major rest area layout ......................................................... 9-4

Figure 9-2: Typical layout of stopping places for passenger vehicles ...................... 9-8
Figure 9-3: Typical layout of stopping places for heavy vehicles ............................. 9-9
Figure 9-4: Signing Arrangement for Stopping Places ........................................... 9-10
i
9 ROADSIDE AMENITIES
9.1 Introduction
Provision of roadside amenities is one of the requirements to be incorporated in road
design projects. It is necessary to establish amenities to meet the needs of long
distance travellers and this is one element of road safety management, that includes:
• Creation of rest areas at strategic location in identified zones where ouset of
fatigue may appear in travellers,
• Provision of rest areas for motorists,
• Provision of heavy vehicle rest areas with exit and entry ramps,
establish commercial and civic facilities
• provide stopping places for heavy and other vehicles, stopping places at
public attraction areas or points of interest.
• All the above shall be provided with proper signage in promoting and
marketing the use of such road side amenities.
Roadside amenities may be divided into the following broad categories:

• commercial service centres;
• rest areas with amenities to enable drivers of light and heavy vehicles to rest and
recuperate;
• stopping places where stops will be short such as at points of interest (e.g.
lookouts) and pull off areas;
• interception (inspection) sites for weighing and inspecting heavy vehicles, random
breath testing etc.;
• bus stops;
• help phones (refer Chapter 8);
• roadside vending sites
Consistency is required in location, frequency, facilities and signage. To achieve

consistency, guidelines need to be developed that take into account distances, traffic
densities and driver needs. To achieve this goal, the following key principles shall be
implemented:
• Roadside amenities including driver rest areas and stopping places should be
provided in appropriate locations such as in or as near as possible to townships
for security reasons
• Provision of roadside amenities is based on the value of fatigue management for
long distance drivers and the reduction incidences of fatigue related accidents
• Roadside amenities’ facilities, access and signing should be consistent along
routes and across provincial boundaries to assist in meeting the expectations of
road users.
9-1
The following are considered as required components of roadside amenities and will
be discussed in the subsequent sections;
a. Rest areas
b. Service centres
c. Stopping places
d. Vehicle interception sites
e. Roadside vending sites
9.2 Rest Area
9.2.1 General
Heavy vehicle operators drive for long distances, often through periods when they
should naturally be feeling tired. It is believed that utilisation of rest time for the driver
is of great importance for road safety. Roadside rest areas for heavy and commercial
vehicle should therefore provide for the needs of the drivers.
9.2.2 Rest Area Categories
The following categories can be recommended based upon the location, length of
travel and purpose:
a. Major rest area

These areas are designed for long rest breaks, offering a range of facilities and
separate parking areas for heavy and light vehicles. These are designed to allow
drivers to take rest and sleep breaks required under current driving hours
regulations.
b. Minor rest area

These areas are designed for shorter rest breaks, and at a minimum should
provide sufficient parking space for both heavy and light vehicles. While it is not
anticipated that these stops will be used for long rest breaks/sleep opportunities,
separate parking areas for heavy and light vehicles may be required at some
locations.
c. Truck parking bays

These areas will primarily be designed to allow drivers of heavy vehicles to
perform short checkups on their trucks such as load checks, tyre checks and
other mechanical checks as required and for any other operational related needs.
On a given major arterial road design or upgrading projects where the route is usually
used by freight transport, combinations of the above three types of rest area should
be provided.
9.2.3 Siting of Rest Area

a. Spacing
Intervals between rest areas depend on the category of rest area selected, the
volume and mix of traffic and the demand for parking and rest opportunities
9-2
However, the following can be applied as a general rule :

• Major Rest Areas should be located at maximum intervals of 100km
• Minor Rest Areas should be located at maximum intervals of 50km
• Truck Parking Bays should be located at maximum intervals of 30km
The application of these recommended spacing intervals must be considered

separately for each individual highway or road network, taking into account the mix
and volume of traffic and the demand for rest opportunities. Differences in traffic
volume and rest area demand will impact on the spacing of rest areas, and the
number and size of parking spaces provided. Spacing may need to be reduced on
highly trafficked routes where demand is evident.
b. Proximity to villages or towns
Rest areas should be located to promote the use of town facilities (including toilet
and shower amenities and the purchase of food and fuel), where they are provided
and accessible on a given route.
Where the traffic volume and demand justifies, consideration should be given to
providing a Truck Parking Bay within or near a township to allow drivers the
opportunity to take a rest break, check vehicle loads and for any repair needs.
c. Location
In planning the location of new rest areas and the upgrading of existing rest areas,
the status and physical characteristics of the environment of a potential or existing
site must be examined. Issues associated with topography, landmarks or scenic
viewpoints and environment should be considered.
9.2.4 Design
a. Layout
The primary goal of rest area layout design is to provide suitable facilities in an
environment that promotes effective and safe rest and/or sleep opportunities, and to
ensure that there is adequate provision for vehicles and pedestrians to move safely
within the site.
The number of spaces provided at a given rest area site should be based on traffic
volume and expected demand as described below. However the minimum numbers
should be:
• Major Rest Areas should provide sufficient parking space for at least 20 vehicles.
• Minor Rest Areas should provide parking for up to 10 vehicles.
• Truck Parking Bays should provide sufficient area to accommodate four to five
heavy vehicles at any one time.
The number of parking bays provided should be carefully considered as insufficient

parking space may discourage rest area use. In addition, the layout of the rest area
should be designed, depending on category and size, to minimise conflict between
pedestrians and vehicles. An example of layout is shown in Figure 9-1.
9-3
Figure 9-1: Example of major rest area layout
In determining the spacing requirements and design of rest area facilities, it is

recommended that the following parking formula be used (AASHTO, 2001).
The parking formula requires knowledge of annual daily traffic (ADT), traffic volume
on a hourly basis (DHV–Design Hourly Volume) and spacing intervals (BSL–Base
Sector Length). It assumes the proportion of vehicles using a facility is 75% for cars
and 25% for trucks, with the length of the stay between 15 minutes and 20 minutes
respectively. It further assumes that the ratio of average daily use during the five
summer months of the year compared to average day use over the entire year is 1:8.
The peak factor for the case in Kenya can be derived based on the above
assumption.
The parking area analysis formula is given below:
ADT * P * DH * Dc * PF * VHS
Nc = = Car parking spaces required
60
ADT * P * DH * D t * PF * VHS
Nc = = Truck parking spaces required
60
Nc = number of car parking spaces required

Nt = number of truck-parking spaces required
P= proportion of mainline stopping multiplied by the DSL/BSL (the
adjusted proportion of mainline stopping in the overall corridor),
established on a case-by case basis by usage surveys
DH = design-hourly factor (DHV/ADT).
Dc = proportion of cars using the facility normally assumed to be 0.75
Dt = proportion of trucks and oversized vehicles normally assumed to be
0.25.
PF = peak factor, the ratio of the average day usage during the five summer
months compared with the average day usage over the entire year,
1.8.
9-4
VHS = average length of stay for cars and trucks determined on an hourly
basis, normally assumed to be 15 minutes for cars and 20 minutes for
trucks.
Applying constant usage design factors, as specified above:
Nc = ADT*P*0.051 (for cars)

Nt = ADT*P*0.023 (for trucks)
b. Security and Safety
It is recommended that the personal security of rest area users be considered in the
siting and design of rest areas.
Large facilities, Major Rest Areas and Service Centres, will generally attract a level of
use that will provide reasonable personal security for both car and heavy vehicle
drivers. Smaller rest areas, particularly those likely to be used at night, should be
located close to and within view of the road that they serve so that passing traffic can
provide a base level of security. Where practical, the landscaping should maintain
clear sight lines between the road and rest area. Rest areas that are used at night
should be provided with adequate lighting.
c. Pedestrian Access and Visibility

It is recommended that rest areas and service centres be designed to ensure that
potential conflict between vehicles and pedestrians is minimised, and that any
necessary interaction occurs at a very low speed.
d. Speed
The recommended internal design speed for the assembly area is to be 10km/h. The
design speed to this range is selected to minimise the speed with respect to conflicts
between pedestrian and vehicle movements.
e. Access
When designing rest area layouts, consideration should be given to the provision of
safe and effective access to the facility required for different standards of roads.
Features including acceleration and deceleration lanes, entrance and exit ramps and
slip lanes need to be designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 6, At-
grade Intersection. Deceleration lanes should be provided at all facilities, to
accommodate the needs of heavy vehicles entering rest areas from high-speed
roads.
9.2.5 Signage for Rest Area
As a minimum requirement, signage for Rest Areas and Truck Parking Bays should
be provided in accordance with the KRBD Manual Part 5a) Traffic Signs.
9-5
Road side amenities should be signed with the following:
1 Advance Signs: The legend on the signs should indicate of where the
service is located adjacent to the road e.g. “250m on left” or right” or where
the service is located at the side of the road e.g. “Turn left 250m” or right.
2. Position Signs: At or directly opposite the point of entry to a service

location adjacent to the road; or (b) At the turn-off to services or facilities
along a side road, in conjunction with other intersection signs
9.2.6 Services and Facilities

The minimum facilities that should be provided at Major and Minor Rest Areas are:
• All weather pavements, with sealed pavements for access and egress
roads/ramps.
• Shade.
• Rubbish bins.
• Separate parking for heavy and light vehicles.
• Sheltered areas.
• Tables and/or benches, and
• Provision for facilities for people with disabilities
• Toilet, shower and drinking water facilities
Truck Parking Bays should include, at a minimum, rubbish bins, shade and all
weather pavements. Where possible, sheltered areas, tables and benches should be
provided.
9.3 Service Centres
9.3.1 General
“Service Centre” means a roadside development providing essential services for the
safety, comfort and convenience of all road users, adjacent to or in close proximity to,
and with direct or indirect access to the limited access road. Service centres are
privately operated facilities. It is important for safety reasons to provide facilities that
encourage drivers to break their journey to avoid driver fatigue and to minimize the
risk of vehicles running out of fuel.
“Means of access” means a physical means of entry or exit between land and a road.
“Direct access” refers to a direct connection of a service centre's means of access to

the through carriageway of the access-limited road. “Indirect access” is where a
service centre's means of access is from interchange ramps or from other roads
adjacent to or connecting with the through carriageway of the access-limited road.
9.3.2 General Requirements for Service Centres
Service centres are expected to:

• comply with the Government's requirements for environmental protection, efficient
traffic operations and safety;
9-6
• provide appropriate areas for rest unless deemed inappropriate in a particular

circumstance by the relevant service centre strategy; and
• be designed to be attractive to all road users, with convenient and easy access
from the through traffic carriageway.
• provide distinctly separate areas for trucks and other users. Facilities for truck
drivers, including fuelling facilities, dining and ablutions must be separate from
those for other motorists.
Service Centres should not:
• contain facilities which would have the effect of generating significant additional
traffic and which are not essential for meeting the needs of motorists for service,
safety, comfort or convenience;
• sell or supply alcoholic beverages; and
• have drive-through food service outlets, because of the intent to encourage rest
and provide fatigue relief.
9.3.3 Specific Facility Requirements

The following facilities are commonly required, although may not be required at all
sites,:
• service station facilities;
• restaurant/fast food for motorists and heavy vehicle drivers;
• picnic area with tables, chairs and shelters;
• toilets and showers capable of servicing motorists, coach and heavy vehicle
drivers and passengers;
• information services;
• enhanced landscaping;
• segmented and clearly defined parking zones including spaces for cars, buses,
truck/semi-trailers, car/trailers and car/caravans; and
• space provision for Government services and emergency services
9.3.4 Access
Accesses must be located and designed for safe operation, and not compromise the
efficiency of existing and future traffic operations on the limited-access road. Access
to service centre sites should be designed and constructed to operate efficiently
under traffic volumes predicted to occur not less than in the design year after
opening.
It is preferred that service centres are located approximately in pairs, to reduce the
risk of drivers or passengers making risky manoeuvres to gain access to other road
side service centre facilities. It is desirable that service centres should be located on
opposite sides of the road such that the driver sees the near side service centre first.
9.4 Stopping Places
9.4.1 General
Stopping places are areas made available to enable drivers to undertake short stops
for a variety of reasons, such as checking loads, attending to a vehicle breakdown or
enjoying a scenic view. They have a purpose of providing a relatively safe location for
immediate stopping needs at a safe distance from through traffic. Specific stopping
9-7
places are required on sections of road which do not provide adequate shoulder
width to allow vehicles to stop clear of the carriageway with sufficient frequency to
meet unexpected stopping needs. There should be sufficient clearance from the
through traffic pavement to allow drivers to inspect their vehicles safely.
Stopping places are designed to meet the specific needs of both motorists and heavy
vehicle operators and can also located with a tourists’ point of interest
Stopping places for each direction should be located at approximately the same
place, but separated to avoid having stopped vehicles on both sides of the road at
the same time. A recommended spacing is 50 to 100m between adjacent tapers.
9.4.2 Motorist Stopping Places
Motorist stopping places are sealed or paved areas clear of the through pavement,
allowing adequate space for a car towing a caravan or trailer, with safe access and
exit, and sufficient width to allow safe inspection of the vehicle. A typical layout of
such stopping places is illustrated in Figure 9-2.
Figure 9-2: Typical layout of stopping places for passenger vehicles
In all cases, safe intersection sight distance (SISD) must be provided to the start of
the approach taper of the stopping place (refer Chapter 6).
9.4.3 Heavy Vehicle Stopping Places

Heavy vehicle stopping places are sealed or paved areas with safe entrances and
exits for heavy vehicles and with sufficient clearance from the through pavement to
allow loads to be inspected and adjusted safely. Figure 9-3 illustrates typical details
for these stopping places. Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD) must be provided
to the start of the approach taper of the stopping place (refer Chapter 7).
9-8
Figure 9-3: Typical layout of stopping places for heavy vehicles
9.4.4 Facilities
The minimum facility required in a stopping place is a rubbish bin, as stops at these
places are expected to be of much shorter duration than at rest areas. Additional
facilities should be considered, particularly at points of interest. Points of interest are
stopping places provided to allow travellers to view and enjoy scenic areas and be
informed about interesting local features.
9.4.5 Distance between Stopping Places and Siting

The standard distance between motorist stopping places is 15 kilometres. As the
standard distance between heavy vehicle stopping places is 45 kilometres,
consideration should be given to making every third stopping place for motorists
suitable for both heavy vehicles and motorists. If there are towns nearer than the
above distances, however, the stopping places should be within or as near as
possible to the townships for security reasons.
The following three points must be considered for siting for stopping places. In brief,
they are:
• Sight distance for safe access and exist;
• Placing heavy vehicle sites at or near a crest;
• Locating at points of interest and minimizing the impact on the environment.
When assessing a length of road for appropriate location of stopping bays, suitable
sites for heavy vehicles (especially on crests) should be determined first. The other
locations can then be determined to provide the required spacing.
9.4.6 Signage of Stopping Places
A similar approach as required for rest areas should be followed in providing the
minimum signage for stopping places. An example of such signage is provided in
Figure 9-4 . The type of signs should be in accordance with Part 5,A – the KRBD
Manual, Traffic Signs
9-9
(Source: from Mainroads, 2005

Figure 9-4: Signing Arrangement for Stopping Places
9.5 Interception (Inspection) Sites
9.5.1 General
Interception sites are safe areas outside the road carriageway provided for:
• weighing and inspecting heavy and commercial vehicles;
• inspecting other vehicles; and
• Other enforcement (e.g. random driving behaviour checking) by appropriate
officials.
Motorists may use them for short stops to inspect their own vehicles provided the site
is not being used for official purposes. Emergency vehicles may also use them.
These sites also allow over-weight vehicles to be detected and be directed to an

interception site for more accurate weighing.
9.5.2 Siting Interception Sites

The location of interception sites is subject to the design requirements of the access
and weighing areas and the needs of the transport inspection authorities. The routes
taken by heavy vehicles (including alternative by-pass routes) are also considered.
Space required for interception for the following reasons in addition to the required
sight distance and other safety needs:
• deceleration and acceleration tapers and access roads;

• storage for a number of vehicles on the approach side of the weigh site for
vehicles waiting to be weighed;
• the actual process of weighing;
• a holding bay on the departure side of the weighing device for vehicles detected
overloaded (Ideally, this area should allow for any necessary offloading to be
undertaken, in addition to the area needed for safe access to both sides of the
vehicle by inspectors to complete their records.); and
9-10
• Sufficient width to permit safe passing of stationary vehicles and Inspecting

Officers where a vehicle is allowed to proceed.
9.5.3 Geometry
General recommended geometric requirement are :
(a) Maximum longitudinal grade over the weighing area is 2.0% and maximum cross-
fall is 3.0%. Desirable limits are level grade and 2.0% cross-fall. In addition the grade
should be uniform over the site.
(b) Visibility to the start of the exit taper and the end of the entrance taper should be
not less than the heavy vehicle stopping distance, and should be carefully considered
in the context of the ruling traffic volume and speed.
(c) Where weighing sites are required for both sides of the road to cover each travel
direction, they need not be located directly opposite each other, although this is
desirable due to the logistics of providing personnel for both directions.
The entry taper is longer than those for rest areas and stopping places as in those
cases the drivers are expecting to stop and would be slowing down earlier. The
overall dimensions of the site depend on the expected number of commercial
vehicles and the extent of the holding areas required. Concrete pads with nominal
dimensions of 40m long x 5.0m wide are required for effective weighing of multi-
combination vehicles.
A typical layout of vehicle interception is shown in Figure 9-5.
9-11
Figure 9-5: Typical Layout for Vehicle Interception Site
Source ARRB, 2004
9-12
9.6 Roadside Vending Places
Roadside vending involves the selling of articles either directly or from a stall or
standing vehicle on a road. The selling of goods and services in this way is
potentially dangerous, and should be discouraged as vehicles may suddenly swerve
or stop, creating unsafe situations with moving traffic.
9-13
10 SAFETY SYSTEMS ....................................................................................... 10-1

10.1 General ................................................................................................... 10-1
10.2 Sign, Lighting Support and other Features ............................................. 10-1
10.2.1 Sign Supports ................................................................................. 10-2
10.2.2 Lighting Supports............................................................................ 10-3
10.2.3 Traffic Signals and Service Devices ............................................... 10-3
10.2.4 Supports for Utility Poles ................................................................ 10-4
10.2.5 Trees .............................................................................................. 10-4
10.3 Roadside Barriers ................................................................................... 10-4
10.3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 10-4
10.3.2 Longitudinal Barriers....................................................................... 10-5
10.3.3 Selection of Roadside Barriers ....................................................... 10-6
10.3.4 Placement of Roadside Barriers ..................................................... 10-8
10.4 Median Barriers .................................................................................... 10-10
10.4.1 Application .................................................................................... 10-10
10.4.2 Type of Barrier .............................................................................. 10-11
10.4.3 End Treatment .............................................................................. 10-12
10.5 Kerbs .................................................................................................... 10-13
10.5.1 Function ........................................................................................ 10-13
10.5.2 Types of Kerbs and their Application ............................................ 10-13
10.6 Bridge Parapets .................................................................................... 10-14
10.7 Pedestrian Barrier ................................................................................ 10-16
10.7.1 Function ........................................................................................ 10-16
10.7.2 Design .......................................................................................... 10-17
10.8 Lighting ................................................................................................. 10-17
10.9 Traffic Calming ..................................................................................... 10-18
10.9.1 General ......................................................................................... 10-18
10.9.2 Pedestrians and Cyclists .............................................................. 10-19
10.9.3 Traffic Calming on Main Roads .................................................... 10-19
10.9.4 Traffic–Calming Measures............................................................ 10-19
Table 10-1: Cases of roadside obstacles and barrier requirement ........................ 10-5
Table 10-2: Shy line offset .................................................................................... 10-8
Table 10-3: Suggested Maximum flare rates for roadside barriers ........................ 10-9
Table 10-4: Suggested Runout Lengths for Barrier Design ................................... 10-9
Figure 10-1: Impact performance of large roadside signs...................................... 10-2

Figure 10-2: Breakaway bases for large overhead signs ...................................... 10-3
Figure 10-3 Classification of Traffic Barriers .......................................................... 10-4
Figure 10-4: Warrants for use of roadside barriers ................................................ 10-7
Figure 10-5: Layout of barrier approach............................................................... 10-10
Figure 10-6: Median barriers ................................................................................ 10-12
Figure 10-7: End treatment at structure of obstacle ............................................. 10-13
Figure 10-8: Types of kerbs .............................................................................. 10-14
Figure 10-9: Vehicle / pedestrian parapet - typical details ................................ 10-16
Figure 10-10: Rumble Strips Arrangement .......................................................... 10-20
Figure 10-11: Speed Bump Details ...................................................................... 10-20
i
10 SAFETY SYSTEMS
10.1 General
Enhancing life safety is one of the most important and challenging aspects in
highway design. Many safety issues relate to areas of the right of way off the
roadway width on the road side, which is defined as that area beyond the travelled
way and shoulder. Thus, roadside safety is concerned with treatments that minimise
the likelihood of serious injuries when a vehicles runs off the roadway.
Roadside safety must be considered for the following reasons which cause vehicles
to leave the roadway:
• Driver fatigue or loss of attention
• Excessive speed
• Driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs
• Collision avoidance
• Roadway condition such as rain, or poor maintenance condition
• Vehicle component failure
• Poor visibility
Obstacles which often involve accident fatalities are:

• Trees
• Utility poles
• Culverts and ditches
• Kerbs and walls
• Sign and light supports
• Bridge piers and abutments
Design options which may be considered for dealing with roadside obstacles include:
• Removing the obstacle
• Redesign
• Relocating to a safe location
• Delineating the obstacle
• Using breakaway devices
10.2 Sign, Lighting Support and other Features

The option in pre-identification of obstacles that may cause fatalities and the required
design consideration is as discussed earlier. The measures should be considered as
a precaution as well as corrective for existing features.
It is not always possible to relocate appurtenances such as signing and lighting

supports because they are required to stay near the roadway for their intended
purposes, although it is desirable to have an unobstructed roadside.
10-1
10.2.1 Sign Supports

Traffic signs include overhead signs, and large and small roadside signs.
a. Overhead signs
These include gantry and cantilevered signs. Their supports are generally too large
to adopt breakaway design. Supports for such facilities should be shielded with a
traffic barrier.
b. Large roadside signs

Large roadside signs usually have two or more supports, e.g. location signs. These
supports can easily be made of breakaway type. See illustration in Figure 10-1.
Breakaway behaviour for large sign supports may be either fracture or a slip base
type.
Source: from AASHTO 2002

Figure 10-1: Impact performance of large roadside signs
It is good practice to locate large signs outside the clear zone area where possible,
even if they can be made with breakaway design features.
10-2
c. Small roadside signs

Small roadside signs can be driven directly into the soil, set in drilled earth holes or
mounted on a base. They shall be steel of type which can easily bend and yield at
the base.
Source: from Highway Eng. Handbook, 2003

Figure 10-2: Breakaway bases for large overhead signs
10.2.2 Lighting Supports

Breakaway supports for lighting should preferably be a cast-aluminium type fragile
base, a slip base or fragile couplers. These supports have been developed to
activate, when loaded in shear by impacts at a bumper height of about 500mm.
Although this is the case, the danger of falling poles striking pedestrians, bicyclists,
and other motorists should be considered.
Breakaway supports are suitable for poles that do not exceed 18.5m height and
450kg. Supports located within the clear zone should be protected with a suitable
traffic barrier.
10.2.3 Traffic Signals and Service Devices

Supports for traffic signals are not usually of the breakaway type, because of the
possible consequences of loss of the signal at an intersection. Supports in the clear
zone should be shielded with an appropriate traffic barrier.
Service devices such as fire hydrants should also be designed with breakaway type
buses which should include immediate water shutoff after impact.
Mailbox supports should be embedded no more than 600mm in the ground and not
set in concrete.
10-3
10.2.4 Supports for Utility Poles
Utility poles present a hazard often resulting in fatal crashes. Preferred options are
elimination, relocation and burying of lines. Shielding is also another option as with
other obstacles.
10.2.5 Trees
Trees should not be planted in the clear zone for new construction, and growth of
seedling in this area should also be discouraged. Warning signs can be used to
indicate where extra caution is advised. Pavement markings and shoulder rumble
strips can be helpful. Roadside barriers should generally be used only where the
severity of striking the tree is greater than that of striking the barrier.
10.3 Roadside Barriers
10.3.1 Introduction
The barrier must be designed to control and redirect vehicles. Traffic barriers are
obstacles on the roadside and vehicles striking barriers can cause occupant injury
and/or vehicle damage. A traffic barrier should be installed only if it is likely to reduce
the severity of potential collisions. It is therefore of the utmost importance that, in
selection of the traffic barrier, the characteristics of the particular barrier are
recognised. Barrier systems differ not only in purpose but also in terms of deflection
and redirecting properties.
Figure 10-3 illustrates the classification of barriers.
Figure 10-3 Classification of Traffic Barriers
Barriers are installed on the basis of warrant analysis. Traditionally, these warrants
have been based on a subjective analysis of certain roadside elements or conditions
within the clear zone. If the consequences of a vehicle running off the road and
striking a barrier are believed to be less serious than the consequences if no barrier
existed, the barrier is considered warranted.
10-4
Such an approach is used to evaluate three options:

• The removal or alteration of the area of concern so that it no longer requires
shielding;
• The installation of an appropriate barrier; or
• Leaving the area of concern unshielded (usually only considered on low-volume
and/or low-speed facilities).
Once a barrier is found to be necessary for an embankment, it should be provided

over the entire length of the embankment and not simply terminated when the
embankment height becomes less than the warranted height.
Barrier requirements for nontraversable terrain and roadside obstacles are provided
in Table 10-1:
Table 10-1: Roadside obstacles and barrier requirement

Obstacle or Terrain Barrier Requirement /Comment
Bridge piers, abutments, Shielding analysis required

railing ends
Boulders Judgement: nature of object: likelihood of impact
Culverts, pipes (smooth) Judgement: based on size, shape, location
Cut slopes (smooth) Shielding analysis not generally required
Cut slopes (rough) Judgement: based on likelihood or impact
Ditches (parallel) Analysis generally required
Embankments Judgement: based on fill height and slope
Retaining walls Judgement: based on wall smoothness and angle of
impact
Sign and lighting supports Shielding analysis for isolated signals in the clear zone
on speed (80 km/h or greater) facility high
Traffic signal supports Shielding analysis for isolated signals in the clear zone
on speed (80 km/h or greater) facility high
Trees Judgment: site specific
Utility poles Judgment: case by case basis
Permanent bodies of water Judgment: depth of water, likelihood of encroachment
10.3.2 Longitudinal Barriers

Longitudinal barriers are used to protect motorists from natural or man made
obstacles located along either side of the travelled way. They also sometimes protect
pedestrians and cyclists
Depending on their characteristics of deflection upon impact, roadside longitudinal

barriers can be classified as flexible, semi rigid or rigid
a. Flexible System
Flexible systems result in large lateral barrier deflections, but the lowest vehicle
deceleration rates. Such systems have application in places where a substantial area
behind the barrier is free of obstructions and/or other hazards within the zone of
anticipated lateral deflection. These barriers usually consist of a weak post-and-beam
10-5
system, and their design deflections are typically in the range of 3.2 metres to 3.7
metres but can be as low as1.7 metres.
b. Semi-rigid System
Semi-rigid systems, providing reduced lateral barrier deflections, but higher vehicle
deceleration rates. These barrier systems have application in areas where lateral
restrictions exist and where anticipated deflections have to be limited. They usually
consist of a strong post-and-beam system and have design deflections ranging from
0.5 to 1.7 metres.
c. Rigid System
Rigid systems, usually take the form of a continuous concrete barrier. These
technologies result in no lateral deflection, but impose the highest vehicle
deceleration rates. They are usually applied in areas where there is very little room
for deflection or where the penalty for penetrating the barrier is very high. Numerous
shapes are available, including a high version for use where there is a high
percentage of trucks.
10.3.3 Selection of Roadside Barriers
The selection of the roadside barriers should be made on the basis of the system that
will provide the required degree of shielding at the lowest cost. The lowest cost
should also be based on a life cycle cost analysis, considering initial and
maintenance costs and project life.
Roadside hazards that warrant shielding by barriers include embankments and

roadside obstacles as provided in Table 10-1. Warrants for the use of barriers on
embankments generally use embankment height and side slope as the parameters in
the analysis and essentially compare the collision severity of hitting a barrier with the
severity of going down the embankment. Figure 10-4 provides a chart for guidance
for the installation of such barriers on embankments.
10-6
Figure 10-4: Warrants for use of roadside barriers
The significance of this figure is that it provides a range of values of fill slope for
which, at certain heights of fill, a barrier may be more or less hazardous than the
embankment. For example, at a fill height of 6 metres, a fill slope steeper than 1:3
would warrant the use of a barrier while a fill slope flatter than 1:4 would not require
protection. On the intervening slopes, the designer should use his or her discretion in
determining the need for a barrier.
In some situations, a measure of physical protection may be required for pedestrians

or bicyclists using, or in close proximity to, a major road. Examples of such cases
could include;
• A barrier adjacent to a school boundary or property to minimize potential vehicle

contact;
• Shielding businesses or residences near the right of way in locations where there
is a history of run-off-the road crashes; or
• Separating pedestrians and/or cyclists from vehicle flows in circumstances where
high-speed vehicle intrusions onto footpaths or cycle track areas might occur.
In such cases the designer should study the needs and circumstances of the
individual situation in order to take appropriate action.
10-7
10.3.4 Placement of Roadside Barriers

Factors to be considered in specifying the exact layout of a barrier at a given location
include lateral offset from the edge of the carriageway, terrain effects, flare rate and
length of need.
a. Lateral Offset
To allow the motorist the best chance to regain control, and provide sight distance,
roadside barriers should be placed as far from the carriageway as conditions permit.
It is advisable to maintain a uniform clearance between traffic and roadside features
such as bridge railings, retaining walls, and roadside barriers.
The distance beyond which a roadside object will not be perceived as an obstacle
and cause a motorist to reduce speed or change position is known as “shy line
offset”. This distance varies with design speed as given in Table 10-2
Table 10-2: Shy line offset

Design Speed (Km/h) Shy line offset (m)
120 3.2
110 2.8
100 2.4
90 2.2
80 2.0
70 1.7
60 1.4
59 1.1
b. Terrain Effect
At the moment of the impact a vehicle should have all wheels on the ground. Thus,
terrain conditions between the travelled way and the barrier are very important. If a
barrier is installed on slopes steeper than 1:10, vehicles may go over standard
barriers or hit them too low,such tha their performance will be less than anticipated.
c. Flare Rate
Roadside barriers must be flared to locate the barrier terminal back from the roadway
and thus to minimise drivers’ reactions to a perceived hazard near the road when
approaching a bridge parapet or railing.
10-8
Recommended flare rates are provided in Table 10-3
Table 10-3: Suggested Maximum flare rates for roadside barriers

Flare rate for barrier
beyond shy line
Design Flare rate for Rigid Semi-rigid
speed, barrier
km/h inside shy line systems systems
110 30:1 20:1 15:1
100 26:1 18:1 14:1
90 24:1 16:1 12:1
50 21:1 14:1 11:1
70 18:1 12:1 10:1
60 16:1 10:1 8:1
50 13:1 S:l 7:1
d. Length of Need
The total length of a longitudinal barrier needed to shield an area of concern is
referred to as the length of need. Figure 10-5 illustrates the variables that must be
considered, particularly the “runout length” LR and the “lateral extent of the area of
concern” LA.
The runout length is the theoretical distance needed for a vehicle that has left the
road to come to a stop, and is measure as shown in Figure 10-5. Recommended
runout lengths are given in Table 10-4.
Table 10-4: Suggested Runout Lengths for Barrier Design

Design Runout length LR for indicated traffic volume
speed.
km/h >6000 ADT 6000-2000 2000-800 <800
ADT ADT ADT
11 145 135 120 110
100 130 120 105 100
90 110 105 95 85
80 100 90 80 75
70 80 75 65 60
60 70 60 55 50
50 50 50 45 40
After variables have been selected, the required length of need X in advance area of
concern can be calculated from:
L A + (b/a)(L1 ) - L 2
X=
(b/a) + (L A /L R )
10-9
The lateral Offset Y from the edge of the travelled way to the beginning of the length
of need is:
L
Y = LA − A X
L
R
The definitions of variables are as shown in Figure 10-5
Figure 10-5: Layout of barrier approach
10.4 Median Barriers

Most of the principles with respect to longitudinal barriers also apply to median
barriers. Regarding warrants for their use, median barriers should only be installed if
the consequences that would result if they did not exist are more severe than the
consequences of striking them. However, excessive incidence of illegal cross median
movements might justify the use of median barriers.
10.4.1 Application
Median barriers are not normally used on roads with speed limits of less than 80
km/h. In the case of existing roads, the major warrant for the installation of a median
barrier is an adverse accident history. Median barriers should be considered for a
proposed road if the width of the median is less than suggested in Chapter 5. If the
slope of the median is steeper than 1:4, the carriageways are normally considered to
be separate roads, and the warrants discussed previously apply. Median barriers are
also warranted if the barrier will present a lesser hazard than some immovable object
such as a bridge pier.
Where the median falls away, such as where the dual carriageway crosses over
another road or a river on two separate structures, the installation of guardrails at
both ends of the opening is warranted. The preferred alternative, in terms of road
safety, is to provide a deck over the opening although, depending on the width of the
median and the length of the structures, this would, in most cases, not be an
economically viable option.
10-10
10.4.2 Type of Barrier

Different types of median barrier are shown in Figure 10-6. Guardrails mounted back
to back shown as Type M1 are used as median barriers if the width of the median is
between 5.0 and 9.2 m. If the width is between 2.0 and 5.0 m, the guardrails are
supplemented by steel channel sections, 102 x 51 x 3.8 mm in section shown as
Type M2. A median less than 2.0 m wide would warrant consideration of a rigid or
Type M3 barrier. Some authorities prefer this barrier to the guardrail regardless of the
width of the median. The modified New Jersey profile, as shown, can be used
although the most recent research suggests that a single slope is to be preferred.
Type M1
Type M2
10-11
Type M3
Figure 10-6: Median barriers
10.4.3 End Treatment

End treatments may be either bull-nosed or buried. Where the median barrier is
required as protection against an obstacle in the median, the median should be wide
enough to allow for flaring, although the extent of flaring would possibly be less than
that normally used on the outer shoulder. If the barrier is warranted by the width of
the median, it would normally be erected on the centre line of the median, which
excludes the possibility of flaring. The end treatment of median barriers is illustrated
in Figure 10-7. Impact attenuation, otherwise known as “crash cushions”, can be
used as an alternative end treatment.
a) End treatment at structure of obstacle
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b) End treatment New Jersey barrier

(Note: All measurements are in mm)
Figure 10-7: End treatment at structure of obstacle
10.5 Kerbs
10.5.1 Function
Kerbs have a number of useful functions:
• they define the edge of traffic lanes, traffic islands and footpaths– during both day
and night (they reflect vehicle headlights);
• they support pavements and island structures so that edge break-up is avoided;
• they protect adjacent areas from encroachment by vehicles; and,
• they assist in drainage of the carriageway.
10.5.2 Types of Kerbs and their Application

The main types of kerbs and their applications are listed below: (see Figure 10-8)
a. Barrier Kerbs (non mountable)

This kerb is used to provide protection to footpaths traffic islands, pedestrian
guardrail, traffic signs, etc. Kerbs on footpaths should have a height of no more than
125 – 150 mm above road level. If they are higher than this pedestrians may prefer to
walk in the road. Barrier kerbs should not normally be used on roads with vehicle
speeds in excess of 70 km/h.
b. Semi-mountable kerbs
These kerbs can be used in rural situations where high speeds would make the use
of barrier kerbs risky. They are useful in defining and protecting the edges of the
carriageway and traffic islands at intersections.
c. Mountable kerbs
These kerbs are used to define traffic islands and road edges in urban and rural
situations where there is a high risk of the kerbs being hit by vehicles.
d. Flush kerbs
These kerbs are used to protect and define an edge which can be crossed by
vehicles.
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e. Kerbs with integral drain

This is a neat and effective way of providing drainage in urban areas, and it reduces
the risk of water penetration into the edge of the pavement. Other types of kerbs can
be designed with integral drains.
Figure 10-8: Types of kerbs
10.6 Bridge Parapets
A parapet is a protective fence or wall at the edge of a bridge or similar structure.

There are two broad types:
Pedestrian parapets: These are designed to safeguard pedestrians but are not
intended to contain vehicles. These are used where there is a safety barrier between
the vehicle lanes and the footway. Figure 10-9 shows a typical design for a
lightweight steel parapet. There should not be any openings wider than 100mm, in
order to prevent small children from squeezing through the parapet. Standard height
is 1.0 m from the footway surface to the top of the parapet, but this should be
increased to 1400 mm if cyclists are present.
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Vehicle / pedestrian parapets: These are designed to contain vehicles and safeguard
pedestrians. They are usually made either of metal (see Figure 10-9) or reinforced
concrete. Vehicle / pedestrian parapets must be designed to contain out-of-control
vehicles on the bridge and to deflect them back into the traffic lanes without severe
deceleration or spinning. The design event is usually taken to be a 1.5 t vehicle
travelling at 80 km/h and hitting the parapet at an angle of 200. Well-designed
reinforced concrete parapets have the greatest containment capability and should be
used where containment is essential. The basic design principles are:
• Parapets should present an uninterrupted continuous face to the traffic – i.e. no

projections;
• Metal parapets should be designed with horizontal rails set in front of posts, so
that vehicles brush against the rails and do not snag on the posts;
• As far as possible the horizontal rails on metal parapets should be continuous – if
joints are unavoidable they must be strengthened so that there is no risk of them
coming loose on impact and exposing free ends (like a spear);
• The ends of the bridge rails must be linked with a strong connecting piece so that
there are no exposed ends;
• The standard height for parapets is 1m, but this should be increased to 1400 mm
for cycle tracks, and 1500 mm for bridges over railways and other bridges where
containment is essential;
• Metal parapets should have no openings wider than 100mm – if necessary the
parapet should be faced with wire mesh panels;
• Parapets should be designed so that they are difficult to climb – i.e. no footholds
or flat tops; and,
• Where kerbs are located in front of parapets, the height of the parapet should be
increased to take account of dynamic jump effects.
Reinforced concrete parapets should take the form of solid, continuous walls with no
openings. A metal hand rail is often fitted along the top of the wall in order to improve
the visual appearance.
In most cases there will need a guardrail at both the approach and departure ends of
the parapet in order to prevent out-of-control vehicles hitting the end of the parapet.
This is particularly important with reinforced concrete parapets, because of their
rigidity. The guardrail can also prevent out-of-control vehicles from going to the
wrong side of the parapet and dropping into the river / railway / etc below – this is a
common incident at bridges where the approach is on a bend. The guardrail should
be at least 30m long and should extend the line of the traffic face of the parapet.
Refer to Figure 10-10 for the design of the transition section between guardrail and
parapet. It is possible to design a metal parapet that incorporates a w-beam
guardrail, and this has the advantage that the guardrail can be extended off the
bridge to protect vehicles on the approach sections. The containment capability can
be increased by using two beams, one above the other.
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Figure 10-9: Vehicle / pedestrian parapet - typical details
10.7 Pedestrian Barrier
10.7.1 Function
Uncontrolled pedestrian movements are a significant factor in urban traffic and safety
problems. Pedestrian barrier can bring big improvements by segregating pedestrians
from vehicular traffic and channelling them to safe crossing points. At intersections,
barrier can:
• reduce conflicts by channelling pedestrians to crossing points on the approaches;
• discourage buses, minibuses and cyclists from stopping and parking within the
intersection;
• discourage delivery vehicles from loading or unloading within the intersection;
and,
• discourage roadside vendors from occupying the road space in the intersection
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Other applications include:

• Schools – barrier can be used to prevent children from running into the road from
the school gate;
• Bus parks, cinemas, stadiums, etc – barrier can channel pedestrian flows at
areas of heavy pedestrian movement;
• Pedestrian crossings, subways’ footbridges – barrier helps channel pedestrians
to the crossing facility; and,
• Medians – barrier can be used to deter pedestrians from using the median to
cross the road, though barriers on the footways are more likely to be effective.
Nobody likes walking further than they have to, so, although pedestrians can be
guided to a certain extent, do not try and force them to make unreasonably long
detours. People will smash the barrier if it is seen as too much of an obstacle.
10.7.2 Design
Ideally a pedestrian barrier should:

• be effective;
• be strong and easily maintained;
• cause minimum damage to vehicles and the occupants when hit;
• not be hazardous to pedestrians, including the disabled;
• not interfere with visibility; and,
• have an acceptable appearance
The choice is between metal railings and brick or concrete walls. Metal railings
should be designed with a minimum number of horizontal elements, because these
are potentially hazardous in a vehicle collision. The design principles are similar to
those for metal bridge parapets with the added requirement for them to be see-
through. The railings should be about 1.0 m high and be rustproof. Brick or concrete
walls are likely to be cheaper and easier to maintain but they take up more space. All
barriers should be set back (normally 300 mm) from the traffic face of the kerb to give
adequate clearance for passing vehicles. Ends of pedestrian barriers may need to be
fitted with reflectors to make them less of a hazard at night.
10.8 Lighting
Lighting contributes to road safety and improves personal security. Lighting is

provided to improve the safety of a road. Priority in the provision of lighting should be
given to areas with a high proportion of night-time pedestrian accidents, such as bus
parks, pedestrian crossings and entertainment centres. Lighting should be provided
on all main roads in urban areas. The provision of lighting improves safety at
isolated major intersections in rural areas. Statistics indicate that the night-time
accident rate is higher than during daylight hours, which, to a large degree, may be
attributed to reduced visibility. In urban areas, where there are concentrations of
pedestrians and junctions, fixed source lighting tends to reduce accidents. However,
lighting of rural highways is seldom justified except at junctions, intersections, railway
level crossings, narrow or long bridges, tunnels, sharp curves and areas where there
is activity adjacent to the road (e.g. markets).
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To minimize the effect of glare and to provide the most economical lighting
installation, luminaries should be mounted at a height of at least 9 meters. High
mounted luminaries provide greater uniformity of lighting and mounting heights of 10
to 15 meters are frequently used. High mast lighting (special luminaries on masts of
30 meters) is used to illuminate large areas such as intersections. This type of
lighting gives a uniform distribution of light over the whole area and thus illuminates
the layout of the intersection.
Lighting columns can be a hazard to out-of-control vehicles. The lighting scheme

should aim to minimize the number of lighting columns and ensure that the poles are
not located in vulnerable positions. Standards for lateral clearance, clear zones, etc.
must be respected. Lighting columns (poles) should be placed behind vertical kerbs
whenever practical. The appropriate distance is 0.5m behind the kerb for roads with
a design speed of 50 km/h or less, and 1.2m or greater for roads with a design speed
of 80 km/h or greater. Where poles are located within the clear zone, regardless of
distances from the edge of the carriageway, they should be designed to include a
frangible impact attenuation feature. However, these types of poles should not be
used on roads in densely populated areas, particularly with footways. When struck,
these poles may collapse and cause injury to pedestrians or damage adjacent
property. Because of lower speeds and parked vehicles on urban roads, there is
much less chance of injuries to vehicle occupants from striking fixed poles as
compared to higher speed roads.
On dual carriageways, lighting may be located either in the median or on the outer
side of each carriageway. However, with median installation, the cost is generally
lower and illumination is higher on the high-speed outer lanes. On median
installations, dual mast arms should be used, for which 12-15 meter mounting
heights are favoured.
These should be protected with a suitable safety barrier. On narrow medians, it is

preferable to place the lighting poles so that they are integral with the median barrier.
When it is intended to install road lighting in the future, providing the necessary
conduits/ducts as part of the initial road construction can bring considerable savings.
10.9 Traffic Calming
10.9.1 General
The term ‘traffic calming’ covers a range of traditional and new techniques, designed
to reduce the adverse effect of traffic in urban streets. It recognises the significance
of sharing the transportation corridor by employing techniques to reduce vehicle
speeds and decrease car dominance, generally in residential neighbourhood areas,
and at NMT crossing points. Traffic calming is a means of controlling vehicle speeds,
reducing accident risks and improving the environment, using self enforcing traffic
engineering measures such as road bumps, and rumble strips.
The introduction of safe facilities for pedestrians, such as signal controlled crossings
or traffic calming measures, which slow the speed of traffic, can reduce community
severance.
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The objectives of traffic calming include:
• improvement of the environmental quality of streets;

• general improvement of safety and reduction of accidents
• improvement in safety and convenience specifically for vulnerable road users
(including people with impaired mobility, elderly people, pedestrians, children
and cyclists);
• reduction in noise, disturbance and anxiety;
• restoration of communities divided by speeding traffic;
• enhancement of the appearance of streets;
• discouragement of the use of unsuitable routes by heavy vehicles and ‘through’
traffic;
• changes to the attitude of many drivers towards speed; and physical
demonstration that streets are for people as well as for traffic
10.9.2 Pedestrians and Cyclists
One of the main objectives of traffic calming is to improve conditions for pedestrians
and cyclists and to encourage these modes of transport as alternatives to travel by
car. Care is needed in the design if these objectives are to be achieved Wherever
possible, provision should include:
• adequate widths and special routes, often giving priority to pedestrians and
cyclists;
• central islands and clearly designated crossing arrangements;
• footpaths that maintain the same level at formal pedestrian road–crossings,
such as flat topped road humps, and raised zebra crossings
• designated cycle facilities throughout routes and as by-passes at pinch points;
and
• arrangements to make access for mobility impaired people as easy as
possible.
10.9.3 Traffic Calming on Main Roads
Successful traffic calming requires a road–hierarchy framework. It has to be

recognised that the function of major routes and main distributor roads is to carry the
majority of the traffic. Traffic calming measures such as road bumps should not be
provided on higher rural Class A roads, and urban Class H roads. It is advisable to
provide pedestrian overpasses and underpasses for safe crossing on such high
speed roads..
On other Classes of road, traffic–calming techniques will still be appropriate where

drivers need to be encouraged to proceed at a predefined speed in a calm and safe
manner where such roads pass through a centres of population.
10.9.4 Traffic–Calming Measures
The following are the traffic calming measures recommended for use in Kenya:
Horizontal Deflections occur at build–outs, often with priority signing.
Islands usually take the form of a longitudinal island, built in the carriageway, with or
without facilities for pedestrians, to improve lane discipline, restrict overtaking or
10-19
lower vehicle speeds by reducing lane width and separating cyclists from other
vehicles.
Junction Treatments can incorporate a variety of measures as part of an overall

scheme, including flat topped road humps, narrowing and removal of excess areas of
carriageway and the introduction of ramps, horizontal deflections and tight curves.
One–Way Streets may be used as part of an area wide scheme to break up a road
into short sections and indirect routes. By creating detours, they can discourage ‘rat
running’ but may encourage higher speeds because of the absence of opposing
traffic. Contra flow bus lanes or cycle routes may be incorporated.
Pedestrian Refuges are used to aid pedestrians crossing movements, by allowing a

carriageway to be crossed in two stages. They are also used to control overtaking
and to improve lane discipline
Road Bumps are used to reduce vehicle speed and, in the case of flat topped
humps, may provide a level surface for pedestrians to cross.
Road Markings are used to hatch out areas of carriageway, to define traffic lanes
and to create the visual effect of narrowing of the carriageway.
Rumble Strips are part of a carriageway made of materials which create a noise or
vibration as vehicles pass over. They are useful as an alerting device before a
hazard but may not reduce speed. They may attract objections when sited close to
houses.
Standard arrangement of rumble strips and road bumps is illustrated in Figures 10-10
and 10-11
Figure 10-10: Rumble Strips Arrangement
Figure 10-11: Speed Bump Details
10-20
1. TYPES OF ROAD
Road
A way for vehicles and for other types of traffic which may or may not be
lawfully usable by all traffic.
Street
A road which has become partly or wholly defined by buildings established
along one or both frontages.
A road designated at A, B, C, D or E according to its traffic
Classified Roads
Those roads that function in the road network of Kenya, and are administered by
the Ministry of Works, Roads Department. The road classes are described in
Chapter 2.
Special Purpose Road

A road which is constructed primarily for serving the transport requirements of a
particular development scheme, e.g. tea road, sugar road, tourist road, etc. It may
or may not be a classified road.
Local Road
A road (or street) primarily for access to adjoining property. It may or may not
be a classified road.
Through Road
A road primarily for through traffic in relation to the area considered, on which
vehicular traffic is usually given priority over the traffic on intersecting roads. It may
or may not be a classified road.
Bypass
A road on the fringe of a town or village to enable through traffic to avoid
congested areas or other obstructions to movement.
Ring Road
A road around an urban area enabling traffic to avoid it.
Dual Carriageway Road

A road in which there arc two physically separated carriageways reserved for
travelling in opposite directions.
Access
A way whereby the owner or occupier of any land has access to a public road,
whether directly or across land lying between his land and such public road.
Control of Access
The conditions where the right of owners or occupants of adjoining land or
other persons to access, light, air or view in connection with a road is fully or
partially controlled by public authority.
A-1
Service Road
A subsidiary road connecting a principal road with adjacent buildings or
properties facing thereon, and connected with the principal road only at
selected points.
Limited Access Road

A road with right of access only at a limited number of places.
Motorway
A road having dual carriageways and shoulders, with complete grade
separation. It is for the exclusive use of prescribed classes of motor
vehicles.
2. TRAFFIC TERMS
Diversion
An alternative route for traffic to avoid congestion, obstruction or other hazard.
Traffic Flow
The number of vehicles or persons that pass a specific point In a stated time, in
both directions unless otherwise stated,
Traffic Volume
The number of vehicles or persons that pass over a given section of a lane or a
roadway during a time period of one hour or more. Volume is usually expressed in
one of the following terms:
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

The total yearly traffic volume divided by the number of days in the year.
Average Daily Traffic (APT)

The total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days greater than one
day and less than one year divided by the number of days in that time period.
Tenth, Twentieth, Thirtieth, etc. Highest Annual Hourly Volume

The hourly traffic volume on a given section of a road that is exceeded by 9, 19, 29,
etc., respectively, hourly volumes during a designated year.
Design Volume
A volume determined for use in design, representing traffic expected to use
the road.
Peak. Hour Traffic

The highest number of vehicles found to be passing over a section of lane or
carriageway during 60 consecutive minutes.
Traffic Capacity (possible capacity)

The maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation of passing
over a given section of a lane or a carriageway in one direction or in both directions
for a two-lane single carriageway road, during a given time period under prevailing
A-2
road and traffic conditions.
Design Capacity
The maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a lane or a carriageway
during a given time period without operating conditions falling below a pre-
selected design level.
Level of Service
A qualitative rating of the effectiveness of a road in serving traffic, measured in
terms of operating conditions.
Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

A unit of road traffic, equivalent for capacity purposes to one normal private car.
The private car is thus the unit and other vehicles are converted to the same unit by
a factor depending on their type and circumstances.
Speed
The rate of movement of vehicular traffic or of specified components of traffic,
expressed in kilometres per hour (km/h).
Optimum Speed
The speed at which the maximum possible traffic flow (traffic capacity) can be
attained.
Operating Speed
The highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road under
favourable weather conditions and under prevailing traffic conditions without at any
time exceeding the safe speed as determined by the design speed on a section-by-
section basis.
Weaving
The movement in the same general direction of vehicles within two or more traffic
streams intersecting at a shallow angle so that the vehicles in one stream cross
other streams gradually.
Merging
The movement of a vehicle or vehicles into a traffic stream.
Channelisation
The separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths of
travel by the use of pavement markings, raised islands, or other suitable means to
facilitate the safe and orderly movement of traffic, both vehicular and pedestrian.
Diverging
The movement of a vehicle out of a traffic stream.
A-3
3. ROAD COMPONENTS
Typical Cross-section
A cross-section of a road showing standard dimensional details and features of
construction.
Carriageway
That part of the road normally used by vehicular traffic. Auxiliary traffic lanes,
passing places, lay-bys and bus-bays are included in this term.
Travelled Way
That part of the carriageway used for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of
auxiliary lanes, bus-bays, etc.
Traffic Lane
A strip of carriageway intended to accommodate a single line of moving vehicles,
Left-hand Lane
On a dual carriageway, the traffic lane nearest the verge or shoulder.
Centre Lane
On a dual three-lane road, the middle lane of the three lanes in one
direction.
Right-hand Lane
On a dual carriageway, the traffic lane nearest the central reserve.
Auxiliary Lane
The part of the carriageway adjoining the travelled way for parking, speed
change, turning, storage for turning, weaving, truck climbing and for other
purposes supplementary to through traffic movement.
Acceleration Lane
An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle to increase its speed so that it can more safely
merge with through traffic.
Deceleration Lane
An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through traffic stream to reduce
speed without interfering with other traffic.
Right—turn Lane
An auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of right-turning
vehicles at junctions.
Climbing Lane
An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving vehicles to
maintain capacity and freedom of operation on the travelled way.
Central Reserve
An area separating the carriageways of a dual carriageway road.
A-4
Verge
That part of the road outside the carriageway and generally at substantially the
same level. It may contain footpaths, cycle tracks or ditches.
Shoulder
That part of the verge adjacent to the carriageway designed for accommodation of
stopped vehicles for emergency use, and for lateral support of base and surface
courses.
Kerb
A border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the edge of the
carriageway or footway.
Flush Kerb
A concrete structure, usually continuous at the edges of the carriageway and/or
paved shoulder, providing them with lateral support. It is usually flush with their
surfaces.
Cycle Track
A way or part of a road for use only by pedal cycles.
Footpath
That portion of a road reserved exclusively for pedestrians.
Passing Place
The local widening of a narrow carriageway to enable vehicles to pass each other.
Lay-by
A part of the road set aside for vehicles to draw out of the traffic lanes for short
periods.
Bus-bay
A lay-by reserved for public service vehicles.
Service Area
Land with access to and from a road allocated for the provision of certain
amenities and services.
Overpass
A grade separation where the subject road passes over an intersecting road or
railway.
Underpass
A grade separation where the subject road passes under an Intersecting road or
railway.
Road width
A measurement at right angle to the centreline incorporating travelled way,
shoulders and, when applicable, central reserve.
Road Reserve
A-5
A strip of land legally awarded to the Highway Authority, in which the road is Or will
be situated and where no other work or construction may take place without
permission from the Highway Authority. The width of the road reserve is measured
at right angles to the centreline,
Roadside
A general term denoting the areas adjoining the outer edges of the shoulders.
4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
Design Speed
A speed selected for purposes of design and correlation of those features of a
road, such as curvature, superelevation and sight distance, upon which the safe
operation of vehicles dependent.
Design Volume
See page 4.
Sight: Distance
The distance visible to the driver of a passenger car measured along the normal
travel path of a carriageway to the carriageway surface or to a specified height
above the carriageway surface, when the view is unobstructed by traffic. The
following types of sight distance are applicable for road design:
Stopping Sight Distance

The distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling at a given speed, to
bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the carriageway becomes visible. It
includes the distance travelled during the perception and reaction times and the
vehicle braking distance.
Meeting Sight Distance

The distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles travelling in opposite
directions on a two-way road with insufficient width for passing to bring their
vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible to each other. It is the sum of the
stopping sight distance for the two vehicles plus a short safety distance.
Passing Sight Distance

The minimum sight distance on two-way single carriageway roads that must be
available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely and
comfortably without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at
the design speed, should it come into view after the overtaking manoeuvre is
started.
Centreline
The axis along the middle of the road.
Horizontal Alignment
The direction of the centreline of a road in plan.
Horizontal Curve
A curve in plan.
A-6
Transition Curve
A curve whose radius changes continuously along its length, used for the
purpose of connecting a straight with a circular arc or two circular arcs of
different radii.
Transition Length
The length of the transition curve.
Shift
The lateral displacement of" a circular curve, measured along the radius,
consequent upon the introduction of a transition curve.
Compound Curve
A curve consisting of two or more arcs of different radii curving in the same
direction and having a common tangent or transition curve where they meet.
Reverse Curve
A composite curve consisting of two arcs or transitions curving in opposite
directions.
Intersection Angle
The internal angle formed by two successive straights.
Deviation Angle
The external ^angle formed by two successive straights measuring the angular
change of direction.
Deflection Angle
Successive angles from a tangent subtending a chord and used in setting out
curves.
Vertical Alignment
The direction of the centreline of a road in profile.
Vertical Curve
A curve on the longitudinal profile of a road. There are two types of vertical curve:
Crest Curve
A convex vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents above the
road level.
Sag Curve
A concave vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents below the
road level.
Gradient
A rate of rise or fall on any length of road with respect to the horizontal. It is
usually expressed as a percentage.
A-7
Longitudinal Profile
An outline of a vertical section of the ground, ground data and proposed
works along the centreline.
Cruise section
A vertical section showing the elevation of the existing ground, ground data
and proposed works, usually at right
angles to the centreline.
Camber
The convexity given to the curved cross—section of a carriageway or footpath.
Crown
The highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered carriageway.
Crossfall
The tilt or transverse inclination of the cross-section of a carriageway which is not
cambered, expressed as a percentage.
Superelevation
The inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross-section of a carriageway
throughout the length of a horizontal curve to reduce the effects of centrifugal force
on a moving vehicle. It is expressed as a percentage.
5. JUNCTIONS
Junction (Intersection)
(a) A common zone of two or more roads allowing vehicles to pass from one to
the other;
(h) The meeting of one road with another.
At grade intersection
A junction where all carriageways join or cross at the same level.
Channelised Junction
An at-grade junction in which traffic is directed into definite paths by traffic islands.
T function
A three-leg junction in the general form of a T.
Y function
A three-leg junction in the general form of a Y.
Cross roads
A four-Leg junction formed by the intersection of two roads approximately at
right angles.
Multi-leg Junction
A junction with five or more legs.
A-8
Roundabout -'
A road junction designed for movement of traffic in one direction around a central
island.
Right-left Stagger
A cross-roads at which a driver, intending to cross a major road turns to his right on
entering the intersecting road, and then to his left in order to continue on his route.
Left-right Stagger
A cross-roads at which a driver intending to cross a major road, turns to his left
on entering the intersecting road, and then to his right in order to continue on his
route.
Weaving section
The area of carriageway in which weaving may take place.
Weaving Length
The length of carriageway in which weaving may take place.
Acceleration Lane See

chapter 6 and 7
Deceleration Lane
chapter 6 and 7.
Right-turn lane
See Chapter 6
Visibility Splay
A triangular area bordered by intersecting roads and kept free of obstructions
(except essential traffic signs) to enable a driver who is required to give way
to have unobstructed-Led visibility along the major road.
Grade Separation
A crossing of two roads, or a road and a railway at different levels.
Grade Separated Junction

A junction where two roads cross at different levels and are
connected by ramps.
Interchange
A network of roads at the approaches to a junction at different levels which
permits traffic movement from one to the other on two or more carriageways
or roads.
overpass
See Chapter 6.
A-9
Underpass
see Chapter 6.
Ramp
(a) An inclined section of way over which traffic passes for the primary
purpose of ascending or descending so as to make connections with
other ways.
(b) An interconnecting length of road of a traffic interchange or any
connection between roads of different levels, on which vehicles may enter
or leave a designated road.
Ramp Terminal
The general area where a ramp connects with a through
carriageway.
Cloverleaf
A four-way interchange in which inner loops are provided for right-turn
movements and direct outer connections for left-turn movements. A cloverleaf
has ramps for turning movements in each quadrant.
Halt-clover leaf
A four-way interchange in which loops and outer connections are provided in
two quadrants to given grade separation to the major road, but on the minor
road the right-turning movements take place at grade.
Trumpet junction
A grade separated T-junction.
Diamond Junction
A four-way interchange with a single one-way ramp in each quadrant. All
right-turns are made at grade on the minor road.
ROAD FURNITURE
Traffic island
A central or subsidiary area raised or marked on the carriageway, generally at
a road junction, shaped and placed so as to direct traffic movement.
Channelising Island
A traffic island located in the carriageway area to control and direct
specific traffic movements to definite channels.
Refuge
A raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the carriageway as to divide
the streams of traffic and to provide a safety area for pedestrians.
Pedestrian Refuge
An island designed for the USK and protection of pedestrians,
A-10
Bollard
A device placed on a street refuge or traffic island to provide a measure of
protection for pedestrians and to warn drivers of these obstructions. It also
usually indicates by means of a traffic sign the direction to be taken by
vehicles. The device is generally illuminated at night.
Marker Post
A post, generally fitted with reflective material or small reflecting studs,
but not usually lighted, erected off the carriageway to give warning or
guidance to traffic.
Pedestrian Guard Rail
A protective fence between two carriageways to discourage pedestrians
from crossing the road.
Pedestrian Crossing
A transverse strip of carriageway intended for the use of pedestrians crossing the
road. The crossing may be uncontrolled or controlled.
Uncontrolled Pedestrian Crossing (Zebra-crossing)

A pedestrian crossing marked by a series of white longitudinal strips extended
transversely across the width of the carriageway and accompanied by traffic sign
1.30 ("Pedestrian Crossing"), where a pedestrian has priority over all vehicles by
which he would be impeded.
Controlled Pedestrian crossing

A pedestrian crossing marked by two white transverse lines across the width of
the carriageway, where the passage of pedestrians and vehicles is regulated
by traffic sign P27B ("Stop : Children Crossing") and/or an authorised officer or
by traffic signals.
Rumble Strip
A warning device consisting of a series of transverse bars or recesses in a road
or alongside a carriageway.
Speed Bump
A device for controlling the speed of vehicles, consisting Of a bar or recess on the
carriageway.
Safety Fence (Guard Rail)

A continuous barrier erected alongside a road to prevent traffic from accidentally
leaving the carriageway or verge or from crossing the central reserve.
Barricade
A portable or fixed barrier used to close all or a part of a road to vehicular
traffic.
Glare Screen
A screening device for protecting drivers against dazzle, generally from the lights
of oncoming traffic.
A-11
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Street, American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 2001
A policy on Geometric Design of Highway and Street, American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 2004
Brockenbrough, Roger L., Highway Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, MacGraw

Hill, U.S.A, 2003
Code of Practice for the Geometric Design of Trunk Roads, Southern African
Transport and Communications Commission, 2001
Design Manual For Roads And Bridges (DMRB), U.K. 2006
Development Of National Guidelines For The Provision Of Rest Area Facilities,

ARRB Transport Research, 2004
Final Classification Guidelines Report, Northern Corridor Transport Improvement

Project, Ministry of Roads and Public Works, Kenya , December 2008
Geometric Design Manual, Federal Democratic Republic Of Ethiopia, Ethiopian
Roads Authority, 2001.
Geometric Design of Rural Roads, TRH 17, Department of Transport, South Africa,
1988 (for the Committee of State Road Authorities).
Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications, Republic of Uganda, Road

Design Manual, 2005.
Overseas Road Note 6: A Guide to Geometric Design, Overseas Unit, Transport and
Road Research Laboratory, UK, 1988.
Project Development and Design Manual, FHWA, Federal Lands Highway U.S.A,
2001
Road Planning and Design Manual, MainRoads, Australia 2002
Road Safety Audit Guidelines, UNB Transportation Group, U.S.A. 1999
Roadside Design Guide, American Association of State Highway and Transportation

Officials (AASHTO), January 1996, Washington D.C., USA.
Roess, Roger P.,Prassas, Elena S.,Mcshane, William R.,.Traffic Engineerig, 3rd

Edition, Prentice Hall, U.S.A, 2004
South Africa Geometric Design Guidelines, South Africa 2003.
A-12
State Highway Geometric Design Manual, New Zealand, 2002
Sturrock, Angus, Conflicting Interests in Cycleway Design, Sydney, New South

Wales, Australia, Accessed Sept. 2009, at
Http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/
Understanding the Principal Geometric Design Parametres for Roads, Setra, France,
2006.
A-13
TYPICAL NORMAL CROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARD DR1.
TYPICAL NORMAL CROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARD DR2
B-1
TYPICAL NORMAL CROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARDS DR3,

DR4, DR5, DR6 AND DR7
B-2
Table B-1: Typical cross section values of for Rural Road Design
Design Dimensions (m)

Standard of ROW Lw (m) No. of Cw Verge Sw (m) Median
Road (m) Lanes (m) (m) Width
(m)
DR1 60 3.65 4min. 14.6 (2x2.0) & 5m
min. (2x1.0) min
DR2 40-60 3.65 4 14.6 - (2x2.0) & 1.5-5.0
(2x1.0)
DR3 40-60 3.65 2 7.3 - 2x2.0 -
DR4 40 3.4 2 6.8 - 2x2.0 -
DR5 25 3.15 2 6.3 - 2x1.5 -
DR6 9-20 2.5 2 5 - 2x1.5 -
DR7 9-20 4 1 4 - 2x1.5 -
B-3
TYPICAL URBAN CROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARD DU1.
B-4
TYPICAL URBAN CROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARD DU2.
B-5
TYPICAL URBAN CROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARD DU3 AND DU5
B-6
TYPICAL URBANCROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARD DU4
B-7
TYPICAL URBAN CROSS SECTION FOR ROAD DESIGN STANDARD DU6 AND DU7
B-8
Table B-1: Typical cross section values of for Urban Road Design
Dimensions (m)
Design
Cycle Median
Standard ROW No. of Cw Verge Footpath
of Road Lw (m) Track Width
(m) Lanes (m) (m) (m)
(m) (m)
DU 60-80 3.65 6 21.9 4x2.0 2 2 2.5-5.0
1DU 20-45 3.65 4 14.6 2x2.0 2 2 2.5
2DU 18-40 3.65 2 7.3 2x2.0 2 2 -
3DU 3.5 MT
15 2.0 NMT
2 7.2 - 2 2 -
4
DU 12-25 2.5 2 5 - 2 2 -
5DU 9-12 3.5 2 7 - - 2 -
6DU 9-12 4 1 4 - - 2 -
7
B-9
DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 1 a) – Geometric Design 2009
D1 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS....................................................................................... D-2

D1.1 General ............................................................................................................... D-2
D1.2 Plan Size............................................................................................................. D-2
D1.3 Drawing Scales ................................................................................................... D-2
D1.4 Printing................................................................................................................ D-3
D1.5 Views .................................................................................................................. D-3
D1.6 Orientation .......................................................................................................... D-4
D1.6.1 Roadworks ................................................................................................. D-4
D1.6.2 Stormwater Drainage.................................................................................. D-4
D1.7 Drawing Title ....................................................................................................... D-4
D1.8 Information To Be Shown.................................................................................... D-6
D1.8.1 Plan View ................................................................................................... D-6
D1.8.2 Longitudinal Sections ................................................................................. D-6
D1.8.3 Cross Sections ........................................................................................... D-7
D1.8.4 Catchment Plan .......................................................................................... D-8
D1.9 Checking of Engineering Drawings ..................................................................... D-8
Table D-1 ......................................................................................................................... D-3
Figure D-1 ........................................................................................................................ D-5

D-1
D1 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
D1.1 General
All engineering drawings should comply with the following guidelines in order
to standardise the plans prepared. A standard presentation has many obvious
advantages in the design and construction process, and departures from the
guidelines should only be contemplated when adherence to the guidelines
would actually fail to convey all the necessary information. The Project
Manager prior to their adoption should approve all such departures from the
guidelines.
D1.2 Plan Size
Plans are to be supplied on A series ISO standard sheet sizes (A0, A1, A3,
A4 etc).
As a general rule all MoR projects shall have final designs provided as one set
of A1 film and one set of A3 paper copies
Conceptual plans may utilise up to 914 mm wide continuous length sheets if

appropriate.
An approved CAD system is to be used for design and drafting of all design
projects. Lower lineweight on bond paper plots will be acceptable for Preliminary
and Draft drawing stages.
All design project drawings are to be presented with an approved title block as
indicated in Figure D-1 in Section D1.7 of this Appendix. An AutoCAD
drawing file should also be made available.
CAD files of the project final drawings are to be provided in AutoCAD format
of one step earlier version, (if current version 2009, submit in 2008 format,
etc).
All CAD files and drawing produced as part of the project become the
property of MoR and copies of the drawings may not be made without prior
approval
D1.3 Drawing Scales

The appropriate scale should be selected to ensure clarity of the drawing
information and shall generally be as follows:

D-2
Table D 1: Drawing Scales and Submission Format Requirement
Format Requirement
Paper Size
Drawing Type Design Stage Hard Electronic
A1 A3 Copy Copy
- 1:5000 H
Preliminary √ √
- 1:500 V
Horizontal and - 1:4000 H
Draft Final √ √
Vertical Alignment 1:400 V
1:2000 H 1:4000 H
Final √ √
1:200 V 1:400 V
A4
*Preliminary - − −
1:100 Flat & rolling Terrain
Draft Final − √
Cross-section 1:200 Mountainous terrain
1:100 Flat & rolling Terrain
Final √ √
1:200 Mountainous terrain
Scales or bar scales are to be provided on all sheets with the original sheet
size shown to assist with reduced plan scaling.
D1.4 Printing
The minimum size of any lettering or numbering shall be 3mm for A1 sheet and
1.5mm of A3 sheets. All annotation shall be carried out using CAD systems
unless otherwise approved.
Hand tracing, stencils or scribers will not be accepted.
D1.5 Views
Detailed drawings are to be uncluttered and information clearly defined. The

detailed design product shall be fully prepared by electronic means without
manual enhancement.
Roadwork drawing requirements:

a. Horizontal alignment drawing
b. Longitudinal alignment along road centre line
c. Cross sections (including typical)

D-3
d. Kerb return profiles

e. Specialised detail (including slip roads, property access and
property adjustments, etc)
f. Longitudinal sections for buried stormwater drainage pipelines for
urban section
g. Sedimentation Control details
h. Signposting and road marking schedules
i. Guard rails, guide post and other road furniture schedules
j. Landscaping Plan
Stormwater drainage drawing requirements:
a. Sheet index
b. Plan
c. Longitudinal section
d. Cross sections at 15 metre intervals or at critical locations (for major
open Channels only)
e. Set out sheet
f. Hydrology and hydraulic calculation tables
g. Sedimentation control details
h. Scaled catchment plan
i. Pit details
j. Structural details
D1.6 Orientation
D1.6.1 Roadworks
Alignment shall be based on UTM X,Y direction. Drawing orientation and

direction of chainages must be in accordance with the output format of selected
design software. Chainages must also be in ascending order from left to right
across the sheet.
D1.6.2 Stormwater Drainage
Drainage detail shall generally be in accordance with the Roadworks Plans,

with the longitudinal section aligned such that the outlet end of the drainage
line is to the right of the drawing sheet.
D1.7 Drawing Title
Client’s and Consultant’s name, address and logo should be included in the
Title Block.
Project Title with minimal description of work and drawing content shall also
be included in the Title Block.
See Figure D-1 Standard Title Block with details.

D-4
Figure D-1: Standard Title Block

D-5
D1.8 Information To Be Shown
D1.8.1 Plan View
All relevant design information and topographical features must be shown and
shall include but not limited to:
⇒ Title block, north point, scale or scale bar.
⇒ Locality name
⇒ Survey control bench marks and GPS details with location description,
and X,Y,Z coordinates.
⇒ Design centreline chainages, Tangent Points (TPs), Intersection Points
(IPs) and bearings along straights
⇒ Property boundaries, rights-of-way
⇒ Road names and Main Road numbers if applicable.
⇒ The location of proposed drainage
⇒ Construction notes relating to adjustments of accesses, public utilities or
other physical features or improvements.
⇒ Limit of construction defined & R.O.W.
⇒ The extent of structures, new and existing such as retaining walls
⇒ Existing drainage structures including culvert sizes, top and toe of open
channels.
⇒ Existing edges of the bitumen or gravel road surface.
⇒ All access crossing locations,
For urban areas all public utilities, including the location of:
⇒ Telecommunication conduits, junction cables, riser plant, pits, manholes
and poles
⇒ Electricity poles, underground conduits and cables, pole transformers
⇒ Sewer network mains, rising mains, pumping stations, manholes, and
relevant house junction locations.
⇒ Water mains, including size and material type, location of bends,
hydrants, stop valves, thrust blocks, etc.
Dimension and/or coordinates for all work to be carried out so that it may be set out and
constructed without the need for scaling from the plan or for field assumptions.
D1.8.2 Longitudinal Sections
D1.8.2.1 Roadworks
The details to be shown should include:
1. Title block, scales or scales bar

2. Chainage
3. Existing level on design centreline
4. Design level on design centreline
5. Vertical alignment of proposed centreline include chainages, grades,
intersection points
6. Radius or K value for vertical curves,

D-6
7. Length of vertical curve

8. Reference level of longitudinal section drawing
9. Chainage, size and level of existing overpass or underpass affecting
the work.
10. Chainage, size and level of existing drainage structures affecting the
work
11. Location and size of minor new drainage structures
12. High Water Marks of drainage bridge structures
13. Type of side drains and flow direction
D1.8.2.2 Stormwater Drainage
The details to be shown will vary depending upon the location of the pipeline but
should generally include:
1. Title block, scales and scales bar

2. Chainage
3. Pipe/drain invert level
4. Existing surface level (also existing drain bed level if applicable)
5. Finished surface level (may alternatively be described as future kerb level
if in urban area)
6. Culvert size, length, grade and class
7. Reference level of longitudinal section
8. Hydraulic grade line levels at each pit and headwalls
9. Design flow and recurrence interval
10. Pipe full velocity
11. Minimum grade of the design culvert
12. Utility crossing location, level and size
13. Structure reference number and description i.e. Inlet Pit, manhole,
Headwall etc.
The designer shall collect all available information necessary to obtain the required
utility location.
D1.8.3 Cross Sections
D1.8.3.1 Road Cross Sections
The following information shall be shown:

a. Title block, scales or scales bar
b. Chainage below each section
c. Existing surface Reference Level
d. Design surface Reference Level
e. Side slopes (ratio) in typical drawings
f. Typical cross section details, with pavement details and sub soil
drainage.
D1.8.3.2 Drainage Cross Sections
The following information shall be shown:

a. Title block, scales or scales bar
b. Chainage below each section
c. Existing surface reference Level

D-7
d. Design surface reference Level

e. Design water surface Reference Level
f. Side slopes (ratio)
D1.8.4 Catchment Plan

The plan is to include the project catchment area showing the following
details:
a. Line diagram of drainage system
b. Pit reference numbers and area
c. Sub-catchment boundaries
d. Contours
e. Property boundaries
f. Scale
For Urban road projects an AutoCAD DXF file of the project drainage
catchment area showing boundaries, contours and existing drainage
structures will be provided.
D1.9 Checking of Engineering Drawings
The Project Manager will carry out an initial check of drawings and catchment
calculations. All aspects of the design including levels, grades and details will
be checked. Only after final approval of both the engineering drawings and
catchment calculations by the Project Manager shall the Consultant's design
be considered complete.

D-8
E1 ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................2
E2 TERMINOLOGIES ...............................................................................................4
E2.1 Illustrations of standard terms used for the cross-sections. .........................4
E2.2 Illustrations for Horizontal and vertical curves characteristics ......................5
Figure E-1 Single carriageway roads ...........................................................................4

Figure E-2: Dual carriageway roads.............................................................................4
Figure E-3: Standard symbols and abbreviations for horizontal curve .........................5
Figure E-4: Standard symbols and abbreviations for superelevation ...........................6
Figure E-5: Standard symbols and abbreviations for vertical curve .............................7

D-1
E1 ABBREVIATIONS
A
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ADT Average Daily Traffic
ARRB Australian Roads Research Board
BSL Base Sector Length
CADD Computer-Aided Design and Drafting

CL Centre line
CS Curve to spiral
CWW Carriageway width
D
DHV Daily Hourly Volume

DTM Digital Terrain Model
DV Design vehicle
Ex External distance
E Entering Sight Distance
FSE Full superelevation Positioning System
HAL Horizontal Alignment Listing

HCM Highway Capacity Manual
LC Long chord
LOS Level of service
LW Lane width
MGSD Minimum Gap Sight Distance

D-2
MoR Ministry of Roads

N
NRA National Roads Authority
PC Point of Curvature
POT Point of Tangent
PSD Passing Sight Distance
PT Point of Tangency
RCP Reinforced concrete pipe

ROW Right-of-way
RP Reference Point
RPSD Reduced Passing Sight Distance
RRW Road reserve width
S Shoulder
SATCC Southern African Transport and Communications Commission
SISD Safe Intersection Sight Distance
SSD Stopping Sight Distance
TRL Transport Research Laboratory

TRRL Transport and Road Research Laboratory

D-3
E2 TERMINOLOGIES
E2.1 Illustrations of standard terms used for the cross-sections.
Figure E-1 Single carriageway roads
Figure E-2: Dual carriageway roads

D-4
E2.2 Illustrations for Horizontal and vertical curves characteristics
SYMBOL DEFINITION
R Radius of circular curve
A Parameter of clothoid
TC Tangent to clothoid (clothoid origin)
BCC beginning of circle from clothoid end
ECC end of circle to clothoid
CT clothoid to tangent
st station - chainage
Lcl length of clothoid
Lci length of circle
Lcc total curve length (circle + clothoids)
Figure E-3: Standard symbols and abbreviations for horizontal curve

D-5
SYMBOL DEFINITION
ΔR Shift
Xm Abscissa of centre point
T Tangent length
PI Point of Intersection (horizontal)
γ Deviation angle (gamma)
Xn Yn co-ordinates of station n
eo Normal crossfall
e Superelevation
ΔS Rate of change of superelevation

C
L
p Centre - line of road
Figure E-4: Standard symbols and abbreviations for superelevation

D-6
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION SYMBOL DESCRIPTION

g Gradient (%) BVC Beginning of vertical curve
PIV Point of intersection of vertical EVC End of vertical curve
Curve T Tangent length of vertical curve
St Station chainage y Tangent offset (vertical)
Ht Height above sea level (m) x Horizontal length In plan
Rv Equivalent radius of vertical curve (m) f Centre correction
LVC Length of vertical curve (m) Ls Stopping sight distance
Δg Algebraic difference In gradients (*/.) Lm Meeting sight distant*
LP Passing sight distance
Figure E-5: Standard symbols and abbreviations for vertical curve

D-7
DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 1b) ‐ ROAD SAFETY AUDITS 2009
DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES

2009
Part 1 b) - ROAD SAFETY AUDITS
December 2009
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads Draft Manual‐ December 2009

TABLE of CONTENTS
1. OVERVIEW OF ROAD SAFETY AUDIT ................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background .............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Key Elements ............................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Need for Road Safety Audit...................................................................................... 3
1.4 Audit Team ............................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Cost and Benefits ..................................................................................................... 5
1.6 The Audit Process ..................................................................................................... 6
2. PREPARING FOR THE ROAD SAFETY AUDIT ...................................................................... 7
2.1 Initiating the Audit ................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Selecting the Audit Team ......................................................................................... 7
2.3 Entry Meeting .......................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Providing the Background Information .................................................................... 9
2.5 Studying the Plans and Inspecting the Site ............................................................ 10
3 Undertaking the Audit .................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Stage 1 – Preliminary Design.................................................................................. 14
3.3 Stage 2 ‐ Draft Design............................................................................................. 16
3.4 Stage 3 ‐ Detailed Design ....................................................................................... 18
3.5 Stage 4 ‐ Roadworks ............................................................................................... 26
3.6 Stage 5 ‐ Pre‐Opening ............................................................................................ 29
3.6 Stage 6 ‐ Post‐Opening and Existing Roads ............................................................ 32
3.7 Traffic Management Schemes ............................................................................... 36
3.8 Building Developments .......................................................................................... 36
4 Finalising the Audit ......................................................................................................... 38
4.1 The Audit Report .................................................................................................... 38
4.2 Completion Meeting .............................................................................................. 41
4.3 Final Audit Record .................................................................................................. 41
4.4 Follow‐up ............................................................................................................... 42
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 43
Appendix 1 Typical Audit Issues

1. OVERVIEW OF ROAD SAFETY AUDIT

1.1 Background
Road Safety Audit (RSA) is a formal, systematic and detailed examination of a road
project by and independent, qualified person or team that reports on the potential
safety concerns of any highway improvement from the point of view of all road users.
It assesses the needs of all road users, particularly pedestrians, non motorized
transport, (NMT) and other “vulnerable road users” (VRUs).
Application of road safety audit through the design and construction process can
prevent accidents or reduce their severity. It is based on the philosophy that
prevention is better than cure. That is to say that being able to prevent a problem
arising is better and more cost effective than having to try and resolve it once it has
arisen. To do this requires an understanding of the fundamentals of what causes
crashes on the road network
It takes the principles of accident blackspot work and applies them proactively to
designs to prevent crashes happening or to reduce their severity, by applying such
things as guardrails, drivable embankments etc. Lives are saved, injuries reduced
and considerable savings made in financial costs
As most new roads may increase speeds and the potential for serious crashes, it is
important that all schemes are subjected to the safety audit process, irrespective of
how large or small they are.
Most crashes, perhaps 85 - 95%, involve human error, but highway designers can
still greatly influence human behaviour and thus prevent many crashes. They can
also make the roadway forgiving and thus reduce the severity of injuries
Engineering works best when combined with Enforcement and Education. (the
THREE “Es” of Road Safety). Road Safety Auditors can make recommendations
related to all three “Es”

The Road Safety Audit process started during the 1980s and is now accepted
practice in many countries of the world. It is an important component in the country’s
Road Safety Action Plan.
1.2 Key Elements

The earlier that road safety audit is carried out the greater the potential benefits. It is
much easier to change a line on a drawing than to change a constructed road
RSA is conducted at several stages during the design and construction of a highway
project. The key stages are::
Stage 1 – Feasibility Studies

Stage 2 - Preliminary Design
Stage 3 - Detailed Design
Stage 4 – Road construction
Stage 5 - Pre-Opening
Stage 6 - Post-Opening and Existing Roads (during/end of
defects liability)
At least two stages of audit should be undertaken before construction starts.

Depending on the size of the scheme and the procurement methods used, it is
possible to combine Stage 1 and 2.
Road Safety Audit was originally conceived to be carried out on road project designs
so that changes could be made before the road was built. Thus crashes could be
prevented. It has however evolved to include the construction phase of a project as
well as the road immediately prior to opening and at times existing roads. Depending
on the complexity of the construction phases and the extent of changes that are
needed to the existing road during construction, it may be necessary to undertake
several audits during the construction process. It is however, essential that an RSA
is undertaken on the completed scheme prior to opening to public use.
Audits can also be carried out on Traffic Management Schemes or Development

Projects. In fact anything that results in a change to the highway network and

potentially affects the way users may use that part of the network should be subject
to audit.
1.3 Need for Road Safety Audit

RSA is needed even though road agencies employ competent professional highway
designers and insist on the use of good design standards. This is because:
• Roads are primarily designed for motorized vehicles - provisions for pedestrians,
cyclists and other NMT are often inadequate
• New or upgraded roads usually result in higher vehicle speeds - and the potential
for a greater number and severity of crashes
• Compliance with standards does not guarantee safety – although conformity with
standards and guidance is helpful for safety, there will be many situations that are
not covered by the standards or where departures from standard have been
agreed for valid design reasons, but which in combination can lead to unsafe
situations – and sometimes a number of individual elements, all designed to
standard, may, when combined, also be unsafe;
• Safety can be unduly compromised in the trade-off between conflicting

requirements – it can be difficult for highway designers to produce a design that
meets all the project objectives, and safety is only one of the objectives that must
be considered - it is not always considered amongst the most important;
• Lack of knowledge of crash causation - highway designers may not have the
necessary understanding of human-vehicle-road interactions to be able to detect
potential safety problems.
The most vulnerable road users are always pedestrians, motorcyclists, pedal-cyclists,
other NMT, the passengers waiting for transport, and the roadside vendors. Another
important part of safety audit is checking that the design takes account of the realities
of the operating environment, including road user indiscipline, the difficulty of law
enforcement, the lack of access control, poor maintenance and the high proportion of
vulnerable road users.
The audit process takes a holistic view of the safety aspects of the highway
improvement from all road users’ points of view.
3

1.4 Audit Team

There are normally three parties involved in the RSA process:
1) The Client
This is the highway authority or agency responsible for the project but usually
represented by a senior manager, directly responsible for the project. The client
always has the final say on any disagreements between the designer and the
auditor and has three options for getting audits done:
• In-house audit teams – this option has the advantage that it is quick and easy
to arrange for an audit to be done, and means that the auditors can see the
scheme through till completion. If staff from outside the authority can be
recruited to help, it will make the team more independent;
• Instructing the design consultant to do the audit – if this option is selected, the
client must instruct the consultant to use auditors that have not been involved
in the design work -nevertheless it may be difficult for the auditors to be
completely objective because of the conflict of interest - it is recommended
that someone from the client's engineering staff, or other independent party,
be on the audit team;
• Independent consultant - this option ensures that the audit is completely

independent, and over time leads to an external resource in a competitive
market in providing audit services to road authorities, designers or
developers.
2) The Designers of the project

These could be an in-house team from the highway authority or specialist
consultants engaged by the authority. They are responsible for the design, and
possibly delivery of the improvement scheme. They report directly to the client
and will be contractually required to supply the necessary information to the audit
team at each stage of audit.
3) The Auditors
These need to be independent of the design team but may come from another
part of the authority or consultants. Irrespective of where they come from, such
4

auditors must be led by a road safety specialist who is an experienced auditor.

Junior members can be brought into an audit team if they have some relevant
experience and to help train them.
A good auditor is one who can read engineering drawings and visualise what the
scheme will look like. They will be able to “put themselves in the shoes” of each
type of road user and imagine what it will be like, for example, for a pedestrian to
cross the road at night, or for a motorist to turn right in the junction.
It is important to recognise that:

• Road safety audit is a very formal process, not just an informal check or
design reviews. Safety auditors will not redesign aspects of the scheme that
they consider to be unsafe - this is the responsibility of the designer
• Safety audits are not just for big schemes - even small projects can give rise
to serious safety problems
• Final responsibility for changing the design rests with the client - it is not
necessary for the client to have the agreement of the auditor or the designer.
• All recommendations and decisions need to be made in writing and signed by
the auditors, designer and client
• Safety audit is not just a technical review of the scheme to current standards,
it does much more than check on compliance with standards
• Safety audit helps road engineers understand the safety issues associated
with schemes they design, and feedback from the audit process will lead to
improved designs and eventually updated standards
1.5 Cost and Benefits

Audits do not cost very much, compared with the overall cost of design and
implementation of a road project, a typical audit is likely to take no more than a few
weeks to complete. Many audit recommendations will cost little or no extra money,
and may even save money. The evidence from countries that have adopted safety
auditing suggests that the costs of changes introduced as a result of a safety audit
are significantly outweighed by the safety benefits, namely fewer crashes, less
severe crashes, and less damage to road furniture. Studies show benefit cost ratios
of between 15:1 and 20:1 from using formal safety audit procedures.
5

There are also direct benefits to road authorities that include the avoidance of
expensive reconstruction to remedy safety deficiencies and lower liability claims.
Lifecycle costs may also drop, because safer designs often carry lower maintenance
costs. Road safety audit is also completely consistent with “Quality Assurance”. This
is an increasingly important management procedure in which the provider of goods or
services assures the customer or client of a consistent quality product. “Getting it
right the first time” is the underlying theme of both quality assurance and road safety
audit.
1.6 The Audit Process

The road safety audit process includes the following steps:
• Initiating the Audit
• Selecting the Audit Team
• Entry Meeting
• Gathering Project Plans and Documents
• Studying the Plans
• Site Inspection
• Undertaking the Audit
• Write the Report
• Completion Meeting
• Written Responses
• Implementing Changes
These are described in more detail in the next chapters.

2. PREPARING FOR THE ROAD SAFETY AUDIT
2.1 Initiating the Audit

The Client usually initiates an audit, but in some cases where it may have been
written into a contract’s terms of reference, it may be done by the designer or an
external funding agency.
A specific brief needs to be provided for the audit team that defines the scope of the
audit to be undertaken. This may be achieved through the Terms of Reference for
engaging an audit team wholly separate from the design organisation. It may also be
done as a specific brief for undertaking the audit within the design or client
organisation.
Whichever option is chosen, as a minimum, the brief needs to cover the following
aspects:
• Background to the audit
• Objectives of the scheme to be audited
• Relevant design standards adopted
• Scope of the services required (stages of audit, personnel, requirement for site
visit and design team contacts)
• Documents to be examined
• Key contacts with Client , designer and police
• Reporting requirement
• Inputs and timescale for audit completion
2.2 Selecting the Auditors

It is the client’s responsibility to approve the auditors appointed based on details of
their experience submitted in a current CV identifying any relevant training audit and
road safety engineering experience. . A minimum of two auditors should be sought
for any audit, although more may be required for larger schemes. Only in very
limited cases should an audit be undertaken by a single person and use of a single
person for audit would e considered a Departure from Standard.

Ideally, road safety audits should be performed by a small team of people who have
a variety of experience and expertise, such as highway design, traffic engineering,
road construction and maintenance and road user behaviour. It is important that the
audit team contains at least one member (usually the Audit Team Leader) with
experience of undertaking audits and knowledge of the causation factors of
collisions. This means having attended a course in road safety auditing and having
taken part in several actual audits, (training exercises do not count). Competence in
safety auditing comes through hands-on experience. Training is essential at the start
but is only a base on which to build experience. Every audit can serve as a training
exercise for novice auditors and be an opportunity for all team members to gain more
experience.
The benefits of having a team are that they are more likely to spot safety problems
that one person might miss. The team members should have different areas of
expertise. Traffic policemen, urban planners, and knowledgeable local people may
have a lot to contribute. Whilst these people may not necessarily be formally part of
the audit team, they can nevertheless contribute vital local knowledge about safety
conditions.
Once appointed, the audit team should familiarise themselves with the background to
the scheme and be provided with copies of the relevant design material necessary to
undertake the audit.
2.3 Entry Meeting

The most effective way to acquaint the road safety audit team with the background to
the project is to hand over the project plans at a formal commencement meeting
organised by the client or the designer. This is a good time to explain the project and
the process and clarify the roles of the three parties as follows:
• Auditors will eventually make recommendations regarding safety in their formal

report
• Designers will propose changes if any or formally reply why none are needed
• Client makes the final decision

• All design changes are made by the designer, not the auditor.
Some preliminary discussions with the designers are usually beneficial to clarify
areas of concern, but it is important that the auditors maintain their independence
and do not get involved in redesigning elements of the scheme.
2.4 Providing the Background Information

The client or designer will provide all relevant information to the audit team. Much of
it can be found in the project reports. The level of detail required by the audit team at
each of the six stages of audit will vary, but it is essential that a set of all relevant
documents is supplied for use by the audit team
The information provided should include:
• Project description
• Account of the design principles and standards that were used (e.g., design
speed, standards for radii of horizontal curves, super-elevation, standards for
crest and sag curves, stopping sight distance, overtaking sight distance,
percentage of route where safe overtaking sight distance is obtainable, etc.)
• Description of any departures from approved standards and the reasons for them
• Traffic data and traffic forecasts
• Data on pedestrian movements
• Information on public transport services, including the location of stopping places
• Crash history
• Full set of drawings showing details of the horizontal and vertical alignment and
other features
• Signing and marking plans (essential for Detailed Design audits)
• Copy of the previous audit reports (if any) and an account of any changes since
the previous audit (if any).

2.5 Studying the Plans and Inspecting the Site

All drawings and documents are usually reviewed before the initial site visit and then
continuously throughout the audit. The auditors review the plans etc and make
preliminary assessments of items on interest or concern. This is often done by
marking the drawings, circling the items of interest, perhaps using a highlighter pen,
(as this still allows photo copies to be made of original drawing). Figures 2.1-2.3 are
examples of a marked up drawing highlighting audit concerns over guard railing on a
bridge deck and approaches.
Figure 2.1 General locations of concerns
Figure 2.2 Locations of Concerns over Guardrail Terminal and Gap in Parapet
10

Figure 2.3 Lack of Detail of Guardrail Terminal
11

3 Undertaking the Audit

3.1 Introduction
Following the initial review of the documents, the auditors visit the site and carry out
the main task of identifying safety concerns and starting to formulate
recommendations on how to remove or reduce them.
It is essential that the auditors visit the sites at night time as well as daytime and
preferably in different weather conditions to familiarise themselves with the existing
conditions and the environment in which the scheme will function. When the scheme
is a the early stages of design it is still important to visit the site to identify the
connections to , and crossings of, the existing route that might changes as a result of
the new scheme being implemented.
If the scheme involves an improvement to an existing highway or junction then it is

easy to carry out a site visit. If it is completely new road alignment, then it may be
more difficult or impossible to travel over the actual route. However it is always
possible to visit sections of the existing road network that will join the new project and
often there will be adjacent sections of new road that have been built to the same or
similar standards and that can provide very useful information.
Figure 3.1 Illustrative traffic management arrangements at a narrow bridge which may
be a particular safety problem at night
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The inspections should be undertaken from the point of view of all likely road users
and not just car drivers. Young and elderly pedestrians, truck drivers, cyclists,
motorcyclists, non motorised vehicles and disabled people have quite different safety
needs.
Different times and days of the week may be relevant if there are distinct traffic
patterns caused by local generators such as factories or markets. Taking
photographs or videos during the site visit are essential for reference and inclusion in
presentations or reports.
Auditors should also bear in mind the following key principles for achieving a safe
road environment when undertaking the site visit so that they are able to associate
with potential problems:
• PROVIDE for all road users
• MANAGE speeds by careful design of the road environment
• ENSURE that there are no surprises for road users
• GUIDE, INFORM and WARN the driver about the road ahead
• BE CONSISTENT in the way roads and junctions are designed and signed
• CONTROL of the driver’s passage through conflict points and other difficult
sections
• FORGIVING environment for the driver’s mistakes or inappropriate behaviour.
Auditors should remember to:
• Be thorough and comprehensive
• Be realistic and practical,
• Keep only to road safety aspects
• Check compliance with approved standards and guidelines whilst remembering

that compliance with standards does not guarantee that the road will be safe.
• Provide an Exceptions report, not a commentary on adequate feature.
It has been found that the use of checklists or memory prompts is a valuable tool in
ensuring that nothing is forgotten during the audit. Checklists will be refined by
individual auditors as more audit experience is gained. Novice auditors may wish to
13

record their findings against every item in a checklist. More experienced auditors may
prefer to just read through the checklist before they start auditing – and perhaps
afterwards as well.
Initial checklists have been provided in the following sections for each stage of
the safety audit process. Note however that they are not exhaustive and do not
cover every possible safety problem that might be encountered. They are only
indicative and are not a substitute for knowledge and experience. They should not
be followed rigidly. They are there to guide and inform the audit process only.
In an ideal situation a major road project could have up to six audits. This rarely
happens as usually the audit procedure is introduced to a project that is well into the
design phase and may even be under construction.
It must be stressed that the earlier the audit starts the better. The various separate
stages of a road safety audit are described below and specific checklists for each
stage are included.
3.2 Stage 1 – Feasibility Study

This is sometimes called “Planning or Pleliminary Stage”, and the RSA at this
stage deals with traffic safety of the initial plans and designs and covers a range of
topics such as choice of route, alignment, number and type of junctions and effect on
local communities.
Upgrading of a route has serious safety implications for all existing communities
arising from increased speeds. Typical questions to be asked at this stage include:
• How will speeds increase compared to existing road?
• How does the new project affect the safety of existing communities?
• How does the new project affect the safety of the surrounding road network?
• Are there adjacent constructed sections for reference?
• What is the road user mix and are there special needs?
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Preliminary design sometimes recommends phased construction – for example,

designing a road as a dual carriageway but with only one carriageway being built in
the first stage. Auditors should be aware that this often involves design compromises
that adversely affect safety.
Many of the decisions to be made are of a strategic nature and if a wrong or

inappropriate strategy is decided upon it will probably be impossible to correct at a
later stage in the design process.
Stage 1 RSA Checklist

Issue
1.1 Project function and scope:
Is the scheme consistent with the development plans for the area?
Is the scheme consistent with the planned road hierarchy for the area?
Will the scheme adequately cater for:
-Cars?-motorcyclists?-pedal cyclists?-pedestrians? - NMT? - Heavy vehicles?-buses?
1.2 Major generators of traffic
Does the scheme serve major generators of traffic safely, existing or planned?
Are any schools affected
1.3 Network effects:
Will the scheme alter the volume and speed of traffic on the adjacent or surrounding road network?
-if so, will these effects result in safety problems? Can any safety problems be adequately dealt
with?
Will local vehicle and pedestrian movements be affected by the scheme? -if so, will this result in
safety problems?
1.4 General design issues:
Is the design appropriate for the road’s function, category, traffic mix, design year traffic volume
etc?
Is the design speed appropriate? What are proposed speed limits?
Has a clear zone been defined and, if so, is it adequate?
Can any sudden change in the speed environment be safely accommodated?
Is “traffic calming” planned?
Are there likely to be safety problems where the new / improved road connects with the existing
road network?
Will the route permit the achievement of alignment standards (horizontal and vertical)?
Does the route fit in with the physical constraints of the landscape?
Will the road be affected by adverse weather -high winds, mist, etc.?
Does the road cross areas where wild animals are present (e.g. parks & game reserves)?
Are standards (e.g., cross-sections) consistently applied?
Are proposed cross-sections catering for all road users including pedestrians and NMT?
Are rest areas and lay-bys planned?
1.5 Junctions and access control:
Is the frequency of junctions and their type appropriate for the road function, design speed, traffic
volumes and turning movements?
Are the proposed junctions at locations where sight distances and other design requirements can
be met?
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Issue
Are there any properties with direct access? If so, are they necessary, and in safe locations?
1.6 Staging:
Will the scheme be carried out in stages?
Will junctions be built in interim or final form?
Have design compromises been made which might affect the safety of the interim stages?
1.7 Evaluation of alternatives:
Is the road safety performance one of the evaluation criteria?
3.3 Stage 2 – Preliminary Design

The draft design of the scheme has been developed but can still be adjusted without
too much difficulty so the audit examines in more detail the general alignment, cross-
section and proposed layout of junctions. Particular attention will be paid to any
departures from standards and the interaction between project elements that have
been designed to minimum standards. The audit will also look at the wider issues,
such as:
• Does the cross-section meet the needs of all likely road users been considered?
• Is property access catered for?
• Are local traffic movements catered for safely?
• Are speed limits correct, particularly at approaches to and through villages or

towns?
• Are the connections to the existing road network adequate and safe?
• Will the project staging, if any, affect safety?

Issue
2.1 General topics:
Review previous road safety audit (if carried out).
Have the circumstances changed since the last audit,
(e.g. volume, traffic mix, traffic development plans, etc.)?
Has the general form of the project design remained unchanged?
2.2 General design issues:
Is the design appropriate for the road’s function, category, traffic mix, design year traffic volume,
etc?
Is the design speed and speed limit for each section of the road appropriate to the function of the
road, the traffic mix, and the road environment?
Is traffic calming proposed & is it consistent and adequate?
16

Issue
2.3 Cross-sections:
Are the widths of the lanes, shoulders, drainage channels, medians (if any) in accordance with
standards and adequate for the function of the road & the mix of traffic.
Does the cross-section help to reinforce the speed limit?
Are the needs of pedestrians, NMT and cyclists adequately catered for?
Is there a need to separate through traffic from access traffic in towns?
Are there narrow sections (e.g. at bridges, culverts)? Are these avoidable?
If they are unavoidable, are they handled as safely as possible?
Are overtaking / climbing lanes provided if needed?
Are changes in cross-section (e.g. at terminal points) handled safely?
Will the carriageway drain adequately?
Will drainage affect pedestrian movements or increase severity of crashes
2.4 Shoulders and roadside areas
Are the shoulders of appropriate width and construction?
Has a clear zone been defined and, if so, is it adequate?
Check embankment heights and steepness of slopes -if they are too high / steep, will they be
protected by safety barrier?
Has adequate provision been made for bus lay-bys, rest areas, etc.?
2.5 Alignment
Does the horizontal and vertical alignment give sufficient forward visibility for the selected design
speed? Are there any substandard (inconsistent) elements?
Does the horizontal and vertical alignment fit well together?
Does the alignment provide regular, safe overtaking opportunities?
Does the alignment avoid creating situations where the forward visibility is marginal for safe
overtaking (dilemma zones)?
Does the alignment help to reinforce the speed limit?
Is the route through the junction as simple, clear and logical as possible?
Is there adequate provision for channelling (and protecting) where necessary the different
streams of traffic?
Is there proper “lane balance”, and “through lane continuity”? Are there any “trap lanes” (i.e. a
turning lane that is not clearly signed and so may be mistaken for a through lane)?
Is the layout of the junction adequate for all permitted vehicle movements and types?
Does the layout encourage slow, controlled speeds at and on the approach to STOP and GIVE
WAY signs / lines?
Is there adequate provision for pedestrians, NMT & cyclists? Does the junction design permit
adequate signing?
2.7 Pedestrians and other special road users

Have pedestrian, cyclists and NMT needs been satisfactorily considered (check whether there is
evidence of a survey having been done)?
Have the needs of NMT, cyclists and motorcyclists been considered, especially at junctions
(check whether these vehicles were covered by the traffic surveys)?
Have the needs of bus and matatu users been considered?
Are the proposed lay-bys adequate?
2.8 Major traffic generators / access control
Does the route serve major generators of traffic safely?
Are any schools affected?
Are accesses to major traffic generators located near to hazards (e.g. junctions, sharp bends,
sections with restricted visibility, likely to cause queues)?
Can accesses to existing properties be used safely?
Are there any properties with direct access? Is there an alternative to direct access?
2.9 Bridges
Is the outline design satisfactory from a safety viewpoint (continuation of full carriageway and
shoulder width, provision for pedestrians, NMT, cyclists, etc)?
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Issue
2.10 Railway crossings
If the road crosses a railway, is an at-grade crossing acceptable given the road function, speed,
traffic volume, etc?
If an at-grade crossing is acceptable, is it located where visibility is adequate?
Will there be adequate visibility to queue tails?
Does the crossing need to be equipped with barriers and signals?
2.11 Staged development
Will the scheme be carried out in stages?
Will junctions be built in interim or final form?
Have design compromises been made which might affect the safety of the interim stages?
3.4 Stage 3 - Detailed Design

This audit occurs on completion of the detailed road design but before the
construction contract documents are prepared and the land acquisition fixed.
Auditors should look for anything that has been missed during previous audits and
see how any issues identified in previous audits have been dealt with. It is a chance
to check all the details, including signs and markings, speed management through
speed limits and traffic calming, safety barriers, roadside obstacles, lighting,
landscaping, pedestrian facilities, and connections to existing roads. Check also the
interaction of the detailed elements – for example, check that the lighting columns
are behind the safety barrier not in front.
Photo 3.1 Lighting column located outside road restraint system
In the situation in the photograph above a crashing vehicle will be directed straight
into the pole thus increasing the severity of any injury.
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The positioning of signs is always important, especially for speed limits. In the
photograph below the Speed Limit sign is lost amongst all the other signs at this
location and is not in the correct location to slow traffic before the junction.
Photo 3.2 Poorly located speed limit sign
Many pedestrian crossings and bus bays are poorly located and poorly used. Local
conditions need to be observed by the designers and auditors to ensure safe
operation of new facilities. Attention to detail at this stage can help reduce the cost
and nuisance of last-minute changes during construction. However, it is often difficult
to get sufficiently detailed information, because many decisions that greatly affect
safety will be left for the supervising engineer to make during the construction phase.
This is why Stage 5, (Pre-Opening), audits are so important.
Issue
3.1 General topics:
Check for major changes since the last audit.
Are there any safety implications?
Check that the circumstances for the proposals still apply.
Have there been any significant changes to the network or area to be served?
Is the proposed function of the road still as intended?
Are future improvements planned that will affect the safe use of the road?
3.2 Detail of geometric design:
Are the design details (e.g. lane and shoulder widths, cross-fall, super-elevation, footway design,
drainage channels etc.) consistent?
19

Issue
3.3 Cross-sections
Have there been changes to the cross-sections that affect safety?
Is the design still free of undesirable changes in cross-section design?
Are the clearances in accordance with standards?
Have overtaking / climbing lanes been designed in a safe manner (particularly the lane gain and
lane drop)?
If there are traffic calming measures, for speed management purposes, are they safe (check
whether cyclists, n.m.v.s might be affected)?
3.4
Drainage
Will the new road drain adequately (particularly at sag curves)?
Are the road grades and cross-fall adequate for satisfactory drainage?
Are flat spots avoided (check at start/end of super-elevation)?
Are roadside drains of a safe design (can they be traversed safely by out-of-control vehicles; are
they a hazard to pedestrians)?
Will pedestrian areas, cycle-ways, lay-bys and other paved areas drain adequately?
3.5 Shoulders, edge treatment and roadside areas
Are the shoulders of appropriate design (width, cross-fall, construction, avoidance of edge drop)?
Have the clear zone standards been met?
If not, can the hazards be removed?
If not, have adequate arrangements been made to protect vehicles from the hazards?
Are there any “open windows” through which out-of-control vehicles could fall?
If so, can they be closed, or shielded by safety barrier?
Are safety barrier terminals & connections correct and safe?
If there is a median, is it free of hazardous objects?
If not, can they be removed, or protected?
Has adequate provision been made for bus lay-bys, rest areas, etc.?
Are any lay-bys, rest areas, etc. located and designed to safe standards?
Are culvert ends (headwalls) located outside the clear zone, or have they been designed not to
be a hazard, or has adequate protection been provided?
Is the design of kerbs appropriate for the speed of traffic and the road environment?
3.6 Alignment
Does the horizontal and vertical alignment give sufficient forward visibility for the selected design
speed?
Are there any substandard (inconsistent) sections?
Are substandard sections adequately signed?
Are changes in speed handled safely?
Does the horizontal and vertical alignment fit well together?
Does the alignment provide regular, safe overtaking opportunities?
Does the alignment avoid creating situations where the forward visibility is marginal for safe
overtaking (dilemma zones)?
Does the proposed treatment at bends make appropriate and safe provision for: transition curves,
super-elevation and carriageway widening?
Does the alignment help to reinforce the speed limit?
Is the design free of sight line obstructions (fences, street furniture, safety barrier, signs,
landscaping, bridge abutments, parked vehicles)?
Is visibility adequate at any pedestrian crossings?
Is there sufficient visibility on the approach to junctions?
Are there any awkward surprises or visual illusions that could confuse drivers? If so, can they be
avoided?
If not, are they handled safely?
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Issue
Does the vertical alignment put excessive demands on the power of heavy vehicles?
Has it been designed so that maximum grades are interspersed with recovery grades?
3.7 Junctions:
Will the layout and function of the junction be understood by drivers as they approach? Does the
layout conform to established Kenyan practice?
Is there proper “lane balance”, and “through lane continuity”?
Are there sufficient lanes for the volume of traffic?
Is the route through the junction as simple, clear and logical as possible?
Is there adequate provision for channelling (and protecting) where necessary the different
streams of traffic?
Is the layout of the junction adequate for all permitted vehicular movements and for all types of
vehicle?
Are the lane widths adequate (check need for widening on curves)?
Are the traffic islands sufficiently large to avoid being a hazard (especially at night)? Does the
shape guide vehicles into the correct travel path?
Are there any “trap lanes”? Can they be avoided?
If not, are they signed adequately?
Does the layout encourage slow, controlled speeds at and on the approach to STOP and GIVE
WAY signs / lines?
Are the sight lines at and on the approach to STOP and GIVE WAY lines and other critical
decision points adequate and unobstructed?
Are there are awkward differences in level on the approach to and within the junction?
If there is likely to be queuing, will approaching vehicles be able to see the queue tails in time to
stop safely?
Are there any ‘local’ features that may affect the safe use of the junction?
Is there a need to provide for U-turns? If so, does the layout permit safe U-turns?
Is there adequate provision for pedestrians (clear, convenient crossing points, refuge islands,
dropped kerbs, etc.)?
Is there a need to use pedestrian barrier to channel pedestrians to safe crossing points? Is the
junction safe for cyclists and NMT?
Are there acceleration and deceleration lanes?
If so, are they long enough for traffic to use them safely?
Is the junction adequately and correctly signed in accordance with the Traffic Signs Manual?
Does the junction need to be lit?
If lighting is to be provided, are the lighting columns in a safe place?
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Issue
Additional checklists where junctions include: Traffic Signals
Can the signals be clearly seen on the approach to the junction?
Do measures need to be taken to reduce speeds on approach to the junction?
Is there any confusion when groups of signals are placed close together (see-through effect)?
Is there a need to fit signal hoods to prevent drivers seeing signals that do not apply to them?
Will the signals be hidden in bright sunshine?
Are the signal heads fitted with backing boards?
Are the signal lamps the correct size?
Are there at least two signal heads (primary and secondary) controlling each traffic movement?
If there are two or more lanes on the approach, is there a need to provide a second primary
signal -on a traffic island?
Is there likely to be any confusion over which signal controls each movement?
Is there sufficient lateral clearance between signal heads and the carriageway?
Do the signal colours, arrangement, signal sequence, and signal timings conform to accepted
practice?
Are they in accordance with the Traffic Signs Regulations and the advice in the Traffic Signs
Manual?
Does the signal phasing prevent any unexpected conflict situations?
Is it necessary to have protected right turns?
Is the “inter-green time” between conflicting phases sufficient for safe operation?
Can the junction be used safely if the signals are not working or are switched to flashing amber?
Is there a phase to accommodate pedestrians?
Are the settings and timings adequate for safe use?
Can pedestrians get confused about which signal applies to them?
Is the junction marked in accordance with the advice in the Traffic Signs Manual?
Is the stop line perpendicular to the centre line?
Is the control equipment located in a safe place where it will not interfere with visibility and is
unlikely to be hit by errant vehicles?
Is there safe parking for the maintenance vehicle?
22

Issue
Additional checklists where junctions are roundabouts
Is the geometry simple and easily understood by drivers on the approach to the roundabout?
Is the size of the roundabout sufficient for the volume and mix of traffic and the number of
entries?
Is the central island sufficiently conspicuous? Are there too many entries for safe, efficient
operation?
Are the entries and exits spaced far enough apart?
Does the design deflect entering traffic sufficiently to ensure that entry speeds are no greater
than 50 km/h?
Is the visibility for entering traffic and circulating traffic adequate? Has the centre island been
designed to be forgiving to errant vehicles?
Has adequate provision been made for pedestrians to cross the arms of the roundabout?
Have the needs of cyclists and NMT been considered?
Is the signing and marking in conformity with the guidance given in the Traffic Signs Manual?
Are the markings adequate?
Is there a need for dedicated lanes?
Additional checklists for grade separated junctions

Is the vertical alignment adequate?
Can the drivers see the junction?
If there are merge situations, are they arranged so that the traffic joins the mainline from the
nearside, i.e. from the left?
Is the merge/diverge point clearly identifiable for drivers on the mainline?
Are the acceleration lanes of adequate length and design?
Are the deceleration tapers of adequate length and design?
Is joining traffic inter-visible with the mainline?
Is the design speed for the ramps adequate?
Does the design of the ramp provide adequate forward visibility?
Are there sharp bends on the ramps? (consider use of chevron signs and safety barrier) Are
there any accesses on the ramps?
Can they be relocated?
Are the off-ramps long enough to accommodate peak traffic flows without queues extending back
onto the mainline?
Check whether safety barrier is needed on embanked ramps and other road sections.
23

Issue
3.8 Traffic Signs, markings & street furniture:

Is the level of signing appropriate for the road?
Is there an over-reliance on signs (instead of better geometric design)?
Do the signs (incl. road markings) conform to the Traffic Signs Regulations and the advice given
in the Traffic Signs Manual?
Can the signs be seen and are they of sufficient size?
Do the signs convey the correct message?
Are signs located in appropriate and safe places?
Do signs give adequate information to drivers?
Do the signs need to be protected with safety barrier?
Are gantry signs needed?
If gantry signs are used can they be seen at night?
Do they need to be externally illuminated?
Does the scheme make provision for removing unnecessary, wrong or outworn signs? A
Are road markings correct?
Are the criteria for the use of no overtaking centre lines specified, and, if they are, are they
correct for the traffic speed on each section?
Will traffic island markings need to be reinforced by rumble strips or flexible traffic cylinders?
Will reflective pavement markers (road studs) be needed?
Should roadside marker posts (delineators) be provided in order to improve the “readability” of
the road?
3.9 Bridges
Is the design satisfactory from a safety viewpoint with continuation of full carriageway and
shoulder width, provision for pedestrians, NMT, cyclists, etc. and a clear and safe path onto and
off the bridge?
Does the parapet need to function as a safety barrier? If so, will it perform satisfactorily? Has the
parapet been designed for safety (height, level of containment, limit on size of openings, etc.)?
Are the parapet ends properly protected?
3.10 Safety barriers

Are safety barriers provided where necessary?
Are they long enough to prevent an out-of-control vehicle from reaching the hazard?
Are the terminal arrangements (upstream and downstream ends) safe?
Do safety barriers restrict visibility?
Do safety barriers block pedestrian desire lines?
Has steel beam guardrail been designed correctly (check beam height, post spacing, lateral
clearance, spacer blocks, nuts and bolts, reflectors, terminal pieces, and whether the beams are
overlapped correctly)?
Check that transitions between barrier types (e.g. steel beam guardrail to concrete bridge
parapet) are safe.
Are there any features that could create a safety problem?
24

Issue
3.11
Provision for Pedestrians

Are footways provided where needed?
Is there a network of footways and safe crossing points serving the main pedestrian movements?
Is there a need for special provision outside schools, hospitals and other major generators of
pedestrian movement?
Are traffic calming measures needed to reduce speeds at crossing points?
Are raised zebra crossings appropriate?
Does the footway network enable pedestrians to avoid major conflicts with vehicles?
Are the main crossing points in safe locations?
Is there good inter-visibility between pedestrians and drivers?
Do the main crossing points have features / facilities to help pedestrians (e.g. “dropped kerbs”,
refuges, “build-outs”, zebra crossings, signal-controlled crossings, etc.)?
Is there likely to be any confusion about who has right of way at crossing facilities?
Does the signing and marking conform to the Traffic Signs Regulations and the advice in the
Traffic Signs Manual?
Are there any obstructions (signs, lighting columns, safety barrier, etc) in the footways? If so, can
they be removed or moved?
Is it necessary to channel pedestrians to safe crossing points using pedestrian barrier?
If pedestrian barrier is used is it of a safe design (not dangerous when hit by vehicles)?
3.12 Access to Properties:

Can accesses to existing properties be used safely?
Are there any special measures that need to be incorporated into the design to ensure safety (i.e.
near schools, public areas, or commercial centres)?
3.13
Utilities:
Is there adequate clearance for overhead power lines?
Can utility apparatus be accessed safely?
Can maintenance vehicles be parked safely?
Are power boxes and access chambers located in a safe place (e.g. away from traffic lanes)?
3.14 Vegetation and landscaping:
Are there any trees/vegetation/landscaping located where they may interfere with visibility and
affect the safety of road users?
3.15 Lighting:
Is lighting required and, if so, has it been adequately provided?
Does the lighting adequately illuminate critical points, such as pedestrian crossings, refuges,
merge and diverge areas, STOP and GIVE WAY lines, etc.)?
Will the lighting scheme mislead drivers in any way (e.g. regarding priorities at junctions, or
alignment)?
Is there a night-time accident problem, is it covered by the lighting scheme?
Are the lighting columns located where they are less likely to be hit by out-of-control vehicles (as
far as the need for even illumination allows)?
Are the lighting columns of a design that makes them as little a hazard as possible?
Is there adequate clearance between the lighting column and the edge of the carriageway?
Do lighting columns on a median need to be protected by safety barrier?
3.16
Railway crossings:
Is the crossing located where visibility is adequate?
Will there be adequate visibility to queue tails?
Is there a need for speed management measures on the approaches to the crossing?
Is there a need for barriers and signals? If so, have these been correctly designed?
Has the Kenyan Railways authority given its approval?
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Issue
3.17 Maintenance:
Can access to structures be carried out safely?
Can maintenance vehicles stop in a safe place?
Is planned maintenance adequate to deal with safety features such as shoulders and guardrails?
3.18
Publicity and training:
If the project will bring big changes to the traffic environment (e.g. more traffic, faster traffic) is it
necessary to undertake a road safety awareness campaign amongst roadside communities?
3.19 Enforcement
Is planned policing adequate for the safety of the new road?
3.5 Stage 4 – Road Construction

Road works tend to have an above-average number of crashes and are often one of
the most important stages for an auditor to consider.
Traffic management and temporary works should be inspected for safety as an

independent stage or combined with Stage 5, depending on the size of the scheme.
For complex schemes, where different traffic management arrangements are needed
at different phase of the work, a Roadworks audit should be undertaken before and
after implementation of each traffic management arrangement.
Traffic is often flowing through road works on traffic management, road improvement
or rehabilitation and some new projects. This can lead to serious dangers to both
construction workers and road users alike and thus deserves a separate stage of
audit. The focus of road-works audits should be:
• Advance warning
• Guidance by means of signs and devices
• Speed control
• Clear and efficient traffic control
• Protection of workers
• Safe access for construction vehicles
• Safety needs during night-time
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The Kenya Road Design Manual Part 5a Chapter 8, gives advice on road work signs
that is a useful guide for an auditor. The procedure for setting out signs is reproduced
below:
Procedures for Setting Out Signs:
1 A responsible person should be designated the task of setting out signs and
cones etc. He/she should be responsible for the maintenance of the signs
throughout the duration of the works, ensuring that they are cleaned regularly
and that signs and cones which are removed to allow access for site traffic
are immediately replaced.
2 All personnel on site should wear brightly coloured jackets with a combination
of fluorescent material, (for daytime visibility) and retro-reflective material, (for
night time visibility).
3 The first sign a driver should see on approaching road works is the road
works ahead sign. A supplementary plate may be added to this sign indicating
the nature of the works.
4 The setting out of cones and signs etc. should be performed facing oncoming
traffic. Setting out should commence with the road works sign at the
recommended distance from the hazard. Signs and cones should then be set
out in sequence moving back towards the obstruction.
5 Signing should be confined to those signs which are relevant to the situation.
Too many signs can detract from the message they are intended to convey. A
driver attempting to assimilate a number of different signs in rapid succession
may miss the relevant ones. It is better to use no sign at all than an incorrect
one. Motorists, who are continually confronted with inappropriate signs will
eventually develop total disregard for all signs.
6 It is good practice for the person who set out the signs to drive through the area
and check the signs from a motorist's viewpoint. This should be done from all
approaches.
7 As work proceeds along the carriageway, signs should be repositioned as

required.
27

8 Permanent signs which are temporarily made redundant by virtue of the road
works should be covered up.
9 The site should be kept tidy, and all mud carried onto the road should be
cleaned off.
10 On completion of road works, all road work signs should be immediately

removed.
In addition, all personnel on site should wear brightly coloured jackets with a
combination of fluorescent material, (yellow, orange or green, for daytime visibility)
and retro-reflective material (for night time visibility).
Issue
4.1
Providing safely for everyone:
Do the road-works proposals cater safely for the passage of all types of traffic and road
users?
Check that pedestrians, NMT and cyclists will be safe when crossing the site?
Can local people access their properties on foot and by vehicle?
4.2 Signing
Does the signing provide sufficient advance warning of the road-works?
Is all the signing in accordance with the provisions of the Traffic Signs Manual?
4.3 Safe traffic movement through the site:
Do the arrangements for the passage of traffic encourage smooth flow of traffic at safe
speeds?
Will speed humps, speed limit signs, or other speed control measures be required? Does
the signing and channelisation provide clear guidance to drivers on which way they should
go?
Are traffic lanes of sufficient width, taking account of vehicle mix, likelihood of wide vehicles,
etc.?
Are the barricades, markers and other channelisation devices adequate (check size,
robustness, colour, visibility, spacing, etc.)?
4.4 Diversion roads
Are any diversion roads designed to safe standards (check width, alignment, drainage,
edge markers, side slopes, junctions, signing, surfacing, etc.)?
Will there be a need for speed humps, speed limit signs, no overtaking signs, or other speed
control measures?
4.5 Work areas
Are all work areas, excavations, stockpiles of materials, etc., adequately fenced off and
protected from moving traffic?
Has sufficient space been left for workers and plant to operate without coming into conflict
with moving traffic?
28

Issue
4.6
One-way working
Is one-way working acceptable, given the road's traffic function, traffic volume and speed?
Is the advance signing adequate? (check visibility to queue tails)
Will the traffic queues obstruct junctions and accesses, or cause other problems? How will
traffic be controlled? (traffic signals or STOP/GO boards are much safer than flagmen)
If one-way working will operate at night, what will be the traffic control arrangements? -is
there likely to be abuse by impatient drivers?
Will the STOP/GO signs or traffic signals be clearly visible to approaching traffic?
Is the shuttle lane excessively long?
Will the traffic control lead to unacceptably long delays to traffic?
4.7
Access for works traffic
Are the accesses for works vehicles safe (check location, signing, need for control, etc.)?
4.8 Safety at night
Will the site operate safely at night?
Will lighting be needed?
3.6 Stage 5 - Pre-Opening

Ideally this audit takes place immediately before the road is opened to traffic, but on
most projects traffic flows before completion. This is most often true of rehabilitation
or upgrading schemes. However, if the audit is not possible before opening to traffic
it must be completed within one month of use by the general public.
The audit involves a detailed inspection of the road and all the signs, and other road
features. The objective is to check for any hazardous feature that was not apparent
at previous stages and that all the design details have been correctly implemented.
The audit includes a site inspection by day and night looking at the as constructed, or
nearly complete, placing of signs, road markings, guardrails light columns and
especially the facilities for pedestrians and all vulnerable road users.
Check too that the roadway is free of construction equipment, building materials, etc.,
and that any temporary signage is ready to be removed when the road is opened to
traffic. It is useful to have a local traffic police officer take part in the inspection, as
they are likely to have a good understanding of how the local people will cope with
the new road. They can also be asked to arrange for an increased police presence in
the first few days after opening.
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Issue
5.1 General topics:
Have any changes been made during construction that may lead to safety
problems?
Has the design been correctly translated into physical form?
Check that no roadside hazards have been installed or overlooked. Is safety
adequate for: pedestrians of all ages, n.m.v.s, bicycles, truck and bus movements,
motorcycles, cars?
5.2 Drainage:
Is the drainage of the road and its surroundings adequate?
Will the discharge from the drains cause problems (e.g. washaways of rail track or
roads)?
5.3 Environmental:
Is planting located to avoid obstruction to visibility and sight lines?
Will planting cause problems when mature (i.e. size of trunk or canopy spread)?
Does planting obscure pedestrian movements near the edge of the road?
Check that no natural feature creates a danger by its presence or loss of visibility.
5.4 Roadside:
Are there any obstructions or other hazards remaining in the clear zone?
Are there any “open windows” through which out-of-control vehicles could fall?
Have the appropriate types of kerbs (if any) been used?
5.5 Safety barriers:
Are safety barriers provided everywhere they are needed?
Are they long enough to prevent an out-of-control vehicle from reaching the
hazard?
Has steel beam guardrail been designed and installed correctly (check beam
height, post spacing, lateral clearance, spacer blocks, nuts and bolts, reflectors,
terminal pieces, and whether the beams have been overlapped correctly)?
Check that transitions between barrier types (e.g. steel beam guardrail to concrete
bridge parapet) are safe.
5.6 Access to property and developments:
Are all accesses safe for their intended use?
Are all accesses adequate, in terms of design, location and visibility?
5.7 Services:
Are access chambers, lines, boxes, lighting columns etc. located in a safe place?
(i.e. clear of traffic lanes and behind any safety barrier).
Is there a safe place for maintenance vehicles to stop?
5.8 Alignment:
Check that the route has no safety problems in each direction.
Are there any problems at night that are not apparent during the day?
Is there adequate visibility/stopping sight distance?
Check that the form of road and its traffic management are easily recognised under
likely traffic conditions.
Check the need for more signs and markings.
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Check that the edge delineation of the edge of the carriageway is clear.
Are drivers misled by any visual illusion?
Could the alignment of the old road mislead drivers?
Is the transition from the old, unimproved road to the new road satisfactory (good
delineation, no awkward manoeuvres)?
5.9 Junctions:
Is the junction clearly visible to approaching drivers?
Is the form and function of the junction clear to drivers on all approaches?
Are the STOP and GIVE WAY lines visible at a safe stopping distance?
Are there any problems at night that are not apparent during the day?
Additional items to consider for specific types of junction:

Traffic signals:
Can the signals be seen clearly on all approaches?
Is the alignment of the signal heads correct?
Are the signal lamps bright enough, or too bright (glare)?
Can the signals be seen by only those who need to see them?
Is the sequence of operation correctly set? (include pedestrian phases if
appropriate).
Are lane markings for dedicated turns adequate?
Are all pedestrian signals functioning correctly and safely?
Roundabouts:
Check that the roundabout is fully visible and recognisable from all approaches.
Check that all signs and markings are correctly placed.
5.10 Traffic signs:
Are the correct signs used and are they correctly placed?
Check the visibility, legend and legibility in both daylight and in darkness.
Are there spelling or design errors?
Do they give the correct message to drivers?
Are they readable?
Are they located in a safe place?
Are they interfering with visibility at junctions?
Are clearance standards met?
Do the signs obstruct footways?
Are safety barriers needed to protect posts from vehicle impact?
Are any more signs required?
5.10 Traffic Signals

Are all the road markings placed correctly and fully visible? Are reflective pavement
markers correct and visible?
Check that all redundant signs (including markings) from the old alignment and
temporary signs used during construction have been removed
5.11 Surface treatment
Does the surface appear to be skid resistant?
Are there any areas where there is excessive bleeding of bitumen?
31

5.12 Pedestrian/Non Motorised Users:

Is there an adequate network of footways and safe crossing points?
Are there any obstructions that may affect safe passage of pedestrians?
Are there “dropped kerbs” at crossing points?
Are there any gaps in the network of footways?
Is there sufficient pedestrian guardrailing?
Has it been installed correctly?
Does it obstruct visibility?
Are there any places where cyclists may be particularly at risk?
3.7 Stage 6 - Post-Opening and Existing Roads

An ‘immediate post-opening’ audit can also be done after the road has been open for
a few days (if a Stage 5 audit has not been achieved). This will show how the road is
actually being used and, if there are any problems, they will probably be apparent
already. It may be possible to make minor changes before the contractor
demobilises.
The timing of the Post Opening audit can be undertaken at any time during the
contract defects period whilst the contractor is still available to undertake any
remedial actions. However, it is best done at least twelve months after opening to
allow for revised movement patterns to be established and details of any collisions to
be obtained form the police and analysed as part of the audit.
Safety audits of existing roads also help to identify unsafe, inconsistent, outworn, and
outdated elements in the road environment. They are an opportunity to review how
the various design elements interact, how road users are actually using the road
facility, and what problems, if any, they are experiencing.
The audit team should inspect the road together, from the viewpoint of all road users.
It is not sufficient to just drive along the road - wherever pedestrians are found the
team must get down from the vehicle and check what it is like to walk along the road
and to cross it. The inspection should be done without first checking the crash data,
so as not to bias the findings. The aim is to identify safety deficiencies of design,
layout and road furniture.
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A two-stage inspection process is recommended for long road sections of about 100-
km or more. The first stage should focus on identifying the main problems of the
route and where they are located.
Once the preliminary assessment has been completed the results should be checked
against the crash history. This is followed by the detailed stage during which a close
examination of the selected problem areas is done.
Sometimes a site that looks unsafe may be found to have had no crashes. The
auditor should be cautious about recommending corrective action, because of the
risk of making things worse, but note that:
• Crash history is not necessarily a good indicator of future crashes, especially on

lightly trafficked rural roads
• Police crash records are not very reliable - and crash locations may have been
mis-recorded
• Pedestrians and cyclists may be making long detours to avoid the site because of
its perceived danger
• If it is a known and obvious safety problem (e.g. an unprotected bridge parapet

end on a high speed trunk road) it is probably worth treating it.

Issue
6.1 General topics:

Are there any issues still causing concern?
Do the Police have any concerns over accidents that may have occurred since opening (is
there a predominant accident type that could indicate a particular problem)?
Is there any confusion between the road and the adjacent network?
If a service road is present does the service road operate safely?
Is there any problem with headlight glare? Has there been any change of use of existing
developments on or near the road that has affected traffic safety?
Is the surface of the road free from defects that may result in safety problems (i.e. loss of
control or skidding)?
6.2 Cross-section:
Are the lanes, shoulders, medians etc., of adequate width?
Is there a pavement edge drop (i.e. shoulder is lower than carriageway)?
Does the cross-section change with different speed limits?
33

Issue
6.3
Drainage:
Is the drainage of the road and its surroundings adequate?
Have the side drains been designed to a safe standard for vehicles and pedestrians?
Are culverts and headwalls outside the clear zone, or are they protected by safety barriers?
6.4
Roadside:
Are the shoulders of an appropriate design (width, profile, surfacing, etc)?
Are there any obstructions or other hazards in the clear zone? -if so, can they be removed?
If they cannot be removed do they need to be protected by safety barrier?
Are the kerbs (if any) of the appropriate type for the speed environment?
6.5 Safety barriers:
Are safety barriers provided where necessary?
Are they long enough to prevent an out-of-control vehicle from reaching the hazard?
Has steel beam guardrail been designed and installed correctly (check beam height, post
spacing, lateral clearance, spacer blocks, nuts and bolts, reflectors, terminal pieces, and
whether the beams have been overlapped correctly)?
Check that transitions between barrier types (e.g. steel beam guardrail to concrete bridge
parapet) are safe.
6.6
Alignment:
Is sight distance adequate for the speed of traffic using the route?
Is the horizontal and vertical alignment suitable for the 85th percentile speed of
traffic? If not:-
• Are there sufficient warning signs?
• Have speed limits been imposed? -are they correctly signed?
Are there any sections of road that may cause concerns? Consider:
• Is the alignment clearly defined?
• Have all old road markings been removed?
Are there sufficient clear overtaking sections?
Are there sections with marginal visibility for overtaking (dilemma zones)?
Are there sections where the alignment is dangerous (e.g. sharp curves after long straight
sections, sharp curves after crests, long downgrades)?
Is the design of curves adequate (check super-elevation, transitions, carriageway
widening)?
Are there long / steep hills where climbing lanes would help prevent unsafe overtaking?
6.7 Speed management

Does the geometric design (cross-section, alignment, etc.) reinforce the speed limit?
Is the traffic exceeding the speed limit?
Is there a need for speed management measures?
Are speed humps and other speed control devices of a safe design and are they adequately
signed?
34

Issue
6.8 Junctions:
Are junctions located in safe places? (Check in relation to horizontal and vertical
alignments)
Is the layout of junctions obvious on each approach?
Does the layout accommodate all types of vehicle?
Is the visibility from the side road adequate?
Is the method of control appropriate? (Priority/signalled)
Are dedicated turning lanes adequate (i.e. lengths and widths) to accommodate volume and
mix of traffic?
Is the signing on the approach to an junction adequate?

Is there adequate provision for pedestrians and cyclists?
If a roundabout is it designed to control speeds to 50km/h?
Where there are signals:

Do they operate correctly?
Are they clearly visible (in all conditions)?
Can signals only be seen by those who should see them?
Are control boxes located in a safe place?
6.9 Pedestrians, n.m.v.s and cyclists

Are there adequate, safe facilities for pedestrian movement?
Are pedestrian facilities used as intended?
Are there any places where n.m.v.s and cyclists are particularly at risk?
6.10 Bus and parking facilities
Are there sufficient roadside bus stop and parking facilities?
Are stopping areas located and designed to safe standards?
Are bus stops and parking facilities used in a safe manner?
6.11 Access to properties
Is there any roadside activity that may cause road safety problems?
Is the number of roadside accesses compatible with the function of the road and the volume
and speed of traffic?
Are all accesses adequate in terms of design, location and visibility?
6.12 Bridges
Is the cross-section of the approach road maintained across the bridge?
Are there many pedestrians and cyclists crossing the bridge?
Can they cross safely?
Is the bridge parapet safe (height, design, level of containment, limit on size of openings,
etc.)?
Are the ends of the bridge parapet adequately protected?
6.13 Traffic signs
Are all the necessary signs in place?
Are they readable? (consider in all conditions).
Are they located in a safe place?
Do they give the correct message?
Is there any confusion in the message they give?
Do posts need protection?
Is edge delineation adequate?
Are road markings correct and in good condition?
Are reflective pavement markers (road studs) correct and in good condition?
35

Issue
6.14 Environmental:
Does vegetation obstruct:
• Traffic signs
• Visibility at junctions;
• Stopping sight distances on the mainline;
• Footways / crossing points?
3.8 Traffic Management Schemes

It is advisable to carry out road safety audits of major traffic management schemes,
using Stage 6 Checklists.
When the existing circulation patterns are altered by means of one-way systems,
road closures, parking restrictions, etc., there is always a risk that the number of
conflicts / collisions will increase. Audits of traffic management schemes should
focus on:
• Junctions, especially traffic signals
• Pedestrian footways and crossings
• Safety of NMT
• Bus stops
• Potential problems with one-way systems, especially the increased speeds and
the connections with two-way streets
• Whether there is clear signing – for both drivers and pedestrians
• Potential problems with drivers and pedestrians not noticing and understanding
unusual
• Layouts, such as contra-flow bus lanes, even when they are well signed
• Whether the streets that will receive additional traffic can handle the increase
safely.
3.9 Building Developments

Large building and land use developments usually generate considerable vehicular
and pedestrian traffic, so they have a major impact on the surrounding road network.
The layout of the site and the design of the car parks, access roads, footways, etc., is
36

critical for the safety of both visitors and the passing traffic on the surrounding
network. Those responsible for planning control must consult the road authority when
considering whether to grant development permission. The road authority may
decide that a traffic impact assessment and safety audit is needed. Sometimes the
developer is asked to provide or pay for this, but such reports can lack objectivity
because of the conflict of interest. Independence of the auditor must always be
ensured.
Audits of building development will typically focus on:
• Vehicular and pedestrian access
• Safe provision of public transport services
• Safety impact of any congestion caused by the vehicles entering or leaving the
• development
• Generation of pedestrian movements across surrounding roads
• Adequacy of the parking provision, (to avoid parking overflow onto surrounding
roads)
• Speeds within the site and at access points
• Pedestrian / vehicle conflicts within the site and at access points
37

4 Finalising the Audit

4.1 The Audit Report
The audit findings are recorded in a formal report and although it should give a clear
indication of what needs to be done and possible alternatives, it is not the role of the
auditor to redesign the project. That job remains with the original designers.
It is important to understand that the Audit Report only identifies those elements that
are noted to be a safety concern. Where aspects of the design are not seen to be a
safety concern, they are not mentioned. While much of the style and content of an
audit report is a matter for the Team Leader to decide, there are several key parts
that should be included in each road safety audit report:
• Report title: This includes the name and location of the road project, the stage of
audit and an audit report number, (if required)
• Brief Description of the road project: Including its objectives and the reasons
why it is being built. In the case of an existing road, this part is a brief description
of the road, its position in the hierarchy and its function
• Stage of the audit: Identify the type of road safety audit, (whether an existing
road review or a new project) and the audit stage being undertaken, (e.g. Draft
Design)
• Road safety audit team members: Provide a list of the members of the Road
Safety Audit team, including their work titles, employer, and academic
qualifications
• Signature page: The Team Leader as a minimum, and preferably all the team,
should sign the report
• Dates of the audit: Include the dates of the Entry Meeting and of all site visits
(together with weather conditions and times).
38

• A summary list of the safety problems: This can be a useful executive

summary
• Photographs and extracts from drawings marked up to show the locations of

the problems.
Extracts from the Drawings are Easy to Reproduce Using Digital Camera or
Scanner
• Details of safety problems and recommendations: The most important part of

any audit report is a list of the “Problems” and “Recommendations” that were
found from visiting the site and reviewing the design drawings (and sometimes
from reviewing other material as well).
• Details of drawings and documents reviewed. These are constantly changing
and it is vital to be clear as to which documents were audited
The “Problems” should be listed in a considered, logical manner – by risk (such as

from the most serious concern down to the least), by common issues (for example all
geometric issues together, all cross-section issues together, all signage issues
together), or by distance from the zero point.
In addition to briefly describing the safety problem that is a concern, the report should
also identify the safety consequences of the problem before proposing a
recommendation. (For instance, Lack of footway will lead to pedestrians walking on
the carriageway and risk colliding with fast moving vehicles).
39

The “Recommendations” for each safety concern should be as clear and positive
as possible and feasible. Each “Recommendation” should follow the “Problem” to
which it relates
Another useful way of structuring the report is to follow the headings in the check
lists. The check lists themselves should not normally be included in the report
The “Problems” and “Recommendations” should be presented in a way that is

easy to understand and for the client or designers to respond to. The findings are
also preferably summarised in tabular form, with columns for the designer’s and then
the client's response.
The audit report should be thorough and comprehensive, but also concise. Long
reports are more likely to be ignored. There is no need to describe the safety
situation in the country, nor discuss general safety and highway design issues. The
report should only detail the specific safety concerns about the scheme, nothing else.
A concluding statement is also needed: This is a statement - signed and dated by

the road safety audit team - indicating they have reviewed all the reference
documents and information listed, inspected the site and identified the road safety
concerns listed in the report. The statement concludes by certifying that the audit
team are independent of the road project.
Appendices: The Appendices may contain many things – a list of the information
and data provided for the audit by the Consultant, (including any plans, drawings,
base maps, or previous reports), photographs of the site (showing the identified
safety concerns wherever possible) and any other information as may be appropriate
for that audit.
The auditors should remember that they must only deal with road safety concerns
and need to come up with “feasible” appropriate recommendations. It may be
possible to make strategic changes at the planning stage but it becomes more
difficult to achieve this as the design process proceeds.
40

Once the report is ready it should be signed by the audit team leader and submitted,
perhaps as a draft, to the client, the designer and if required the funding agency.
4.2 Completion Meeting

Prior to the Completion Meeting the client will send a copy of the audit report to the
designer with a request for a response on each of the report’s recommendations.
Once the designers’ responses have been received in writing, the client will request
the audit team leader and the designer to attend the Completion Meeting.
It is not uncommon for some concerns to have already been addressed by the
designers or constructors during the course of the audit, for example, safer traffic
management during construction or better detailing of signs, markings, guardrails etc.
The designer has several options:
• Accept the audit recommendation, or
• Reject the audit recommendation - in which case he must give written reasons,
or
• Propose an alternative solution
An auditor should expect to have some 80% of the recommendations to be

implemented in some form that reduces the safety problem. If any disagreements
remain, then the designer should explain in writing their reasons for rejecting the
auditor’s recommendations. The client will then make a decision on each audit point
at the meeting, but he may prefer to wait for further consultation or investigation. The
designer may be asked to research the feasibility and cost of remedial measures and
report back to the client.
4.3 Final Audit Record

If, following the completion meeting any disagreements remain the designer should
explain in writing their reasons for rejecting the auditor’s recommendations, see
Table 1. This is a strong incentive for the designer to address the problem and
should always be required in any road safety audit policy. The Final Audit Record is a
41

copy of the Audit Report in which the audit findings contain the designer’s response
and also the client’s decision. The client is responsible for preparing the Final Audit
Record.
The client must sign a statement in the Final Audit Record committing themselves to
follow up the decisions recorded in the response column of the audit findings table.
The designer should also sign a statement to the effect that he accepts the client's
decisions and will amend the design accordingly. Copies of the Final Audit Record
should be sent to the audit team leader and the designer.
4.4 Follow-up
The implementation of the changes to the designs or construction is the main
objective of the audit process. The client will instruct the designer to make the
necessary amendments to the design. It is important that these instructions be clearly
recorded to avoid confusion.
The client may ask for a final or supplementary road safety report or reports to be
written or await the audit at a future stage.
42

REFERENCES
1. Kenya Road Design Manuals, 2009
Part 1 Geometric Design
Part 3& 4 Materials & Pavement Design
Part 5 Traffic Signs and Road Markings
Part 6 Structural Design
Part 7 Environmental Guidelines
2. Global Status Report on Road Safety WHO (2009)
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241563840_eng.pdf
3. Road Safety Audit, Design Manual for Roads & Bridges, HD 19/03, UK, 2003
http://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/dmrb/vol5/section2/hd1903.pdf
4. Road Safety Audit AUSTROADS 2002
5. Road Safety Audit for Project Roads, Asian Development Bank 2003
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Road-Projects/Road-Safety-Audit-for-Road-
Projects.pdf
6. Road Safety Audit Manual, Republic of Uganda 2004
7. Guide to Road Safety Auditing, Tanzania 2009
8. Safer Road Design Guidelines Road Safety Audit, China, Asian
Development Bank, 2009
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Consultant/36458-PRC/36458-09-PRC-
TACR.pdf
9. GoK National Road Safety Action Plan 2005-2010
http://www.krb.go.ke/roadsafetyactionplan.pdf
10. GoK National Road Safety Action Plan 2009-2014
11. Speed Management, A Road Safety Manual for Decision Makers &
Practitioners 2008
http://www.who.int/roadsafety/projects/manuals/speed_manual/en/
12. Urban road design in Africa: the role of traffic calming facilities
de Langen, Rwebangira, Kitandu, Mburu
http://www.codatu.org/english/publications/proceeding/conference/codatu11/Papers/delan
gen.pdf
13. Towards Safer Roads in Developing Countries, TRL, ODA, RSP, 1991
http://www.transport-
links.org/transport_links/filearea/publications/1_826_TSR%20in%20Dev%20Countries.pdf
43

Appendix 1 Typical Audit Issues

DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES PART 1b) - ROAD SAFETY AUDITS 2009
Typical Audit Issues

Designing for All Road Users
Auditors need to view the road designs from the point of all road users but
particularly the slow and vulnerable users. The most important road user for the
auditor is usually the pedestrian. Often the largest volumes of pedestrians are young
school pupils. Adequate provision needs to be made for them outside the
carriageway. Pedestrians are recorded in around 47% of Fatalities.
Photo 1: Large numbers of pedestrians with nowhere to walk other than in the roadway.
Especially on lightly trafficked roads this can be a major safety concern.
Photo 2: Good Design & Maintenance of Shoulders Greatly Improves Safety for All Road
Users

Photo 3: Careful design can ensure that pedestrians & others can use a track at the road
side well away from motorised traffic
Photo 4: There should be wide well maintained shoulders on all rural school approaches
Photo 5: Series of humped Zebras crossing around school entrances helps control vehicle
speed and allows pedestrians to cross safely. Continuation of footpath needs to be
ensured

Photo 6: Unsurfaced waiting area will not be

used when wet resulting in pedestrians waiting
the roadway
Photo 7: Well maintained

footway with adequate provision
for flow of pedestrians. But no
defined crossing point and note
use of footway by a 4WD vehicle
in the background
Photo 8: Matatus & Buses are involved in up to 38% of Fatalities. Adequate provision for
waiting and picking up/dropping off passengers needs to be provided clear of the main
roadway. Assessment of likely volumes of both passengers and vehicles needs to be
accommodated

Photo 9: A well located Bus Bay and Crossing. The crossing allows pedestrians to be seen
from both directions, and the sealed shoulder provides a continuous surfaces route
Photos 10 and 11: NMT is an Important Factor on Kenyan Roads and segregation or
alternative routing needs to be considered through the design
Signs and markings

The effectiveness of signs is often dictated by their setting and surroundings. A
colourful background can be detrimental to visibility of small signs. Even the larger
signs can be overpowered by a strong background colour.
The attention of road users can be distracted by the location of conspicuous

advertisements behind or near signs. Indeed signs can be missed if flashing or
brilliantly illuminated advertisements are present.
These points should be considered when siting new traffic signs and in the exercise
of the control of advertisements under general planning regulations.
If a poor or distracting background cannot be avoided, it may be partially screened by

a backing board to a sign. Further detail is provided in the Traffic Signs Manual.

Photo 12 Important standard signs are sometimes lost in the confusion of the local scene
Photo 13: Large advertising boards should be away from junctions & other critical locations to
prevent driver distraction and only required traffic signs should be provided
Geometric Design
Horizontal & Vertical Geometry
Poor forward visibility on crests can be a serious safety hazard but is not normally a
problem with latest design standards. There is always a problem on horizontal bends
if signing and delineation is inadequate. Auditors should always check all major

bends to see whether upgraded signing, road markings, traffic calming devices,
delineators or guardrails are needed. Photo 14 Illustration of Possible “Speed
Management” treatment for a tight bends in Kenya
Widening on a curve also helps prevent the most serious head-on crashes and gives
all road users extra safety margin long uphill gradients may require a climbing lane
Photo 15: Widening for Climbing Lane is Very Important for Safety on Long Gradients
Photo 16: The ends of Climbing Lanes need to be well marked & signed to ensure that
merging of slower moving vehicles can take place safely; advance warning of
the end of the climbing lane is needed. None has been provided in this
instance
Long down hill sections of road will always need special attention to reduce speeds
at the first bend, community or hazard as shown in photo of bend measures above.
The auditor always needs to check all “Departure from Standards” to see that the
safety needs have been addressed.
Cross Sections

The choice of cross-section types is normally made based on the traffic volume of
motorised vehicles, design speed, and the road functions. Other features such as
shoulders suitable for pedestrians, cyclists and other slow vehicles, bus bays, lay-bys
and rest areas are often a secondary concern and thus need special attention by the
auditor.
Photo 17 typical rural cross section showing relationship of running lanes, sealed
shoulder and shallow open ditches.
The choice of the side ditch can greatly affect the ability of the pedestrians and NMT
to move safely and also increase the severity of crashes of vehicles that run of the
road. Ditches
• Should not impede pedestrian movement
• Should have a shallow slopes
• Should minimize damage to vehicles that run off the road
• Should have an adjacent “clear zone” where possible, free of
trees and rocks
Tiredness is a big killer of drivers and their passengers and thus the provision of
roadside amenities is an important topic for auditors to review in the designs. Lay-
bys, rest areas, service areas and other well designed road side facilities, including
restaurants, shops and toilets can all add to the safety of the road. There should
always be adequate stopping and parking areas alongside the road not on the
shoulder.

Photo 18: Large areas of land may be needed at facilities specifically designed for trucks
4.4 Junctions & Intersections

Too many crashes happen at junctions when motorists are taken by surprise and
their speeds are too high to safely negotiate through the location. There should
always be sufficient information before and at the road to help the motorists. If
motorists are confused it is usually the pedestrians and other vulnerable road users
that suffer.
Photo 19: A humped pedestrian crossing on approach to a roundabout is effective in slowing

drivers and making them aware of the potential conflicts ahead
Photo 20: By contrast, the skid marks & demolished column at this roundabout without
humps on approach shows the effect of higher uncontrolled approach speeds.

Traffic Calming
Application of traffic calming measures in Kenya is in most cases limited to the
construction of road humps. The results the of the World Bank Sub-Saharan Africa
Transport Program (SSATP) indicate that low cost interventions, with a high
benefit/cost ratio, can improve traffic safety and traffic flow efficiency considerably
and have a lasting effect.
A Paper entitled “Urban road design in Africa: the role of traffic calming facilities”
(Reference 12), examined a range of traffic calming interventions that were
implemented in 1996-99 in Tanzania. Extracts are shown below concerning the
effectiveness of raised zebra crossings and well designs bus & minibus facilities
So-called Raised Zebra Crossings (RZC) give very good value for money as a traffic
calming measure. They create a strong improvement in traffic safety for pedestrians
(safer crossing in particular), two wheelers (safer driving on the carriageway), and
motor vehicles (less collisions), and also influence the fluidity of the traffic flow
positively by reducing large speed differences between vehicles. In that manner they
increase road capacity. In addition, RZC’s turn out to influence the stopping-for
passengers behaviour of informal public transport vehicles in a way that can be
utilised to significantly reduce the delays that this behaviour causes (see below under
bus bays).”
“The conclusion is that bays for minibuses give high value for money, once the
following requirements are met: proper size (large) and frequency along the bus
route, combination with paved passenger platform, location at points that logically
connect with walking routes, combination with RZC for low motor vehicle speed near
the stop and safe pedestrian crossing, combination with a road design that prohibits
stopping on road shoulders outside bus bays.

Photo 21: A rounded hump zebra crossing on A104 slows traffic and allows safe crossing on
an otherwise high speed road. Adequate warning signs need to be provided and the footpath
provision made continuous
On most upgraded or new rural roads, there is always a problem to slow high speed
traffic down on the approach to and through villages and towns. A single speed limit
sign or town name is usually not effective. There needs to be very eye catching
features at the community boundary, commonly called a “gateway”
The “Gateway” typically includes:
• Double, illuminated speed limit signs
• Double village name signs
• Double road safety messages
• Street lighting
• Coloured road surface
• Narrowing through wide edge markings
• Speed limit marked on road

Photo 22 Kenya Arch – This could incorporate a significant Community Gateway as

illustrated below.
Photo 23. Illustration of possible gateway with speed limits, messages, town name &
rumble bars
Speed Management
A Manual published in 2008 by the World Health Organisation, FIA, Global Road
Safety Partnership and the World Bank, (Reference 11), emphasizes the importance
of speed in the severity of crashes and identifies ways of addressing the problem.

This manual advocates a strong and strategic approach to creating a safe road
system, with speed management at its heart. Reducing motor vehicle speeds in
areas where the road user mix includes a high volume of vulnerable road users such
as pedestrians and cyclists is especially important.”
There are many tools available for effective speed management. They include
appropriate speed limits, engineering treatments, effective enforcement of speed
limits by police and the use of extensive public information and education
programmes to encourage compliance with both advisory speed signs and statutory
speed limits. In most cases a mix of tools is required to create solutions that are
appropriate to the needs and capacities of the individual country. This module
describes those tools available to influence speed.
Six approaches are covered in the Manual: Most are relevant to a road safety
auditor
Speed zoning and speed limits: Speed limits that take into account the function of
the road and its environment are a fundamental tool for speed management.
Urban and rural settings, which have a different mix of traffic, require different
approaches to achieve effective speed management. This section discusses ways to
define a hierarchy of roads in accordance with their main function, and how to set
appropriate speed limits for them.
Changing behaviour – regulating and enforcing speed: This section addresses

the legislative and regulatory settings that provide the basis for speed compliance,
and the various methods and techniques available for on-road enforcement. These
include the use of fixed and mobile speed cameras, the tolerance in enforcement of
speed limits by police and the importance of penalties such as fines, demerit points,
licence suspensions and vehicle confiscations.
Changing behaviour – public education: The role of public education to improve

compliance and support ongoing police enforcement activity is an important
component in changing road user behaviour The effectiveness of community-based

programmes should be examined as part of the community involvement on new

schemes..
Photo 24 A selection of posters and hoardings that can be used to improve user
behaviour especially with police enforcement
Photo 25& 26 A local traffic park may be available as focus for awareness training
Engineering treatments: A range of measures is available to reduce speed in high-

risk locations. For example, in locations of high pedestrian activity near schools,
markets, shopping centres and busy urban precincts, measures such as speed
humps, raised pavement sections and road narrowing are often highly cost-effective
treatments.

Guardrails
Guardrails are very important for improving safety on embankments and high speed
bends. They can be a real life saver but they can also be a dangerous hazard
Photo 27: Extensive guardrail

provided to protect a viaduct on a
high speed road, that has not been
tied into the adjacent structure
presents an exposed hazard for
vehicles running along the parapet
of the bridge.
Photo 28: The consequences of

collision with such an exposed end
can be severe.
Photo 29: Providing strong

connections between flexible
guardrails & rigid bridge parapets
not only removes the hazard but
also improves the resistance of the
barrier itself.
Without the connection shown above, a flexible guardrail will deflect when hit by a
vehicle and guide the vehicle straight into the rigid bridge parapet.

Operation & Maintenance

An auditor has to make realistic recommendations depending on the way the road is
going to be operated and maintained. At times however there is also a need to
recommend improved levels of maintenance and servicing of the road to ensure that
facilities, such as pedestrian shoulders do not become unusable in very short time.
Photo 30. Damaged guardrails or other roadside furniture always reduce safety
Photo 31. Sections removed from median fencing discourage use of pedestrian
bridges. The reality of such practices need to be considered by the auditor during
the design stages.

Photo 32: Road markings need to renewed regularly to retain there effectiveness.
Appropriate materials need to be provided where there is extensive 0verrunning and
turning that will accelerate their wear.
Construction Stages
During construction it is often necessary to maintain traffic flow of general traffic
either through or next to the construction site. There needs to be a clearly defined
and segregated route available for general traffic at all times. Chapter 8 of the Traffic
Signs Manual identifies the range of temporary signs that are available and possible
layouts for use. These need to be examined in all weather and lighting conditions
Photo 33: Inadequate signing of a segregated diversion route in daylight – At night

the location of the change of route would not be able to be seen until too late by
approaching drives. More advance signing and guidance to the diversion route is
needed that is clearly visible at night.

Photo 34: Clear segregation of all road users needs to be maintained between the
construction activities and general road users. The ability of the diversion route to
accommodate vehicle and NMT needs to be established. Construction traffic should be
segregated within the site and a clear cordon or boundary established.
Typical Audit Summary

Ref: Problems Recommendations Designers Response
Comment
A1 Very many pedestrians will be walking along Segregate the Yes Designer to
the road on the section from ch. 0+000 to pedestrians from the produce a detailed
1+050 yet there is no provision for them vehicles and control design for a
other than a wide shoulder. There will be a access footway with
high degree of conflict between pedestrian limited openings
movement and vehicles parking / unparking for vehicular
and crossing the shoulder to access the access to roadside
roadside commercial development. development
A2 There is no provision for street lighting on the Provide street lighting No Insufficient funds
section through town centre (ch. 0+000 to for street lighting -
1+050) yet this area is busy at night and road will be
darkness will increase the risk of collisions, illuminated by
especially between pedestrians and vehicles lights of roadside
commercial
buildings
A3 At ch. 1+020 the existing pipe culvert Provide a pedestrian Yes
carrying the stream is to be replaced by a 3m parapet on both sides
wide box culvert. The specific design is not of the culvert
indicated but, if it is constructed to the typical
design shown on Dwg.DT-029c, it will have
no parapet. Without a parapet there is a risk
that pedestrians (including children from the
nearby school) may fall into the
stream.
A4 From ch. 1+800 to 2+050 there is an open Cover the drain Yes
side drain (1.4m wide and 1m deep) along
both sides of the road -this will be a
dangerous trap at night for the many
pedestrians and cyclists that will use this
road -and could also be a hazard for
stopping vehicles.

A5 The bend at ch. 2+600 has a radius (70m) Re-align this section No Realigning the
that is well below standard, and the view of to remove the crest road would not be
the bend for traffic coming from town centre and bend, or, if this cost-effective but
will be obscured by the crest at ch. 2+550. cannot be done, warning signs and
Drivers will not see the bend in time to slow provide a high delineators will be
down sufficiently to be able to negotiate the standard of signing installed
bend safely. There are no signs or and delineation
delineators shown

REPUBLIC OF KENYA
MINISTRY OF ROADS
TRAFFIC SURVEYS MANUAL
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads Draft Manual - December 2009

DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES Part 1(c) – Traffic Surveys Manual
2009
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads Draft Manual - December 2009

DESIGN MANUAL for ROADS and BRIDGES Part 1(c) – Traffic Surveys
2009
FORWARD
The guideline for Traffic Studies and Axle Load Surveys for road infrastructure
development has been produced at a time when the Government is focusing more on
expansion of her road network in keeping with its Vision 2030. The Government has
managed to operationalise the Kenya Roads Act of 2007, which provided for the
establishment of the Kenya National Highways Authority, the Kenya Urban Roads
Authority and the Kenya Rural Roads Authority, with the mandate to oversee the
development and maintenance of the road networks in the country.
The data collection methodologies contained in this Guideline, serve to standardize the
approach of data gathering for road infrastructure development programmes. It will
facilitate appropriate and sustainable decisions to be taken by the road authorities on
whether or not a new road is required under the prevailing traffic condition, ascertain the
timing of the required improvements—capacity expansion, structural upgrading or
strengthening, etc.
This document provides highway engineers with a good understanding of the range of
techniques (approaches) needed in traffic studies and axle load surveys with regard to
road designs and maintenance schemes. Most of the approaches described herein apply
mostly to highway and rural road schemes, a few aspects on speed surveys and
intersection studies are most relevant under urban transport studies.
This manual is designed to assist the road design and traffic engineer working in Kenya;
it does not replace the relevant text books, nor is it a substitute for sound engineering
knowledge, experience and judgment. Standards are indicated which should be adhered
to under normal conditions; abnormal conditions should be given special consideration in
consultation with the Chief Engineer, Roads.
The road authorities have the following key functions as far as the use of this guideline is
concerned:
• Collecting and collating all such data related to the use of national, rural and urban
roads as may be necessary for efficient forward planning under the Kenya Roads
Act,
• Monitoring and evaluating the use of national, rural and urban roads,
• Planning the development and maintenance of all roads,
• Preparing the road works programmes for all roads.
It is therefore, critical that in the pursuit of the above goals, key management and
development decisions be informed by appropriately collected, analysed, and stored
traffic data. This Guideline thus finds relevance in providing standardized approaches to
be used in data gathering, handling and reporting for sustainable management of the
road networks in Kenya.
P. Kamau
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads II Draft Document – December 2009

2009
Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Roads
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads III Draft Document – December 2009
2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FORWARD----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- III
1 INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

1.2 TYPES OF TRAFFIC SURVEYS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
1.2.1 Classified volume counts------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
1.2.2 Traffic growth rate estimation ------------------------------------------------------------------ 2
1.2.3 Origin-Destination Survey ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.2.4 Speed and Delay Surveys ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.2.5 Axle Load Surveys -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
2 CLASSIFIED VOLUME COUNTS ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
2.1 GENERAL ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

2.2 FIELD DATA COLLECTION ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.2.1 Types of traffic counts --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
2.2.2 Moving Observer Method ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
2.2.3 Vehicle classification ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
2.2.4 Selection of census stations-------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
2.2.5 Survey duration ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 9
2.2.6 Staffing and data recording --------------------------------------------------------------------10
2.2.7 Combining classified counts with axle load surveys ------------------------------------10
2.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION --------------------------------------------------------------11
2.3.1 Conversion of a partial day’s count into a full day’s traffic count --------------------11
2.3.2 Adjustments for seasonal variation ----------------------------------------------------------12
2.3.3 Design Hour Volume ----------------------------------------------------------------------------12
2.3.4 Passenger car equivalence--------------------------------------------------------------------13
2.4 REPORTING ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
2.5 COMMON ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED DURING TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNTS ----------------------15
2.6 INTERSECTION TURNING COUNTS ------------------------------------------------------------------17
2.6.1 Turning movement flow representation ----------------------------------------------------17
2.6.2 Explanation for the diagram and table ------------------------------------------------------17
3 NON-MOTORISED TRAFFIC SURVEYS ------------------------------------------------------------20
3.1 INTRODUCTION ----------------------------------------------- ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

3.2 NMT SURVEY METHODS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------20
3.2.1 Manual Counting ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
3.2.2 Counting Procedures ----------------------------------------------------------------------------21
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads IV Draft Document – December 2009

2009
3.2.3 Pedestrian Crossing Observation ------------------------------------------------------------22

3.2.4 Attitudinal Surveys -------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
3.3 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSES -------------------------------------------------------------24
3.3.1 Pedestrian Crossing Observation ------------------------------------------------------------24
3.3.2 Social Characteristics ---------------------------------------------------------------------------25
4 ORIGIN - DESTINATION SURVEYS ------------------------------------------------------------------27
4.1 INTRODUCTION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27

4.2 O-D SURVEY METHODS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
4.2.1 Road-side interview survey --------------------------------------------------------------------28
4.2.2 Registration number plate survey ------------------------------------------------------------28
4.2.3 Post-card questionnaire survey --------------------------------------------------------------28
4.2.4 Household interviews ---------------------------------------------------------------------------29
4.3 O-D SURVEY PROCEDURE---------------------------------------------------------------------------29
4.3.1 Need identification -------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
4.3.2 Sample size requirement-----------------------------------------------------------------------29
4.3.3 Survey Questionnaire ---------------------------------------------------------------------------30
4.3.4 Field work review and survey site selection -----------------------------------------------30
4.3.5 Surveyor training ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------31
4.4 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ---------------------------------------------------------------31
4.5 TRAFFIC PROJECTIONS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
4.5.1 Normal traffic --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
4.5.2 Diverted Traffic------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
4.5.3 Generated traffic----------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
4.5.4 Application of price elasticity of demand ---------------------------------------------------34
4.5.5 Scale of traffic forecasting ---------------------------------------------------------------------35
4.5.6 Accuracy of traffic forecasts -------------------------------------------------------------------36
5 TRAFFIC SPEED AND DELAY SURVEYS ----------------------------------------------------------37
5.1 INTRODUCTION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37

5.2 SPEEDS SURVEYS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
5.2.1 Operating speed ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
5.2.2 Design speed--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
5.2.3 Running speed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
5.3 MEASUREMENT OF SPEEDS --------------------------------------------------------------------------38
5.3.1 Spot speeds ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
5.3.2 Space mean speed ------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
5.3.3 Data analysis and presentation --------------------------------------------------------------40
5.4 SIGNAL WARRANT ANALYSIS ------------------------------------------------------------------------41
5.4.1 Minimum Pedestrian Flow Volume Warrant ----------------------------------------------42
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads V Draft Document – December 2009

2009
5.4.2 Interruption of Continuous Traffic Flow Warrant -----------------------------------------42

5.4.3 Accident/Crash Experience Warrant --------------------------------------------------------42
5.4.4 Minimum Vehicular Volume Warrant--------------------------------------------------------43
5.5 INTERSECTION DELAY STUDY -----------------------------------------------------------------------43
5.5.1 Study procedure ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
6 AXLE LOAD SURVEYS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------46
6.1 INTRODUCTION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------46

6.2 CHOICE OF WEIGHING EQUIPMENT-----------------------------------------------------------------46
6.3 SURVEY PROCEDURE ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
6.3.1 Site layout for weighing -------------------------------------------------------------------------49
6.3.2 Positioning of weighpads-----------------------------------------------------------------------52
6.3.3 Optimal weighpad size --------------------------------------------------------------------------54
6.4 DURATION OF AXLE LOAD SURVEYS ---------------------------------------------------------------55
6.5 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION --------------------------------------------------------------55
6.5.1 Determining equivalent single-axle load ---------------------------------------------------55
6.5.2 Present legislation in Kenya -------------------------------------------------------------------56
6.5.3 Computer analysis of axle load data --------------------------------------------------------59
6.5.4 Estimating total traffic loading over pavement design life -----------------------------60
6.6 ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED IN DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS -------------------------------60
7 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION -----------------------------------------------------------------------62

APPENDIX A: CLASSIFIED TRAFFIC COUNT FORM ------------------------------------------------65
APPENDIX B: LIST OF ITEMS NEEDED FOR TRAFFIC SURVEYS ------------------------------66
APPENDIX C: ORIGIN-DESTINATION SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ----------------------------67
APPENDIX D: ‘FLOATING CAR’ TECHNIQUE OBSERVATION SHEET -----------------------69
APPENDIX E: AXLE LOAD SURVEY FORM I -----------------------------------------------------------70
APPENDIX F: COMMON AXLE CONFIGURATIONS IN KENYA----------------------------------72
APPENDIX F: NON-MOTORIZED TRAFFIC COUNT VOLUME COUNT FORM -------------73
APPENDIX H: COUNTER INSTRUCTIONS ---------------------------------------------------------------74
APPENDIX I: PEDESTRIAN VOLUME COUNT FORM -----------------------------------------------75
APPENDIX J: SUMMARY OF PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENTS ----------------------------------------76
APPENDIX K: PEDESTRIAN GROUP SIZE STUDY FORM ------------------------------------------77
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads VI Draft Document – December 2009

2009
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Traffic data is needed for design, operations, maintenance, programming of

works, forecasting and other functions such as feasibility studies. In all these
cases the personnel involved in data collection and processing require specific
guidance regarding collection procedures and on basic data handling. This
manual provides the essential guidance required to conduct a standardized data
collection and analyses to assure consistency in data interpretation and
comparability.
The main purpose of carrying out traffic surveys and studies is to ensure that
sufficient and appropriate data is available to carryout necessary planning,
design, implementation and management of the road infrastructure, which is
aimed at meeting the prevailing traffic flow, future traffic growth and loading
without considerable deterioration in the level of service. The adequate design of
paved roads depends on the correct information on the number and composition
of traffic. If adequate survey is not carried, the deficiency in the selected
pavement design would turn out to be costly in the long-term. The data obtained
from these surveys therefore help in pavement design, planning of road network,
geometric design and traffic regulation and control.
1.2 Types of Traffic Surveys
The surveys for highway developments would normally encompass the following
elements of traffic studies:
• Classified volume counts,
• Investigations for forecasting future traffic growth rates,
• Origin – Destination surveys
• Non-Motorised Traffic counts
• Speed and delay surveys
• Axle Load surveys
1.2.1 Classified volume counts
This is the most common data required for highway design. The traffic counts are
taken by noting the number of vehicle of various classes that pass the survey
point in each direction during specified time intervals.
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads 1 Draft Document – December 2009

2009
1.2.2 Traffic growth rate estimation
A future traffic forecast is a critical input in geometric design (sizing of geometric

elements), pavement design and economic analysis. The determination of
reliable growth rate factors however is a challenge as it is based on baseline data
that normally has high levels of variability.
Traffic analyst may make use of time series analysis or econometric methods to
estimate reasonable growth factors depending on the availability of historical
traffic volume counts, macroeconomic data and any such data that may help in
estimating economic development within the project’s area of influence in the
future.
Time series analysis

Historical data is analysed to establish any definite trend after which the analyst
could employ the use of ordinary least squares regression to estimate best fit
curve that could take any of the following forms.
T f = To (1 + r )
t
Constant compound growth rate:
T f = a + βt
Linear growth:
T f = c. exp kt
Exponential growth:
Where Tf is the future traffic volume, t is the time variable (years after the base
year), a, β, c, k are parameters to be determined from the time series data. This
however, requires sufficient data spanning several years, say 10 years.
Econometric method
Past planning data on selected economic indicators such as Gross National
Income (GNI), population, industrial output or agricultural farm output, can be
obtained from the relevant government agencies alongside historic traffic volume
counts and used in econometric analysis to project future traffic growth rates. A
regression equation with a basic functional form as given in Equation 1-1 can be
fitted into the data.
Log e T = a + βLog e (GNI ) ……………………………………Equation (1-1)
Where T= Baseline traffic volume

a= Constant
β= coefficient of elasticity (elasticity)
GNI=Gross National Income
Beta (β) in the above equation is a measure of elasticity of traffic with respect to
GNI. If for instance, it assumes a value of say 0.02, it would imply that for every

2009
1% increase in GNI there would be a growth of 2% in traffic. Therefore, if the GNI

is expected to rise by 3% in the future, the traffic growth rate will be 6%.
1.2.3 Origin-Destination Survey
The main purpose of Origin-Destination Survey is to ascertain the by-passable

traffic at towns and for planning new roadways. The surveys are intended to
capture information concerning travel patterns, commodity flows and route
choice. The most common method for carrying out Origin – Destination studies is
the road-side interviews; others are registration number matching and Post-card
questionnaires.
1.2.4 Non-Motorised Traffic Counts
For the purpose of this guideline, Non-motorized transport (NMT) would be

limited to pedestrians, cyclists and pushcarts (including animal traction). Bicycling
and walking are increasingly recognized as a viable means of transportation in
Kenya today. NMT provides many benefits to users and non-users alike,
including travel choice and mobility, affordability, reduced road congestion,
infrastructure savings, improved health, recreation and enjoyment, environmental
protection, and economic development. Walking and cycling improvements are
critical for creating more livable communities. Therefore, the knowledge of the
number and composition of NMT is vital for the planning and development of the
NMT infrastructure and its coexistence with the motorized traffic (MT).
1.2.5 Speed and Delay Surveys
Speed and delay surveys are carried out on an existing road system. They are
intended to measure the losses in travel time due to saturated conditions and
associated economic implications. This kind of survey yields baseline journey
times (or speeds) and the existing traffic volume used in determination of vehicle
operating costs and passenger time savings likely to accrue from road
improvement.
1.2.6 Axle Load Surveys
The axle load surveys are conducted so as to estimate anticipated vehicular

loading for the design of road pavements. The data obtained is used to predict
the cumulative traffic loading that a pavement is expected to carry over its entire
design life. For accurate results, the survey needs to be conducted with a static
portable weighbridge that can weigh a single axle and not wheel loads
separately.

2009

2009
2 CLASSIFIED VOLUME COUNTS
2.1 General
Volume counts serve largely as indicators of mobility, which is the existing flow
demand on a facility. Traffic count data finds use in the following areas:
• Project identification and prioritization
• Project design and capacity analysis
• Planning the Maintenance of road infrastructure
• Source for regional and national transport statistics
• Road safety studies
• Traffic regulation and control
• Input to environmental and socio-economic impact studies
Traffic volume is measured in average annual daily traffic (AADT), equivalent to

total annual volume of traffic divided by 365, the number of days in a year. This
data can easily be obtained where continuous traffic counts are recorded by
permanently fixed automatic traffic counters. In situations where this is not possible,
good estimates of AADT can be obtained by taking volume counts over a specific
shorter time period than a year after which the data are scaled up to give an annual
estimate using seasonal or monthly adjustment factors.
Manual traffic counts could be conducted over a period of 7 consecutive days for
the entire 24 hours a day. When overnight counts are not practicable due to
insecurity or any other serious reason, a partial count is admissible. The duration in
such circumstances should preferably be 16 hours or at least 12 hours per day and
at least one 24-hour volume count on a weekday and one during a weekend. The
partial day counts are then grossed up to 24-hour volume counts in the same
proportion as the 24-hour/16-hour traffic flow split on those days when full 24-hour
volume counts were carried out.
For purposes of geometric design, 30th HV1 is the most critical design parameter as
it considers variations in traffic flow during various months of the year, days of the
week and hours of the day.
1 th
30 highest hourly volume is the hourly traffic volume that is exceeded by 29 hourly volumes during a designated
year. A design hour volume of 15% of AADT has been suggested for the rural highways and 8 – 12% of AADT for
urban roads in Kenya.

2009
To augment actual traffic volume counts, the Kenyan Government established in

1988 a 60-Point traffic census on its entire primary network. At the point of writing
this manual, the counts were not updated as was intended. The 60-point counting
sites are evenly spread across the country’s provinces. Their distribution is based
on the classes of roads, the population and the geographical size of each province.
The 60-point traffic census framework was designed to measure:
• trends in the growth of annual travel, measured in vehicle-kilometre (or

vehicle flow),
• change in traffic mix or characteristics, and
• the distribution of travel over the national road network over time.
The choice of traffic census points should as much as practicable correspond to the
count locations selected under the 60-point Traffic census framework or the
Ministry of Roads permanent automatic counter stations so as to facilitate
comparison of traffic counts collected over limited periods to historical traffic data
on the network. This is very crucial in forecasting of traffic for the design year
selected. In addition, the Ministry of Roads has in the past identified census points
on almost all road links that have been used to update network flows over time.
2.2 Field Data Collection
2.2.1 Types of traffic counts
Traffic volume counts can be determined using manual counts, automatic counts,
and moving vehicle method. The choice of the method used would depend on the
level of traffic flow and the required data quality. The automatic traffic counters
discussed in section 2.2.2 use mechanical means to measure the volume of traffic
moving past a survey point.
Automatic counters record data continuously, regularly and over along period of
time at a relatively low operational cost. The long-term data collection reduces the
sampling errors caused by fluctuation in traffic flow. Moving vehicle method can be
used to compute traffic volumes and average travel times in both directions by
making a number of runs in a test car between predetermined test points on a road.
Manual count however, is the most common method of estimating traffic flow given
its simplistic nature.
Manual counts are carried out by observers stationed at an observation point at an

appropriately identified point at the road side. The observer records each vehicle on
the survey form according to the vehicle type. Survey duration of seven days is
usually recommended and each directional movement is recorded separately. A
sample survey form used for manual traffic counts is attached in Appendix A
This method of counting can be expensive in terms of personnel; however it has

numerous merits some of which include the following:

2009
i. The data can be collected giving the breakdown of traffic in each direction
ii. Specific vehicular movements at junctions can be noted and recorded
iii. Details such as vehicle classification and the number of occupants can be
easily recorded
iv. Even if the automatic methods are used, it is often necessary to check the
accuracy of these devices periodically using manual methods
v. Manual methods are suitable for short-term and non-continuous counts
2.2.2 Automatic Counters
They consist of one or more pressure tubes or inductive loops connected to a

recording device, and are most useful when data being gathered over an extended
period.
For pneumatic tubes (or pressure tube), once it is installed across the road at the
census station, it is compressed each time the axle of a vehicle traverses it. This
action transmits a pulse along the length of the tube, which is registered. This way,
the volume of traffic passing over it can be determined. The counter mechanism
estimates the flows by counting the number of impulses and then dividing them by
a value equivalent to the most common number of axles per vehicle. Where routes
are known to carry a high proportion of heavy vehicles, a higher factor should be
employed. Certain practical problems can occur with the use of this mechanism,
including errors arising from two vehicles traversing the tube at the same time or
where vehicles traveling at high speed fail to compress the tube. The installation of
the system does not cause much disruption to traffic flow and is relatively less
costly.
An inductive loop operates by detecting the mass of the vehicle that traverses it. In
each case, the metal mass of the vehicle induces a magnetic field within the loop.
The vehicles presence is thus detected directly, with one pulse emitted for every
vehicle crossing the device. This system is best suited for permanent traffic census
stations as it has a long service life and requires little maintenance. Installation cost
is however, relatively high and the process of setting it up may cause significant
disruption to traffic flows.
For both types of counters, data can be collected and stored on a data tape located
by the road side, in close proximity to the automatic measuring device. The
accuracy of either system depends on the existence of favorable site conditions,
with firm and even pavement surfaces recommended for optimum performance. A
smooth and even flow of traffic, rather than erratic changes in vehicle trajectories
and/ or changes in speed, will yield more accurate outputs.

2009
2.2.3 Moving Observer Method
In this method, the traffic volume and average travel times can be obtained by
travelling in a test car against and with the flow, and noting down the number of
vehicles met with from the opposite direction, and number of vehicles overtaking
the test vehicle besides those it overtakes. A small, preferable even, number of test
runs (a minimum of 6 runs) is required in both directions. Key features of this
method are:
• It estimates traffic volume in each direction for the entire route with sufficient
accuracy, the intervening intersections and varying volume notwithstanding.
In cases where the road is sectioned into a number of links, the average link
volumes need to be weighted by individual section lengths
• It gives good estimates of average travel time of the entire traffic stream
• It is best suited for urban street studies
• Due to the amount of data gathered during each run—total travel time,
vehicles overtaken, vehicles that overtake test car, and vehicles met in the
opposing direction, at least 3 assistants will be required in the test vehicle.
2.2.4 Vehicle classification
The traffic flow count is categorized by visual assessment of the vehicle type, size
and use. The adopted manual traffic flow data collection system classifies vehicles
into ten categories as follows:
• Saloon car
• Four-wheel drive (FWD)
• Pick-up/utility(less than 1.5ton)
• Matatu (14-seating capacity)
• Minibus (25–30 – seating capacity)
• Large bus – typically with seating capacity > 40
• Light goods vehicle (LGV), 3 – 6 ton
• Medium truck (MGV), with 2 axles, typically 7 – 10 ton
• Heavy truck (3 axles), typically 12 – 15 ton capacity, and
• Articulated truck (4 – 7 axles), typically 25 – 32 ton capacity
Whereas the above are the vehicle classes in traffic engineering practice in Kenya,
it is imperative to note that traffic counting and classification is a dynamic process
and is project based. The classes are expected to change slightly with time.
The vehicle categorization for axle load analysis is much smaller as it considers
only the heavy commercial vehicles likely to exert significant loading on the

2009
pavements. The common vehicle classes used in axle load surveys and analysis
are as contained in Table 2-1.
Table 2-1: Vehicle classification for axle load analysis
Vehicle Category Definitions
Minibus Seating capacity of 26 – 30 passengers
Buses Seating capacity of > 40 passengers

Light Goods Vehicles
3-6 tonnes capacity
Medium Goods Vehicles
2 axles,7-10 tonnes capacity
Heavy Goods Vehicles 3 axles, 12-15 tonnes capacity
Articulated Trucks 4-7 axles, 25-32 tonnes capacity
2.2.5 Selection of census stations
The location and distribution of the counting points affects the consistency of the
data collected and forms the basis for the comparison of the collected data and
past traffic counts from the automatic permanent counters on the road network as
mentioned in section 2.1. The road class and its geographical location influence the
census locations. Traffic counts at major intersections are usually useful as one
survey station can effectively cover several road links.
The counting sites should be uniformly distributed along the road section so as to
give a good representation of the flow characteristics. Other factors to be
considered in the selection of a traffic count station are:
• The site should be flat with a clear view of the road and traffic with adequate
shelter for enumerators; tents should be provided if there are no houses
nearby
• Access to toilet facilities, water and food are also key in determination of a
count traffic census site
• The enumerators need to be safe and secure, the site should thus be a way
from accident black spots and free from criminals particularly at night (armed
police need to be part of the count team)
• Lighting should be adequate even in the night, where there are no street lights
particularly in rural areas, lamps and generators will be necessary.
2.2.6 Survey duration
Traffic survey duration shall not be less than 7 days, any shorter periods are not
recommended. Approval for any shorter duration shall be approved by Chief
Engineer (Roads). To a large extent, human economic activities are based around

2009
a weekly cycle and traffic patterns reflect this with marked variations for weekends,
market days, public holidays and other unusual days, which need to be captured
accurately in the traffic volume counts. In rare occasions when a 7-day count may
be infeasible, the survey should be for at least 3 weekdays and one weekend day.
For instance, traffic counts for rural access roads with low flows (< 200 veh/day) fall
under such situations where duration of counts could be less than 7 consecutive
days but not less than 4 days.
Periods of extreme unusual traffic flow should be shunned for example, election
days and public holidays. However, for harvest days when the abnormality is
extended over a longer period, repeat counts need to be undertaken at different
times of the year to normalize such data. Where seasonal adjustment factors are
available, they could be used to correct for the seasonal peaks in a bid to derive
more representative average annual daily traffic.
2.2.7 Staffing and data recording
Traffic enumerators selected for traffic surveys should have at least a minimum of
Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). This is required for ease of
training in both data collection and analysis. The number of observers or survey
assistants required for most traffic count exercise is at least two one for each
direction of traffic, each with a separate count form. In occasions when the volume
of traffic is expected to be high three or more enumerators may work in short shifts
of four or six hours.
As a rough guide, one enumerator can normally record up to 600 vehicles per hour
in one direction. When traffic flows are high, it may be easier to record the passing
of vehicles on hand counters and hourly totals later transferred to field sheets. In
the data forms, traffic counts are recorded by tallying every time a vehicle passes
an enumerator at a counting station. At the end of a 30-minutes time period or one
hour, recording should continue in a new row on the same sheet.
The equipment required for the survey will vary depending upon the count site,
whether there is existing shelter or not. Nevertheless, there need to be at least 3
chairs and tables for ease of data recording. A provisional list of necessary
equipment is attached in Appendix B.
2.2.8 Combining classified counts with axle load surveys
The flow of traffic is normally interrupted during the axle load survey particularly
when goods vehicle suspect there would be arrests for overloading. It is therefore,
recommended that traffic counts are conducted before the axle load survey if there
is strong indications that traffic flow might be affected by fear of arrests. This should
be ascertained during the preliminary counts, otherwise a joint traffic counts and
axle load survey is useful in estimating sample (percentage proportion of vehicles
weighed) of traffic weighed during the survey period.

2009
In situations where traffic counts are undertaken prior to axle load surveys, the
counts would provide a basis for planning axle load survey by utilizing the
information obtained on the vehicle characteristics and their distributions over the
day. A decision can be made based on this information as to whether to weigh all
commercial vehicles or sample them by hour of day if commercial traffic flow is
heavy.
During the surveys, traffic enumerators should not be very close to the axle load
weighing and interviewing team so as to avoid distracting them (enumerators) by
these operations.
2.3 Data Analysis and Presentation
The data obtained from traffic counts has to be corrected and adjusted to give the
best estimate for the traffic volume used for planning and engineering design of
roads. The most useful traffic statistic is the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT),
classified by vehicle category. It is derived by totaling annual traffic in both
directions of flow and divided by 365 (number of days in a year). The following sub
sections outline the processes for converting field data obtained from the traffic
counts into standard formats.
2.3.1 Conversion of a partial day’s count into a full day’s traffic count
A partial day count is converted to a full day count by grossing up the partial day
count using 24-hour traffic count and taking the ratio of traffic in the same counting
period to the full 24-hour count. For instance, a 12-hour survey from 06.00 to 18.00
can be scaled up to a full 24-hour day count as follows:
Full 24-hour count = {Partial 12-hour count (06.00 to 18.00) x (Full 24-
hour count)}/ {Count from 06.00 to 18.0 hours in the 24-hour survey}
In order to enhance accuracy, traffic counts from the same periods of the day
should be used in the numerator and denominator of this equation. For example, a
traffic count for the period between 06.00 hours to 18.00 hours must be scaled up
by the traffic in this very time period during the 24-hour count, as opposed to any
other 12-hour period.
Partial weekend traffic count need to be grossed up based on a weekend 24-hour

count given that traffic flows over the weekends vary significantly from the weekday
flows, especially for the commercial vehicles traffic
The average daily traffic (ADT) based on a 7-day traffic count, is obtained by
summing the five (5) full 24-hour weekdays counts and two (2) full 24-hour
weekend days and then dividing by seven.

2009
2.3.2 Adjustments for seasonal variation
Seasonal adjustment is very important as traffic counts conducted over limited

period of time say 0ne week, can contain large errors. Traffic flows usually exhibit
large hourly, daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. Seasonal adjustment
factors (SF) are determined from the seasonal variations in traffic flow recorded
over periods of time
The variability in traffic flows from one day to the other is normally more
pronounced than the week-to-week counts over the year. Therefore, large errors
are inherent in the estimates for daily traffic counts and consequently, the annual
traffic flows based on traffic surveys over shorter periods, for counts that exclude
weekend days. The accuracy in traffic data thus increases as the count days are
increased from a few days to say a week. There is however, sufficient evidence
indicating that traffic counts lasting more than a week do not result into significant
increase in accuracy. Seven days of counts is generally the recommended
optimum survey duration.
The variation in traffic flows by season is due to a number of reasons and these
fluctuations could be large particularly over harvest seasons when the traffic
volume is likely to be higher. Conversely, in wet weather, the flows are likely to drop
significantly.
Seasonal factors (SF) are used to normalize traffic counts undertaken at any time
of the year to more representative flow values of the annual means.
The SF values are the ratios of the average ADT in the specific month and the
AADT. The correction is obtained by dividing the traffic count by the SF. The SF
depends on the month of the year, the type of the vehicle and region of the country.
The Ministry of Roads has derived seasonal factors for every vehicle type and the
various geographical regions in Kenya. These may be outdated today (2010) and
will therefore require to be updated. The analyst needs to therefore select
appropriate seasonal factors for the region and time period in question.
2.3.3 Design Hour Volume
The traffic statistic used for geometric design is the 30th highest hourly volume
abbreviated as 30HV, defined as the hourly volume that is exceeded by 29 hourly
volumes during designated year. Design hourly volume, DHV, is derived from
AADT by multiplying the average annual daily traffic by a factor, K. The factor K is
estimated from the ratio of the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site, it largely
depends on the traffic conditions on a particular road as shown in Table 2-2. The
design hourly volume (DHV) should be the 30th HV for the future design year
selected for design.

2009
Table 2-2: Recommended 30th HV on Kenyan Highways

K = 30th HV as
Traffic condition
percentage of AADT
Heavily trafficked road under congested rural conditions
8-12%
(applies for urban roads as well)
Normal rural conditions 12-18%
Road catering for recreational or other traffic of seasonal
20-30%
nature
Since DHV is a two-directional flow (as is AADT), the flow in the peak direction (the
directional design hour volume, DDHV,) is estimated by multiplying it by a
directional factor D.
DDHV = K * D * AADT
Example
A divided rural multi-lane highway is required to cope with an AADT of 40,000
vehicles per day. A 100kph design speed is chosen with standard lanes of 3.5m
wide and there are no obstructions within 1.83m of any traveled edge. The traffic is
assumed to be composed entirely of private cars and the driver population is ideal.
The peak hour factor is 0.9 and the directional factor, D, is estimated at 0.6. The
highway is to be designed to cope with the thirtieth hourly volume during the year.
Calculate the service flow.
Solution
Directional design hour volume, DDHV:
DDHV = K x D x AADT
= 0.12 x 0.6 x 40,000
= 2880 vph
We can now calculate the service flow, knowing the hourly volume and the peak
hour factor, as follows:
SF = V ÷ PHF
= 2880 ÷ 0.9
= 3200 vph
2.3.4 Passenger car equivalence
Traffic composition has a significant influence on road capacity and other design
considerations. Traffic on Kenyan roads is heterogeneous in nature, usually
consisting of fast driven cars, trucks, buses and slow animal-drawn vehicles. The
computations of capacity therefore, need to take cognizance of the fact that
different vehicle types occupy different amounts of relative space on the roadway.

2009
Traffic flow data from classified counts needs to be transformed into ‘passenger car
units’ (PCUs) by multiplying vehicular flow in the design year by corresponding
‘passenger car equivalent’ (E).
Passenger car equivalent (E) value is defined as the number of passenger cars that
are displaced by a single vehicle of a particular type under the prevailing traffic and
roadway conditions. The factor is a function of the road condition (type of road and
gradient) and the traffic composition (proportion of trucks or bicycles). The value of
E is determined by measuring headways between vehicles under saturated flow
conditions—the headway of a passenger car following another passenger car is
used as a benchmark upon which other headway values are compared.
The following guide values are given for the passenger car equivalent (E)
applicable to different vehicle types in different terrain types:
Table 2-3: Passenger Car Equivalent Factors for Kenyan Roads

Vehicle type Passenger Car Units
Level terrain Rolling terrain Mountainous terrain
Passenger cars 1.0 1.0 1.5
Light vans 1.0 1.5 3.0
Medium goods 2.5 5.0 10.0
vehicle*
Heavy goods vehicle 3.5 8.0 20.0
Buses 2.0 4.0 6.0
Motorcycles, scooters 1.0 1.0 1.5
Pedal cycles 0.5 0.5 N/A
Note: * Also representative for combined group of medium and heavy goods vehicles including matatus
Table 2-4: Passenger Car equivalent Factors for Urban Roads

Vehicle Type Passenger car Units
Urban Roundabout Traffic Signal Design
Standard Design
Passenger cars 1.00 1.00 1.00
Light vans 2.00 2.00 2.00
Medium goods vehicle 2.50 2.80 1.75
Heavy goods vehicle 3.00 2.80 2.25
Buses 3.00 2.80 2.25
Motorcycles, scooters 0.75 0.75 0.33
Pedal cycles 0.33 0.50 0.20
The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the
Tables 2-3 and 2-4:
Passenger cars Passenger vehicles with less than nine seats

Land rovers, minibuses and goods vehicles of less
Light goods vehicle than 1500kg unladen weight with payload capacities
of less than 760kg
Medium goods vehicles Maximum gross vehicle weight 8500kg
Heavy goods vehicles Gross weight greater than 8500kg
Buses All passenger vehicles larger than minibuses.

2009
2.4 Reporting
It is recommended that the reporting be done in graphical format to allow ease of

interpretation and comparison. The reports of the ADT for any period of the year
and the AADT from past years should also be reported. Data is easily understood
when summarized. Therefore, summary tables of the different categories of
vehicles in terms of their type and direction of flow should be produced. In addition,
a summary of percentage vehicle composition is usually important data output.
The traffic growth rates in percentages for each year over the entire design period
should be produced for each vehicle type and for each counting stations or road
section as output from traffic forecasting.
The analyzed data should be presented on simple maps (in form of a traffic flow
desire line diagram) supported by graphs and tables to give detailed information of
various vehicle traffic flow parameters such as daily and seasonal traffic flow
patterns. Table 2.5 and Figure 2.1 illustrate typical traffic data presentation in
current use.
2.5 Common errors to be avoided during traffic volume counts
The following are some of the errors committed in the process of estimating traffic
volume counts, both at the data collection time and during the analysis:
• Failing to segregate traffic into distinct vehicle categories is likely to result into
loss of very important information for pavement design given that not all
vehicles exert significant loading onto the pavement. The proportion of
commercial traffic in the entire flow data has to be ascertained. Failure to do
this would therefore lead to uneconomical design of road pavement.
• Presenting traffic flow data as total of flow (ADT) from both directions
conceals information on the directional distribution needed in pavement
design. A number of pavement design manuals (e.g., ORN 31 and SATCC)
require traffic volume data in the most heavily trafficked lane for pavement
layer selection, therefore in the event that the traffic flow is not differentiated
by direction, an error margin of 100% in the design loading could arise,
leading to a very costly pavement design.
• Incorrectly converting a partial-day traffic count to a full 24-hour count. A

traffic count of say 12 hours cannot be simply doubled to estimate the count
for 24 hours. For a 12-hour count, the result will depend on which period of 12
hours during the day the data were actually recorded, for instance, a traffic
count from 06.00 to 18.00 will not be the same as a count from 9.00 to 21.00.
In order to scale up a partial day count to a full-day value the method
described under section 2.3.1 must be used.
• Counting errors arising from lack of concentration can be pronounced

particularly when the flow is moderate or higher. In order to collect high
quality data, enumerators need to work in shifts of not more than six hours.

2009
Table 2-5: Example of traffic data (ADT) presentation
Typical daily traffic flow variation
1200
1000
800
T ra ffic Flow
600
400
200
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time in hours
Figure 2-1: Typical daily traffic flow variation

2009
2.6 Intersection Turning Counts
The purpose of the Vehicle Movements counts at an intersection is to summarize

the counts of vehicle movements through an intersection during certain time
periods. This type of volume summary is used in making decisions regarding the
geometric design of the roadway, sign and signal installation, signal timing,
pavement marking, traffic circulation patterns, capacity analysis, parking and
loading zones, and vehicle classification.
Turning movements can be observed and the flows taken using mechanical manual
traffic counter (often referred to as a denominator), an electronic count board or a
tally sheet.
2.6.1 Turning movement flow representation
The pattern of flows at the junction is referred to as the turning movement flows
matrix for the junction and it can be regarded as a small origin-destination matrix.
This pattern is important for intersection capacity analysis and junction design.
Figure 2-2 is a schematic representation of flow at an intersection while Table 2-6
shows the turning movement flows matrix.
2.6.2 Explanation for the diagram and table
In the table, the rows represent the in-bound approach road flow directions to the
junctions, while the columns represent the out-bound departure road flow
directions. The elements a cell of a table such as qijk represent the volume of type k
vehicles from approach i turning into departure j. The U-turns are seldom
considered in turning movement studies. Iik and Ojk are the total entry and exit flows
on the approaches respectively. The figure represents the relationship between
these flows for a simple cross-road junction.
For ease of analysis, the turning movement flow matrices are usually prepared by
type of vehicle type or road user. Different matrices are also prepared for different
times of the day so as to separate peak hours from off-peak hour flows.

2009
Figure 2-2: Intersection turning movement flow matrix
Table 2-6: Schematic turning movement flow matrix
Totals
Out-bound direction
In-bound
direction 1 2 3 4
1 q11k q12k q13k q14k I1k
Totals O1k O2k O3k O4k

2009
Figure 2-3: Network representation showing traffic flows

2009
3 NON-MOTORISED TRAFFIC SURVEYS
3.1 NMT Survey Methods
There are a number of survey methods which can be employed in NMT surveys.
These can be grouped into two main categories that describe the basic purpose of
the enquiry, which are:
• Supply survey that describes the nature of the NMT system, its scale and
productivity, its bottlenecks and the scope for its development. Manual count
techniques and Automatic Counting techniques and Pedestrian crossing
observation are the most common methods.
• Demand survey that describes the way in which NMT facility is currently used,
or which describe NMT user satisfaction or how users would prefer to be
supplied with NMT infrastructure to meet their needs. Attitudinal surveys are
employed here.
3.1.1 Manual Counting
Manual counts are aimed at the following:

(i) To estimate the volume and composition of NMT passing a specific point.
This includes footpaths and on-street bikeways on both directions of
travel.
(ii) To estimate the peak NMT flows in order to calculate the required track
width.
(iii) To assess the efficiency of the intersections or crossing points.
The following factors need to be considered when conducting the counts:
• Local knowledge should be used to pick appropriate locations for conducting

the traffic counts to ensure a true reflection of the traffic using the road to
avoid under or over counting
• Avoid counting too close to towns and villages if the data is meant for sizing a
rural facility, otherwise for urban set ups counts need to be undertaken within
the built-up areas
• Be aware of the location of junctions and the impact of these on traffic flows
• NMT may use local footpaths and tracks in addition to the road. When
counting ensure that the count station is located to capture all traffic
• Rural people predominantly travel as the sun is rising and as the sun is
setting. Therefore Weekday, 6-9 AM and 4-6 PM and Weekend for rural
areas, and 12-2 PM schedule should be adopted in the day long counts in
urban areas

2009
• When counting in the wet season have knowledge of local diversions on poor
roads
3.1.2 Counting Procedures
Counting locations
The following considerations and suggested criteria are provided to help in the
selection of count locations:
• Bicycle and pedestrian activity areas or corridors (downtown, near school

campuses, parks, large workplaces, etc.)
• Representative locations in urban, suburban, and rural locations
• Key corridors that can be used to gauge the impacts of future improvements
• Locations where counts have been conducted historically
• Locations where collisions involving bicyclist and/or pedestrians are high
• Gaps and pinch points for bicyclists and pedestrians (potential improvement
areas)
Materials
The traffic counters should be provided with traffic counting equipments, data
sheet(s) and written instructions prior to the count. Others include writing materials
and reflective dresses. NMT count forms and Counter Instructions are provided in
the Appendix G and H respectively.
Methodology
The counting is conducted for a period of one week of daily counting. NMT counts
are normally conducted during daytime, but could as well be conducted in the night
depending on the objectives of the counts. A time interval of 15 minutes between
counts is recommended (in urban areas) for summarizing counts but the actual
survey remains continuous; rural counts could have intervals of about 30 minutes.
A person who passes by a point more than once is counted each time they pass by
the point.
Along road sections, one observer for each side of the road counts bicycles in the
normal flow direction, and all pedestrians and carts on that side of the road
irrespective of their direction. On roundabouts, it is more important to count the
number of pedestrians, cyclist and carts that cross each intersection arm (without
for pedestrians separately counting from which side one crosses; cyclist and carts
will generally cross in one direction only). For normal intersections, only count the
total number per category of NMT approaching from each side, without
discriminating in which direction they leave the intersection.
Quality Control

2009
The Count Coordinator and any location supervisors should conduct a random
review of counters during the count period to ensure they are on-duty and
tabulating information correctly. Count results that vary significantly from one time
period to the next or that are unusually consistent may need to be explained
sufficiently to the Count Coordinator’s satisfaction, or discarded.
3.1.3 Pedestrian Crossing Observation
The pedestrian crossing observation yields the following information on the

pedestrians:
• Road crossing time is important in computing the mean walking speeds and
the availability of adequate gaps in the traffic stream to enable safe crossing
by pedestrians
• Crossing behavior of individual or group crossing are vital as they indicate the
availability of crossing facilities and accident risks as perceived by
pedestrians
• Pedestrian crossing trajectory could be right angle or diagonal depending on

the availability of crossing gaps and vehicle speeds on that section
• Pedestrian crossing spot could be within 20m, between 20 to 100m from

crossing point or at the Crossing point (RZC/painted). This information need
to be recorded as well
• Information on Age and Gender of Pedestrians may also be taken for

comparative studies and subsequent social analysis.
All this information is collected using a structured questionnaire, prepared

according to the quality of data required. The crossing time are obtained using
stop-watches. The following two studies are conducted as described in sub-section
3.2.3 above to obtain the specified pedestrian characteristics:
The Pedestrian Volume Count Study

The Pedestrian Volume Count Study is used to determine the volume of
pedestrians crossing the streets at signalized or non-signalized intersections. This
study is used predominately for Minimum Pedestrian Volume Warrant for signals
installation as discussed under section 5.3. Two different study forms are to be
completed in the Pedestrian Volume County Study, the Pedestrian Volume Sheet
and the Summary of Pedestrian Movements. These forms are shown in Appendix I
and J respectively

2009
The Pedestrian Group Size Study

The purpose of the Pedestrian Group Size Study is to determine adequate gap time
required for the 85th percentile group size of pedestrians to cross a street of
specified width at a given time. The form for this study is shown in Appendix K.
3.1.4 NMT Route Choice Analysis
Cyclists
Roadside interviews of bicyclists or of any other NMT vehicle, along a number of
routes (including non-engineered tracks) would provide information on trip origin –
destination pairs, trip purposes. This kind of survey need not cover the entire city
but is best while considering a specific neighbourhood. This technique provides
rather indicative than definitive data on route preference by cyclists that is useful
enough for mapping O-D patterns for bicycle network planning; a more complete
picture requires integration of this data with a past household survey for a more
precise ‘snapshot’ picture of existing route choice.
Pedestrians
For pedestrians, it is generally assumed that their trips are normally short and more
dispersed both in time and space and route preference study is less meaningful.
Tracking of arbitrarily selected pedestrians using hand held GPS units within a
given area would provide good information of common barriers causing detours to
pedestrians, predominant road crossing spots, and commonly traversed non
engineered footpaths. These would be determined from downloads of GPS tracks
at the end of the survey period that could be as short as 1 hour to 12 hours. The
GPS tracks are then overlaid onto the area map in order to visualize the exact route
taken by the particular pedestrian.
The track information is vital input for road intersection design improvements for
safety, and for identification of detour factors. Further, information on frequently
used footpaths provides unbiased basis for prioritizing future NMT infrastructure
improvement schemes.
The main weakness of these methods is that they can only tell the existing route
choice but fail to indicate the likelihood of route shift in the event that a change
occurs in any of the socio-economic factors obtaining at the time of the study.

2009
3.1.5 Attitudinal Surveys
Attitudinal surveys are meant to capture the social characteristics of the non-
motorized traffic. Apart from the age grouping, the following social characteristics
are obtained from these surveys:
• Modal safety
• Gender aspects
• Fare differences and fare competitions for various modes (boda-boda &
motorcycles)
• Income levels of NMT users
• Trip frequencies
• Comfort of NMT modes
• Competition between the NMT modes and the MT modes
• Poverty levels
• Driver behaviour
3.2 Data Presentation and Analyses
3.2.1 Pedestrian Crossing Observation
85th Percentile Pedestrian Group Size

The cumulative total number of groups is computed and then multiplied by 0.85 to
obtain the 85th percentile group size.
Adequate Gap Time

Having calculated the 85th percentile group size, the adequate gap time (G)
required for crossing the street can be found by using the following equation by
Millennium MUTCD.
⎛W ⎞
G = ⎜ ⎟ + 3 + ( N − 1) * 2
⎝ s ⎠
Where:
G = Adequate gap time in seconds
W = Width of street in metres. If there is a raised median 1.2m wide or greater,
then W equals the exposed walking distance from curb to median. If W is
different for each direction of travel, then G will be different.
(N -1) = Pedestrian clearance time in seconds
N = Number of rows in 85th percentile group size

2009
s = Use 1.1m/s for normal pedestrian traffic walking speed. The study personnel
should conduct a walking speed study if the location's pedestrian
characteristics are different from normal pedestrian areas (disabled,
elderly, children, etc.).
3 = Perception and reaction time in seconds
2 = Time interval between rows in seconds
There is a natural tendency for pedestrians to group together before crossing a

street as they wait for a break or gap in the traffic stream. Thus rows of pedestrians
walking abreast form to cross the street. It has been shown empirically that a row
generally will consist of five pedestrians, resulting in the values of "N" provided on
the Pedestrian Group Size form.
The following information may also be analyzed and presented depending on the
quality of data desired:
• Age and pedestrian crossing behavior
• Gender and pedestrian crossing behavior
• Walking level of service
• Volume to capacity ratio of footpaths
3.2.2 Social Characteristics
The attitudinal surveys as presented above would result in various analyses.

However, the following are the most desirable data presentation for NMT social
characteristic surveys:
• The Problems/Challenges Faced By NMT Users
• NMT Mode-Income Linkages
• NMT infrastructure conditions on survey sites
• Operating conditions experienced by NMT modes
• NMT trip distributions and route choice.

2009

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4 ORIGIN - DESTINATION SURVEYS
4.1 Introduction
Understanding today’s travel patterns is critical in meeting tomorrow’s

transportation needs. Planners need to know where people travel to in the course
of the day, as well as why, when, how they get there, and what commodity they
carry with them. This information is obtained through the origin-destination (O-D)
survey. The O-D survey is intended to capture a minimum of the following
information:
• Travel mode
• Vehicle type and occupancy
• Trip purpose
• Origin of trips
• Destination of trips
• Commodity type and flow
• Potential diverted traffic
• Preferred stopover locations
• Common O-D pairs, depicted by desire line diagrams
• Household characteristics of the trip making family
• Route preference
• Number and purpose of the regular trips made by the same vehicle over a
given period, and
• Trip frequencies by various vehicle categories.
The O-D data may be used in the following areas:

i. To determine the amount of by-passable traffic that enters a town,
ii. To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport planning
process,
iii. To assess the adequacy of parking facilities by forecasting future parking
needs,
iv. To determine the adequacy of the highway system and to plan for new
facilities based on current and future land use changes.
4.2 O-D Survey Methods
The most common techniques employed in O-D survey are:

2009
• Roadside Interviews (RSI)
• Registration number matching, and
• Post-card questionnaire (not very common in Africa)
• Household surveys (mainly for urban roads)
4.2.1 Road-side interview survey
In this method trained personnel are stationed at points where site distances,
gradients and road way widths are suitable. At the interview stations, traffic police
control traffic. The data is recorded on individual sheets or cards. This method is
more accurate and particularly suitable with limited personnel.
4.2.2 Registration number plate survey
In this method, vehicle registration plate number and category are recorded as it
enters and exits the study area via alternative routes. The numbers are then
matched up in order to establish which route was travelled by each of the
vehicles identified. The time of entry and exit is also noted so that journey times
can be computed. In order to simplify the number-recording process, it is
advisable to note the first FOUR numbers of the registration plate, and the vehicle
class recorded using an additional code letter. Control cars can be included within
the traffic stream under investigation in order to ensure the quality of information
gathered.
The technique is suited in situations where the objective is to understand how

vehicles pass through a given area, for instance, whether traffic passes through
the centre of a town or uses its newly opened bypass route. This method has the
advantage of minimal disruption to traffic flow and vehicles are never stopped as
data is gathered. If properly designed, it can be a very simple and reliable survey
method. However, it is likely that about 10% of the numbers might not be
matched as a result of recording errors particularly, where the entry and exit flows
are heavy. In such situations, manual recording may be impractical and video
recording techniques may have to be considered.
4.2.3 Post-card questionnaire survey
Pre-stamped post cards are handed over to road users at toll stations or
convenient points where traffic is slow. These can also be placed on parked
vehicles. The road user is asked to answer the questions and mail it back. In
some cases the returned post card is mailed back to registered vehicle owners in
the survey. Supplementary roadside interviews are done to check on
questionnaire data and account for foreign vehicles. The response ranges from
25% to 60%.

2009
4.2.4 Household interviews
This may be conducted by telephone calls or by the interviewer visiting

households and conducting one on one interview. Household surveys are useful
in collecting information on individual travellers and households regarding their
trip characteristics such as trip purpose, frequency, origin and destination, and
mode of travel.
4.3 O-D Survey Procedure
For successful design of this kind of surveys, it is recommended that a

transportation planner be involved in directing the process and to ensure that all
the relevant data needs are captured. The development of an O-D survey is
accomplished with the following tasks:
4.3.1 Need identification
This is the first step in planning the survey. It involves the identification of the
issues related to the impact of the road project and also to develop an
understanding of the needs of motorists during the survey period. The survey
should aim at minimizing delays; various pro-active measures, such as use of
variable message signs to communicate with motorists in advance of the survey
location are encouraged.
4.3.2 Sample size requirement
The required sample size can be estimated by from the following formula:
⎡^ ⎤ 2
⎢ ⎛ ^ ⎞⎥ ⎛ z ⎞
SS = p⎜1 − p ⎟ * ⎜ ⎟ ……………………………………Equation (4-1)
⎢ ⎝ ⎠⎥ ⎝ E ⎠
⎣ ⎦
Where:
SS = Sample size, or the number of responses required to ensure that the data is
significantly representative of the vehicular population under study2.
^
p = Sample proportion, or the sample as a percentage of the estimated vehicular
flow.
z = z-value (statistic) corresponding to the level of confidence required (for
instance, 1.96 at the 95% confidence level)
E = Margin of error required, or a measure of the variation within the data: the
smaller this value is the more uniform the data is.
2
This is the minimum sample size needed assuming the survey team gets a response rate of 100%

2009
Table 4-1: Levels of confidence and associated z values

Level of confidence z-value
90% certain 1.65
95% certain 1.96
99% certain 2.57
The survey duration depends on the sample size needed; at least 250
respondents need to be interviewed and this data need to be spread uniformly
over the entire project road length. This guideline recommends on average three
(3) weekdays and one (1) weekend day, which should cover main market days or
typical vehicle movements. For a roadside interview, the sample size should be at
least 25% of drivers passing the interview location and care need to be exercised
to ensure that this 25% is representative of the total traffic by way of randomly
picking out a vehicle for interviewing.
4.3.3 Survey Questionnaire
The survey questionnaire is designed primarily to meet the data needs and other
issues related to the survey such as safety and to facilitate the motorists’ ability to
answer questions satisfactorily. For the, post-card method, self-coding pre-paid
mail back form is developed to allow for ease of response and mailing. A sample
of the O-D Survey questionnaire is shown in Appendix C.
Data forms need to be appropriately designed to ensure minimum delays to

stopped vehicles, and to obtain data in sufficient detail so as to enable accurate
estimation of potential diverted and generated traffic. The inclusion of local police
officers in the survey team is recommended to randomly flag down vehicles for
interviews and to generally assure safety of the enumerators. Warning and
direction signs have to be strategically sited on all approaches and exits to the
survey stations to avoid accidents and obstructions to other traffic.
4.3.4 Field work review and survey site selection
The survey locations should be reviewed for the optimum location of the
surveyors. It is a common practice to identify safe zones such as bus stops,
sidewalks, medians and traffic islands for interviewers. Access need to be
provided to motorists without creating vehicle delays. Ideally, O-D surveys should
be done in conjunction with traffic counts; axle load surveys could also be
undertaken alongside these other surveys or be lagged slightly once vehicle flow
patterns are established to aid planning of axle load exercise.
Under O-D study it is necessary to define external cordon lines, which are
imaginary lines at the boundary of the study area. It may also be necessary to
select some internal cordon lines, which may be concentric rings defined by some
physical or man-made features like rivers or road network. In order to
countercheck the accuracy of the survey data, it may be necessary to have

2009
screen-lines, which are imaginary lines dividing the study area into smaller parts.
4.3.5 Surveyor training
Training for enumerators and interviewers is very important so as to improve the

quality of data collected. During the training sessions the survey assistants
should be instructed on the following information:
• The purpose of the survey
• Safety, including where to stand and how to approach a vehicle
• Safety equipment, including reflective jackets and rain gear,
• Proper conduct
• Procedures for restocking survey forms
• Duration of the survey, and
• Distribution policies-for instance the type of vehicle (no taxis) and also one
form per vehicle.
4.4 Data analysis and presentation
The results of the survey will depend on the purpose of the survey. The results
should seek to answer most of the following questions concerning the O-D
survey: the trip origin, the destination of the trip, the possible stop-over location
and reasons for stopping, the purpose of the trip, the number of people in the
vehicle including the driver, type of vehicle, route preference, the frequency of
travel, and reasons for using the route, availability of alternative route and its
utilization, and commodity carried if any.
Data analysis is mostly done using Spreadsheets. But other programs such as
SPSS could be utilized. The program choice depends on the complexity of the
analysis, information sought from the analysis and availability of resources to the
analyst.
O-D surveys yield a vast amount of data. To understand them it is necessary to

present them in tables or by use of charts/figures (see Figure 4-1).

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MERILLE - MOYALE ROAD (A2)

YEAR 2007 VEHICULAR TRIP DESIRE LINES
SOUTHERN SUDAN
ETHIOPIA
LOKICHOGIO
Mandera
10
20
Moyale
11 Sololo 19
North Horr
Turbi
18
17
Lake Turkana Bubisa
Kargi
13 Marsabit
12 16
South Horr
UGANDA 15
Wajir
14 Laisamis
7
Merille
6
Maralal
SOMALIA
Isiolo
3
5 4
Kisumu
Nakuru
8
Garissa
1 2
Nairobi Kitui
Lamu
TANZANIA
9 Mombasa
Number of Vehicles
0 50
NOTE: O-D Pairs with vehicular trip of less than 1% not shown
Figure 4-1: Desire line diagram for Merille River – Moyale road project

2009
4.5 Traffic Projections
Traffic forecasting is a vital step in transforming the baseline traffic flow data to
the design year, which is the future capacity the road facility is intended to satisfy.
It is worth noting that the existing and the diverted traffic are what constitute the
baseline traffic. The future traffic need to be categorized into three components
namely: normal traffic, diverted traffic, and generated traffic (or developmental
traffic). The three components are forecasted differently based on certain
underlying assumptions and finally summed up in terms of AADT for various
vehicle categories per direction of flow.
Depending on a road project area of influence, the baseline traffic consisting of

existing traffic on the roadway under development or improvement and traffic on
other neighbouring parallel roads that are likely to divert onto the improved facility
upon the opening of the new facility to traffic in year one of operation, would form
the base traffic for future forecasts.
4.5.1 Normal traffic
This is the future traffic that would travel on the existing road even if it was not
improved. The projections for normal traffic are established applying growth rates
derived from socio-economic hypotheses, to the last available traffic data. The
forecasting is normally done by extrapolating time series data on traffic levels
and assuming the growth rate will remain constant in absolute terms—a fixed
number of vehicle per year (a linear interpolation), or constant in relative terms,
that is, a fixed percentage increase. Growth can also be related linearly to the
anticipated Gross national Income (GNI). This is preferable because it explicitly
takes into account changes in overall economic activity. In the event that data on
GNI are not available, this document recommends that traffic forecasts should be
based on time series data.
Fuel sales data could be used as a proxy to estimate a country-wide growth in

vehicle traffic. It is usually prudent to countercheck how realistic the future
forecasts are regardless of the forecasting method used. There are fluctuations
inherent in traffic forecasts arising from ever changing global fuel prices and
vehicle import restrictions that could impact severely on the future traffic growth
rates particularly in developing countries such as Kenya.
4.5.2 Diverted Traffic
This is the traffic currently travelling along other itineraries but which is likely to
divert onto the improved/new road. It is the traffic that changes from another route
(or mode of transport) to the project road because of the improved facility, but still
travels between the same origin and destination. Diverted traffic is normally
projected to grow at the same rate as traffic on the road from which it is diverting
from.

2009
The origin destination survey is carried out to provide data for the traffic
diversions likely to occur and the assignment of the diverted traffic is normally
done by an all-or-nothing method in which it is assumed that all the vehicle that
would save time or money by diverting would do so, and that vehicles that would
lose time or increase costs would not transfer. And all the perceived costs should
be included.
4.5.3 Generated traffic
This is the traffic resulting from increase in transport demand, as a direct

consequence of large reductions in Vehicle Operating Costs [VOC]: it
corresponds to an underlying transport demand which, due to the prevalent poor
road conditions, remains unattractive, since a number of persons (or goods)
which would “normally” travel, finally prefer (or are obliged) not to travel, due to
high transport costs and may be longer travel times.
The generated traffic should be forecasted using the demand relationships. The
price elasticity of demand for transport is the responsiveness of traffic to a
change in transport costs following a road investment. Distinction is made
between passenger traffic, freight traffic, agricultural and non-agricultural freight
traffic. The price elasticity of demand for transport should be based on door-to-
door travel costs estimated as a result of origin and destination surveys and not
just on that part of the trip incurred on the road under study.
Generated traffic is closely associated with developmental traffic, which consists

of the additional trips to places that have recorded development due to a new
road or improvement of an old road. It is the traffic component resulting from
economic development within a project’s area of influence over and above the
development which otherwise would have taken place had the new highway not
been there or had improvement not taken place on the existing highway. In
practice, it is difficult to distinguish between the two types of traffic growth and
therefore, the two are generally considered together as generated traffic growth.
4.5.4 Application of price elasticity of demand
Demand curve from economic theory can be use to estimate generated traffic
component based the interaction between price and demand of travel as defined
by price elasticity of demand—the responsiveness of traffic to change in transport
costs arising from an investment in a road infrastructure. It is defined as the
proportionate percentage change in travel demand to the percentage change in
travel cost.
Literature on price elasticity of demand from a number of studies in least

developed and emerging economies estimate typical values falling within a range
of -0.6 to -2.0 with an average value of approximately -1.0. This implies that a 1%
reduction in transport costs results into a 1% increase in traffic. Further, available
evidence gives a general indication that price elasticity of demand for passenger
travel is normally greater than -1.0. In contrast, elasticity of demand for freight is

2009
much lower, varying from -0.1 to -0.5 and largely depend on the proportion of
transport costs in the commodity price. Nevertheless, the ability to market or
process some firm produce is rests a lot on the availability of good road access.
4.5.5 Scale of traffic forecasting
Scale of forecasting analyses for feasibility studies of road projects is determined

by the following factors:
• the nature of the project area (urban or rural),
• the size and variety of alternative choices (roads and other transport modes)
and prevailing modal split,
• availability of data and resources, and
• the forecasting approach adopted.
Depending on the nature of any road development scheme, the forecasting

approaches in use are:
i. Simple growth factoring of the existing flows, with total traffic assignment to
a single road, normally used where there is no alternative competing roads
or modes,
ii. The use of diversion curves in an ‘either/or’ situation, usually applicable in
analysis of small towns with limited transport network,
iii. The complex 4-stage models.
The main categories of computer-based models that are could be used in urban
road feasibility study include:
• The classical four-stage model for transport demand analysis—predicts the

travel demand that is likely to materialize under some given set of
assumptions. They largely reflect population and transport system
characteristics.
• Land-use/transport interaction models which forecast changes in both travel

demand and land-use patterns in response in changes in accessibility
provided by the transport system (are less popular with analysts and
focuses mainly on urban studies).
• Traffic assignment models that mainly focus on the supply side of the
transport system, that is, how the predicted travel demand impacts on the
proposed network; traffic forecasts are an input variable to these models.
• Junction simulation models which are used in optimization of individual

junction designs. Future traffic forecasts are key input variable in such
analysis.
For rural roads or inter-urban highways, the forecasting analysis is usually less
complex usually relying on macroeconomic forecasts. On the other hand, urban

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road projects do require some more complex transport demand modeling. In

essence, forecasting urban traffic demand is data intensive at requires a
minimum of:
• A trip matrix
• Baseline traffic counts on road links
• Prevailing travel time/speeds over the network
• Socio-economic characteristics of the various demarcated traffic zones
• Road network referencing and item inventory
In situations where these pieces of information are non-existent or outdated, new

surveys would have to be undertaken to provide the necessary information
required or to merely update the past data. This therefore, underscores the fact
the good estimation of required resources for forecasting must be based on a
fairly good understanding of the completeness of existing data sources.
4.5.6 Accuracy of traffic forecasts
Baseline traffic flow estimates and traffic growth rates are prone to error however
good the method or approach adopted for estimation of travel demand. The
accuracy of traffic flow forecasts is largely dependent on the accuracy and
appropriateness of the base traffic count data.
Traffic count data are normally subject to errors arising from data sampling,
measurement techniques used, and human errors either during the field surveys
or at analysis stage. Manual classified traffic counts usually give accuracies of
within ±10% for all vehicles and ±18% for all goods vehicles, all within 95%
confidence interval.
The forecasting process itself introduces some errors just as any predictive model
relies on a number of assumptions that cannot be proven beforehand. Future
traffic estimates then must always be treated as only that, that is, estimates, and
any analyses based on traffic forecasts should be subject to sensitivity tests. The
tests should cover a range around the estimated traffic forecasts to ensure that
any pavement design or economic evaluation decisions are robust against
inaccuracies in traffic forecasts.

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5 TRAFFIC SPEED AND DELAY SURVEYS
5.1 Introduction
Road users assess value of a road facility in moving goods and people by its
convenience and economy, which are directly related to its speed. The main goal
of any designed roadway to users is to satisfy their demand for transport service
in an economical and safe manner. A highway facility should thus be designed to
accommodate nearly all traffic demands with reasonable adequacy, and should
never fail under extreme traffic needs.
In consequence, highways should be designed to operate at a speed that meets

users expectations. It is instructive to note that since a few drivers will always
drive at extremely high speeds, it would not make economic sense to design for
them. Traffic engineering practice provides the 85th percentile speed as the
practical design speed. On the other hand, the design speed selected should not
be that used by drivers under unfavourable conditions (as in bad weather) since
the use of highway would be unsafe and inefficient for drivers under favourable
conditions.
5.2 Speeds Surveys
Speed characteristics of the traffic stream may be used to establish speed limits,
and non-passing zones, design geometric alignment, analyse accident data, and
to evaluate the effects of physical roadway improvements. The traffic stream
speed is typically defined in terms of one or more of the following values: mean
speed, median speed, modal speed, the ith percentile speed, and pace speed,
which is the 10-kph interval that has the largest number of observations.
5.2.1 Operating speed
This is the speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles during
free-flow conditions—in fair weather during off-peak hours. The 85th percentile of
the distribution of measured speeds on the roadway is the most frequently used
indicator of the operating speed associated with a particular context.
There is sufficient evidence indicating that drivers never alter in a significant way,
speeds they consider safe for operating regardless of the presence of speed limit
signs unless there is visible police enforcement.

2009
5.2.2 Design speed
This is the chosen speed used to size the various geometric design elements of
the roadway. It should be consistent with the terrain, anticipated vehicle operating
speeds, adjacent land-use type, and the functional classification of highway.
Design speed should be reasonably high enough to enable drivers to operate
their vehicles with satisfactory levels of safety, mobility, and efficiency within the
constraints of environmental quality, socio-economics and political impacts. Once
the speed is agreed upon, all other pertinent highway features must be aligned to
it in order to achieve a balanced design.
5.2.3 Running speed
This is the speed derived from the length of the highway section traveled divided
by the running time required for the vehicle to traverse the section. Running
speed characterizes the time necessary to travel a pre-determined roadway
section, inclusive of stopped delays experienced along the roadway section.
Measures of running speed vary significantly by day of week and time of day
based on the prevailing traffic flow conditions. It should therefore be clearly stated
whether running speed represents peek hours, off-peak hours or an average over
the entire day. Off-peak and peak running speed finds use in operation and
design while average running speeds for an entire day are used in economic
analyses.
5.3 Measurement of speeds
5.3.1 Spot speeds
The first of these is spot speed measurement for an individual vehicle. This can
be obtained by equipment called hand-held digital radar gun, which records the
speed of traffic or a sample of vehicles passing a particular point in space based
on the Doppler effect of the change in frequency of a microwave beam reflected
by the vehicle. Spot speed measurements can be plotted on a graph to show the
variation of traffic speeds, as a simple frequency graph. Alternatively, spot speed
measurement can be used to calculate the time mean speed of traffic passing a
given point on a roadway.
Time mean speed is the arithmetic average of the speeds of all vehicles as
measured at a specified point on the roadway over a specified time period and is
expressed as:
V
V = ∑t t ...............................................................Equation (5-1)
N
Where V is the time mean speed

Vt is the speed of an individual vehicle
N is the number of vehicles observed.

2009
The data can be collected using a speed measurement device, such as a radar
gun, positioned at some vantage point to take speed readings of the traffic
stream.
Spot speeds at one or more locations on a highway can be a good estimate for
average running speed on such a highway particularly if the traffic flows over
those sections are relatively continuous. For short sections of a highway, on
which speeds do not vary materially, the average spot speed at one location may
be considered an approximation of the average running speed. On longer
sections of a highway, the average spot speeds measured at several points,
where each point represents the speed characteristics of a selected segment of a
highway, may be averaged and weighted by relative lengths of each segment to
provide a better estimate of the average running speed. Appendix D contains an
observation sheet for Traffic Speed and traffic flow observation.
5.3.2 Space mean speed
This is a measure of the speed of travel over a measured distance, rather than at
a single location. Thus if an observer wishes to know the speed of vehicles
travelling along a length of roadway, l, then if each vehicle I takes time ti to travel
the link then space mean speed can be computed as:
1
V= .......................................................................Equation (5-2)
t
∑i Ni
Where V is the space mean speed,
ti is the travel time of the ith vehicle,
N is the number of vehicles observed.
Space mean speed is also referred to as the journey speed within a network, is
usually measured using a ‘floating car method’. This technique measures
average journey time between two points in a network, along a pre-determined
route.
The test car is driven at somewhat constant speed such that it overtakes as many
vehicles as overtake it. This is meant to mimic as much as possible, the average
traffic stream speed; the driver has a delicate task of maintaining his position in
the traffic stream on the network. Generally the technique works for an extended
journey as constant driving may be easy to attain unlike over short stretches or in
a busy roadway where overtaking opportunities may be limited rendering the
technique impractical
The ‘floating car method’ has the obvious advantage of giving the investigator a
personal and direct feel of the causes of delays and identification of the
congestion spots, and provides relatively accurate measurements of travel times
and delays. The technique allows an extended survey of speeds throughout a
network, with limited survey resources and can be very useful in gaining a broad
understanding of traffic speeds in an area. However, where average traffic

2009
speeds exceed the speed limit, the technique is strictly speaking not feasible as
the observers would have to speed to collect the data.
Journey speed surveys are often used to collect time series data on highway
networks to show how traffic speeds are changing with time. The data is collected
by recording the journey times in stages, between successive major junctions
say, with pre-determined timing points on the vehicle’s journey. In order to obtain
an average value, a minimum of five (5) test runs should be undertaken. Speed
data collected where it can be established that the traffic flow was affected by an
accident or road works should be discarded.
An alternative to the floating car method is to employ time-synchronized video

cameras at locations along a route and record journey times for each vehicle
using Automatic Numberplate Reading (ANPR) techniques.
5.3.3 Data analysis and presentation
The large amount of speed data obtained can be conveniently presented using
the frequency table. In selecting size of class interval the most natural or
convenient class should be selected and the picture of the population should be
as smooth as possible.
The size of class interval should be determined from:
Range
i= ……………………………………Equation (5-3)
(1+ 3.3322 Logn )
Where i = class interval

n = No. of observation
Range = largest value – smallest value
The mean and variance for grouped data such as these are computed as follows
( fi μi )
μ= ………………………………………………………………Equation (5-4)
∑f i
s 2
=
[∑ f μ i i
2
− (∑ f i μ i ) / ∑ f i
2
] ………………………………….Equation (5-5)
∑f i −1
Where μ = average speed, fi = observed frequency of ith speed group, and μi = mid-value
of the ith speed group. Sample sizes for speed studies can be computed from Eq. (4-1).

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5.4 Warrant Analysis
A warrant is a set of criteria which can be used to define the relative need for, and
appropriateness of, a particular traffic control device (that is, STOP or YIELD sign
(Give-way sign), traffic signal, etc.). Warrants are usually expressed in the form of
numerical requirements such as the volume of vehicular or pedestrian traffic. A
warrant normally carries with it a means of assigning priorities among several
alternative choices. There are two fundamental concepts involved in this
determination:
• The most effective traffic control device is that which is the least restrictive
while still accomplishing the intended purpose. For instance, geometric
changes alone may negate the need for a traffic signal.
• Driver response to the influences of a traffic control device has been

previously identified by observation, field experience, and laboratory tests
under a variety of traffic and driver conditions.
Warrants should be viewed as guidelines, not as absolute values and satisfaction

of a warrant is not a guarantee that the device is needed.
Engineering judgment should be exercised in making the final determination.
Traffic signals should not be installed unless one or more of these warrants are
satisfied:
i) Vehicular Volume.
ii) Pedestrian Volume.
iii) Peak Hour Delay
iv) School Crossing.
v) Interruption of Continuous Traffic
vi) Coordinated Signal System.
vii) Crash/Accident Experience.
viii) Roadway Network.
In addition, delay, congestion, crash experience, confusion, or other evidence of

the need for right-of-way assignment must be shown. Geometric changes which
may eliminate the need for a signal should be considered before settling on the
signal installation.
In Kenya, vehicular volume, pedestrian volume, interruption of continuous flow

and crash experience still remains the most common warrants for traffic control
device installation. These are briefly discussed below

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5.4.1 Minimum Pedestrian Flow Volume Warrant
The following minimum conditions should be met:
• For the major street, a vehicle flow of 600veh/hr or more should enter the
intersection on both approaches. Alternatively, where there is a raised
median island 1.2m or more in width, a flow of 1000veh/hr or more should
enter the intersection on both directions.
• There should be a pedestrian flow of 150 per hour on the highest volume
cross-walk, crossing the major street during the same eight hours.
The above minimum conditions should be met for each of any hour of an average
day.
5.4.2 Interruption of Continuous Traffic Flow Warrant
This warrant applies when the traffic volume on a major street is so heavy that
traffic on a minor intersecting street experiences excessive delay or hazard while
entering the intersection. The recommended traffic volumes on the major street
and on the higher volume minor street for each of any eight hours of an average
day are indicated below.
Table 5-1: Interruption of continuous traffic flow for traffic signal warrant
No. of lanes on each Vehicles .per hour Vehicles .per hour on minor
approach on major street street
Major Minor (both approaches) (one direction only)
street street
1 1 1000 100
2 or more 1 1200 100
2 or more 2 or more 1200 150
1 2 or more 1000 150
5.4.3 Accident/Crash Experience Warrant
This is satisfied when the following conditions are met:
• Five or more reported accidents, of types susceptible of correction by traffic

signal control have occurred within a period of 12 months, each accident
involving personal injury or property damage to an apparent extent of
Kes300,000 or more for Nairobi and other major cities and Kes150,000 for
smaller towns
• The signal installation will not significantly disrupt traffic flow.
• Adequate trial of less restrictive remedies with satisfactory observance and

enforcement has failed to reduce the accident frequency.

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5.4.4 Minimum Vehicular Volume Warrant
The traffic volume on the major street and the higher volume minor street for
each of any 8 hours of an average day as given in Table 5-2 must exist.
Table 5-2: Minimum vehicular volumes for traffic signal warrant

No. of lanes on each Vehicles .per hour on Vehicle per hour on
approach major street(both minor street (one
Major street Minor approaches) direction only)
street
1 1 500 150
2 or more 1 600 150
2 or more 2 or more 600 200
1 2 or more 500 200
5.5 Intersection Delay Study
The Intersection Delay Study is used to evaluate the performance of intersections

in allowing traffic to enter and pass through, or to enter and turn onto another
route. This study will effectively provide a detailed evaluation of stopped time
delay at the intersection. The study is generally used in conjunction with
Interruption of Continuous Traffic and Peak Hour Delay warrants and can be
equally applicable in the evaluation of pedestrian delays at an intersection by
substituting “pedestrian” for “vehicle” counts.
These kinds of surveys are generally carried out at roundabouts and

priority/signalized intersections, and involve measuring the queue lengths and
delay times of vehicles incident on the junction. Traffic simulation software such
as ARCADY and PICADY could assist in such analysis, and are strongly
recommended by this Guideline.
5.5.1 Study procedure
The study involves counting vehicles stopped in the intersection approach at

successive intervals. A typical duration for these intervals is 15-seconds, although
other interval lengths can be selected. The sampling interval should be selected
so that it will not be a multiple of the traffic signal cycle length. For example, if
cycles conform to a cycle length of 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, or 150-seconds,
a 13-second interval between samples is used. If not, a 15-second interval is
used.
The data collection and calculation form is shown in Figure 5-3. When conducting
this study at an intersection with stop sign control, the number of vehicles
stopping (Number Stopped sub-column) should only be those vehicles that
stopped completely. Vehicles which “roll” through the stop should be counted in
the Number Not Stopped sub-column.
• The field observation requires at least two observers. The first observer

2009
counts and records the number of vehicles stopped on the approach for each
sampling interval. A stopwatch can be used to provide the observer with the
proper intervals for counting the stopped vehicles. A vehicle is counted more
than once in the delay determination if it is stopped during more than one
sampling time. That is, a particular vehicle will continue to be counted in all
sample time periods during which it remains stopped on the intersection
approach.
• The second observer performs a separate tabulation of the approach volume

for each time period by classifying the vehicles as either stopped or not
stopping. This period is also applicable for the evaluation of delays to
pedestrian traffic at an intersection or any other location.
Alternatively, by accumulating the amount of time spent by each vehicle in the

queue and counting all vehicles (moving and stationary), a true measurement of
delay can be achieved.
Calculations
Calculations should be completed by computing the Total Delay, Average Delay
per Stopped Vehicle, Average Delay per Approach Vehicle, and Percent of
Vehicles Stopped. The calculations are shown in Table 5-3.

2009
Table 5-3: Intersection delay worksheet

2009
6 AXLE LOAD SURVEYS
6.1 Introduction
Traffic contributes to failure of pavement as a result of the magnitude of individual

axle loads and the number loading repetitions by these axle loads. For pavement
design and maintenance purposes, it is imperative to consider both the
cumulative number of vehicles expected to use the road and the axle loads of
these vehicles. Therefore, for every road design for a new facility or for
improvement of an existing one, axle load distribution of a typical vehicle sample
using the road (or expected to use the road) must be measured.
A sufficiently accurate estimate of the current traffic loading is essential for a

good pavement design. It is recommended that an axle load survey be carried out
since basing designs on legal axle load limits is not valid given the widespread
problem of overloading and due to the unknown proportion of vehicles that may
be only partially loaded. There may also be significant differences between axle
loads of vehicles using different classes of roads. This Manual therefore, strongly
recommends that for any road design, an axle load survey of heavy vehicles be
undertaken in the area where the road will be constructed and on the candidate
road in question so as to determine the damaging effect of traffic in terms of
standard axles3.
A sample of goods vehicles and large buses are usually weighed since structural
damage to road pavements are generally due to these categories of vehicles—
cars and other two axle vehicles exert insignificant loading on pavements thus
there is no use to weigh them. The weighing of commercial vehicles and buses
assists in determining axle load distribution of these vehicles on the road. This
information is then used to compute the average number of equivalent standard
axles for a typical vehicle in each vehicle class.
The next step is to combine these values with the traffic volume forecasts data so
as to derive the total predicted traffic loading that the road will is expected to carry
over its entire design life in terms of millions of equivalent standard axles (MSA).
6.2 Choice of Weighing Equipment
There exist three (3) possibilities for measuring axle loads of vehicles in terms of
availability of appropriate equipment, namely:
• Fixed weighbridge,
• Portable static weigh-pads, and

3
No average vehicle equivalency factors (EF) for various vehicle categories are given in this document, as vehicle
usage, degrees of overloading, and vehicle designs vary over time and in space over the Kenyan road network.
These will all influence the mean vehicle damaging factors, and it is therefore considered imprudent to propose
values in this manual which are likely to be inappropriate.

2009
• Portable Weigh-in-motion equipment
In the event that a fixed weighbridge exists near to the study road, it is
recommended that data could be obtained from such stations. Some of the
permanent weighbridges on the Kenyan road network are at Mariakani, Athi River
and at Gilgil. Otherwise, if there is none nearby then a portable static weigh pad
is required to weigh vehicles at the roadside.
The recommended method for obtaining axle load data is by the use of static
portable weigh pad to weigh a sample of vehicles at roadside. By this method it is
possible to weigh at least 30 vehicles per hour using one set of weigh pad
depending on the traffic flow levels, site layout, number of staff and their
experience, and type of the equipment.
The permanent weighbridges employ the weigh-in-motion (WIM) sensors, which

are not as accurate as static axle scales but generally have sufficient accuracy to
obtain good axle load data. The weighing is accomplished from sensitive devices
normally placed in frames installed in the roadbed.
Other versions of WIM are in portable form and have increasingly become
popular however they are less accurate and more expensive. This type should
never be used for obtaining axle load data for design purposes due to their
inaccuracy. Reliable evidence from studies indicates that portable WIM scales
underestimate the weights for steering axles (which are lighter) and do
overestimate the drive and trailer axle weights (which are heavier). Despite all
these, portable WIM scales are also not easy to use properly in the field. They
are generally appropriate for monitoring legal axle load limits on roadways; only
those trucks whose weights nearly approach the legal limit are then sent to the
static scales.
It is recommended that these portable static scales are regularly and accurately
calibrated by the manufacturer using calibrated proving ring or by Kenya Bureau
of standards laboratory (KEBS) in Nairobi. It is also advisable that the user
checks the calibration from time to time using the same vehicle of known axle
load to ascertain its accuracy.
6.3 Survey Procedure
For accurate results and high safety levels for staff involved, the axle load
surveys require proper planning before the actual field survey starts. The police
should not make any arrests of overloaded vehicles during the surveys as this
could significantly alter traffic flow and/ or loading temporarily as drivers of such
vehicles might be tempted to divert to other routes. This can potentially introduce
huge errors in data that is vital for pavement designs.
Prior classified traffic counts conducted in advance of axle load surveys is useful
in planning for axle weight surveys in terms of sampling strategies. Limited data

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on the daily commercial vehicle flows would help determine if weighing all these
vehicles is feasible. During busy hours of flow it is prudent to weigh only a sample
of these vehicles in order to avoid vehicle delays and to allow the survey staff
ample time to interview drivers. Sampling should be random, say, every second,
third, or fourth vehicle passing to be flagged down for weighing. Since average
equivalency factors (EF) are the ones sought, it is vital that empty, partially
loaded and fully loaded vehicles are all included in the sample being weighed.
In certain situations, there will be significant differences in axle loads in each

direction of traffic flow; separate vehicle equivalency factors corresponding to
each direction should be determined. It is therefore, important that the direction of
vehicle movement be recorded for all vehicles weighed. This will ensure that axle
loads in each direction are clearly shown and analysed separately to enable the
analyst to identify the most heavily loaded lane of the roadway. This can be done
by introducing an extra column on the data form noting the direction of travel.
The survey site should preferably be located on a clear stretch of road with good
visibility in both directions. It is often advisable to site the weighing equipment at a
hill crest so long as the approaches on both sides have adequate visibility, since
heavy vehicles will naturally slow down at such places due to high road gradient.
In addition, the survey team should be positioned away from road intersections.
In the event that queues form as a result of the weighing process causing traffic
snarl-ups, the operation should be stopped until normal traffic flows have been
attained.
Advanced warning signs need to be sited on the approaches to weighing site to

inform drivers of the axle load survey and accord vehicles time to break safely
and to stop. This will assure the safety of survey team and other road users at the
survey locations.
During the survey, traffic controllers stand at the middle of the road about 30
meters on either side of the weigh bridge where they are clearly visible to the
oncoming traffic. They instruct the truck driver on how to approach the weigh
bridge at slow walking speed. During an axle load survey all vehicles above a
gross weight of 5.0 tonnes are weighed, this applies whether they are empty,
partly or fully loaded. Example of axle load survey form is shown in Appendix E.
The driver questionnaire can be used to conduct origin destination survey and to
obtain additional information such as: age of vehicle, average annual mileage,
commodity carried, which may be used for economic analysis such as Vehicle
operating cost and the road user operating costs. See an example also in
Appendix E.

2009
Figure 6-1: Example of safety signs at an axle load survey site
6.3.1 Site layout for weighing
For medium to high traffic flows, it would be better if the survey team have two
sets of weigh-pads available to them, each with a separate survey team to weigh
vehicles in each direction on each side of the road as shown in the Figures 6-2
and 6-3. The two survey teams need not be directly opposite each other, the
arrangement could be staggered but the sampling would have to be from the
same road section.
In situations where service roads exist at the survey location or nearby, the
weighing can be conveniently and safely be conducted on them away from the
main road. The survey site arrangement would look like that in Figure 6-4.
The availability of slip roads or service roads might be hard to come by, in which
case a hard shoulder can often be used for weighing as represented in Figures 6-
3 and 6-5. The shoulder will have to be widened and leveled so that all the
vehicle wheels to be weighed are all in the same plane. The widening and
leveling should cover an area with length longer than twice the longest vehicle
available in the traffic stream.

2009
Figure 6-2: Layout for medium to high traffic flow, weighing one lane using slip
road
Alternate weighing can be used with medium to high traffic flows where there is
only one set of weighpads available with a sample of vehicles moving in both
directions captured. Vehicles traveling in one direction can be weighed on one
side of the road for a period of time and then the survey team and weighpads
shift to other side of the road after sometime to weigh vehicles moving in the
opposite direction. The sites need not be directly opposite each other; they could
be staggered provided they remain on the same road stretch (between say, the
same road junctions) to ensure that the same traffic is being sampled.
This arrangement suits very busy roads where trucks crossing from one side of
the road to the other are likely to be hazardous to other vehicles and road users.
It is recommended that directions be alternated on different days so as to avoid
errors that could arise, for instance, if morning traffic could be heavier than
afternoon traffic. Table 6-1 provides guidance for a 12-hour day axle load survey.
Table 6-1: Guide for alternate direction axle load survey

Survey duration Day of week
Weekday 1 Weekday 2
Morning: 06.00 – 12.00 Direction A Direction B
Afternoon: 12.00 – 18.00 Direction B Direction A
For roads with low traffic volumes, say less than 30 commercial vehicles per hour
in both directions, one set of weighpads can satisfactorily be used to weigh
vehicles moving in both directions either simultaneously or alternate weighing.
Appropriate survey site layouts are shown in Figure 6-4.

2009
Figure 6-3: Layout for medium to high traffic flow, weighing one lane, using a
hard shoulder
On low volume roads, vehicles could safely crossover from opposing directions to
be weighed simultaneously on a slip road or on a hard shoulder.
For higher traffic flows, use is made of either a slip road or a weighing site
constructed by widening and leveling a shoulder. If a slip road or service road
parallel to the main road where survey is to be carried exists, it could then be
used for channeling of vehicles for weighing safely away from other traffic. The
typical site arrangement is as shown in Figure 6-3.
Figure 6-4: Layout for low traffic flow, weighing both lanes, using a slip road
In places where there is no slip or service road, hard shoulders can be used for
weighing exercise. Figure 6-4 is appropriate under such scenario. Since traffic
flow is high, the shoulder will need to be widened over a length of at least twice
the length of the longest truck to be weighed.

2009
Figure 6-5: Layout for low traffic flow, weighing both lanes, using a hard
shoulder
For alternate weighing, vehicles moving in one direction can be weighed on one
side of the road foe a period of time and then the team and weighpads can be
moved to the other side of the road to weigh vehicles traveling in opposite
direction as already described for high traffic flows, at the beginning of this sub
section.
6.3.2 Positioning of weighpads
The weighpads need to be placed or positioned on a firm ground leveled to

remove any ‘high spots’ and without any possibility of subsidence as vehicles are
weighed. The pads could be placed in specially dug pits which are then lined with
concrete to provide stability to the weighpad and to prevent pit edges from
collapsing.
The pits are recommended for use in cases where weighpads thickness affects
the speed and accuracy of the surveying (>60mm thick pads) since vehicles
might not easily mount onto them. In such situations, pits ensure that all of the
vehicle wheels being weighed are level and eliminates the errors that can be
introduced by even small twists or tilts of the vehicle.
The weighpad cables need to be kept away from the vehicle tyres by providing a
channel to place them. The pits should be wide enough to allow the pads to
laterally be moved by say, 200mm so as to enable wheels of large articulated
trucks to be easily aligned. A spirit level is needed to ensure the weighpads are
perfectly leveled before weighing starts. At times, sand could be used under the
pads to aid leveling and provide uniform support. However, care need to be taken
as weighpads resting on sand could easily slide out from under a spinning wheel
and cause injury to survey staff.
It is also possible to weigh without digging pits for the pads given that the latest
weighpads are manufactured so thin that one does not need even a ramp at all;
the edges are chamfered to enable vehicles to climb onto them effortlessly. See

2009
the pads in Figure 6-6 with chamfered edges, which are integral to the pads. Note
that in the picture, there was adequate room for conducting the weighing exercise
at this location due to a wide intersection at the Kibwezi turnoff.
Nevertheless, if only one weighpad is being used, and it is not in a pit, then a
level platform ought to be provided to support all wheels on one side of the
vehicle that are part of the same suspension unit. It ensures that the wheel being
weighed is at level longitudinally with others in the unit. This does not prevent a
slight traverse tilt from one side of the vehicle due to the camber effect, but the
errors introduced in this case by the small tilt are quite insignificant compared
with those that would arise if the wheel is not longitudinally level with other
wheels in its suspension group.
Figure 6-6: A vehicle’s front axle right on top of the weighpads
Evidence from research show that raising an individual wheel by say 20 mm

could result in errors in the axle load in excess of 10%. In order to improve the
accuracy of data collected, the transverse tilt should be eliminated by placing a
dummy weighpad and platform to support the opposite wheels of the axle being
weighed. This has the effect of keeping the axle at level and prevents any errors
introduced by the camber effect of the road. Errors arising from longitudinal tilt
are usually negligible provided the site itself was sufficiently leveled.

2009
Vehicles with multiple axle configurations such as tandems and tridems, the
weighing need to be undertaken for each individual line of wheel loading but the
conversion to EF treatment is different (see section 6.5).
6.3.3 Optimal weighpad size
The size of weighpads does matter particularly when heavy articulated trucks with
large tyres are being weighed. It is the width of the pads that are critical in this
case as it has to be wider than a set of twin tyres, which are usually about 45 to
55cm wide. If the entire base of each wheel is not resting on the weighpad, then
the loading of the vehicle is concentrated on only part of each tyre. This could
present danger to survey staff as a tyre blow-out could easily occur more so if the
tyres are worn out. Given the high variation in tyres used by vehicles today, it is
imperative that the right weighpad size be selected that accommodates large
vehicle population on the Kenyan road network.
Figure 6-7: A vehicle’s rear twin wheels adequately accommodated by the weighpad
The capacity of one set of weighpad should be at least 40,000kg; each capable of
weighing 20,000kg of wheel load separately.

2009
6.4 Duration of Axle Load Surveys
The accuracy of axle load forecasts is directly related to the duration of counts
just as in traffic counts. It is further recommended that at least 80% of the target
vehicle categories be weighed so as to enhance the reliability of the collected
data. If it is practical to conduct axle load survey continuously for 24 hours over
the entire week (7 days), then it should be considered as this would ensure week
long typical vehicle loadings are captured. In cases where the continuous week
long weighing is not possible, the survey, at minimum, should be conducted for
12 hours daily and probably 16 hours per day for one full week.
However, in practice it has been observed that continuous weighing of vehicles

does not make sense as vehicle loadings will inevitably reduce within the first 24
hours or drivers just avoid the weighing route all together. Thus although seven
days of weighing is recommended, it is often advisable to weigh vehicles for say,
half a day at a time and still ensure that the exercise spreads over the full seven
days by extending the survey over two weeks (14 half-days).
Short unusual days of abnormal traffic flows should be avoided for instance,
public holidays. Much care need to be taken especially in rural areas with marked
seasonal variation in traffic flows. Surveys could be repeated at different times of
the year and results weighted according to the duration of the ‘seasons’ to
enhance accuracy.
The weighed vehicle sample should be statistically representative of the vehicle

flow on the road in question. It is recommended that at least 30 vehicles be
weighed in each vehicle category as a bare minimum.
6.5 Data Analysis and Presentation
6.5.1 Determining equivalent single-axle load
Equivalency factor (EF) for each axle is normally computed and summed up to
obtain the EF for each vehicle type in the survey. The equivalency factor
represents the mean damaging power of a vehicle on the pavement, normally
expressed as the number of standard, 81.6KN, (or 8,160kg) axles that would
cause the same amount of damage.
Liddle’s formula has been adopted to convert all single axle loads to equivalent
standard axles; other manuals call it the fourth power formula since the power
factor in such cases is 4 unlike 4.5 used in Kenya:
4.5
⎡ P ⎤
EF = ⎢ ⎥ ……………………………………Equation (6.1)
⎣ 8,200 ⎦

2009
Where:
EF is the equivalence factor of the single axle considered, and
P is the axle load in kilograms on the single axle considered.
The above relationship in Equation 6.1 was derived by Liddle4 assuming a

regional factor of 1.0. The objective is to estimate equivalent single-axle loads
(ESALs) that likely to induce deterioration of PSI5 to 2 or 2.5 from its initial value
of 4.5 or 5.
Liddle’s formula however, does not hold for axle loads in excess of 13,000kg.
Empirical studies show that an equation similar in form to Equation 6.1 but with a
variable power (likely to be > 4.5) depending on the values of pavement structural
number and axle load applied may suffice.
All axles including tandem and triple ones should be weighed separately and the
loads converted to equivalent standard axles using Equation 6.1, particularly
where the available weighpads are not long enough to accommodate the wheels
on the two closely fixed axles constituting a tandem. Otherwise, tandems should
be counted differently as the two axles ride on the road close together, whereby
the pavement between them does not get the full effect of each single-axle load.
There effect is therefore, not double the load from a single axle, and as such are
to be treated in the calculations as a single free standing tandem axle. The
overall effect on flexible pavements reduces the load from 16,000kg (2 x 8,000kg)
to about 15,000kg, as captured in equation 6.2.
4.5
⎛P ⎞
ESALTandem = ⎜ Tandem ⎟ …………………………………………Equation (6.2)
⎝ 15,100 ⎠
6.5.2 Present legislation in Kenya
The legal limits in force in Kenya are currently the following with the Traffic Act
figures shown in brackets:
Maximum Gross vehicle Weights
Vehicle with 2 axles: 180kN (18,000kg)

240kN (Rigid) (24,000kg); 280kN (Semi-trailer)
Vehicle with 3 axles:
(28,000kg)
Vehicle with (4 axles): 340kN (34,000kg)
4
Paper presented by Liddle W.J. at a conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, University of Michigan,
1962.
5
PSI stands for Pavement Serviceability Index

2009
6
Maximum Axle Loads
Front steering axle (2 wheels): 81.6kN (8,160kg)

Single axle (4 wheels): 100kN (10,000kg)
Tandem axle: 160kN (16,000kg)
Triple axle: 240kN (24,000kg)
Example of ESAL Computation
Consider the five-axle articulated truck with no tandem axles shown in Figure 6-8.
If the trailers are fully loaded, bringing the truck weight up to the legal limit of
40,000kg, each single axle other than the steering axle will have a load of
8,650kg. Using the Liddle’s formula, the ESAL for one truck would be:
4. 5 4.5
⎛ 5,400 ⎞ ⎛ 8,650 ⎞
ESAL = ⎜ ⎟ + 4*⎜ ⎟ = 0.16 + 5.2 = 5.36
⎝ 8,160 ⎠ ⎝ 8,160 ⎠
This implies that the fully loaded articulated truck (semi-trailer) exerts a load onto
the pavement equivalent to 5.2 times a single load of 8,160kg.
For a fully loaded articulated truck with tandem wheel configurations as shown in
Figure 6-9,
4.5 4. 5 4.5
⎛ 5,400 ⎞ ⎛ 17,800 ⎞ ⎛ 16,800 ⎞
ESAL8.16−Wheeler = ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = 0.16 + 2.1 + 1.62 = 3.88
⎝ 8,160 ⎠ ⎝ 15,100 ⎠ ⎝ 15,100 ⎠
6
The maximum axle loads given here are consistent with the COMESA regulations for allowable maximum axle
loads for truck traffic

2009
Figure 6-8: A 5-axle articulated track (1.2.2+2.2)
Figure 6-9: A 5-axle articulated truck with tandem axles loaded (1.22-22)
For rigid (concrete) pavement, Equation 6-2 must be replaced by
4.5
⎛P ⎞
ESALTandem = ⎜ Tandem ⎟ ………………………………..Equation (6-3)
⎝ 13,200 ⎠
The COMESA law on allowable maximum axle load applies to most of the
neighbouring countries and requires that a five-axle truck weighs no more than
42,000kg with steering axle not exceeding 8,160kg.

2009
6.5.3 Computer analysis of axle load data
Whichever the computer program used for the analysis, the main outputs are
intended to be the VEF for each vehicle category, a cumulative axle distribution
curve for each of the vehicle categories, and various axle configurations within
each of the vehicle categories. Most computer programs are developed using
spreadsheet based program which can be converted to Microsoft Excel and used
within the software.
Most commonly, the data is entered manually into the prepared forms and
analysis tables of the Microsoft Excel program. Any desired analysis is then
conducted within the software using the in-built data analysis tools. The most
common vehicle axle configuration in Kenya can be seen in Appendix F.
Data entry excel sheets are designed for analysis of axle load data in one
direction for each vehicle class and axle configuration. Each direction is entered
on different sheets as depicted in Figure 6-10, and results are later combined in
one summary sheet.
Figure 6-10: Data Entry Sheet: Medium Goods Vehicle (MGV)

2009
6.5.4 Estimating total traffic loading over pavement design life
The following steps are to be followed in order to determine the cumulative

equivalent standard axles over the design life of the road:
(i) Average daily traffic flow for each vehicle class. The average daily traffic
flow for each class of vehicle in each direction is calculated from the results
of traffic count data
(ii) Average EF per vehicle (for each vehicle class). The average equivalence
factor (EF) per vehicle for each class of vehicle in each direction is
calculated from the axle load survey data
(iii) Average ESA per day (for each vehicle type). The average ESA/day, for
each vehicle category per direction is calculated by multiplying the average
EF per vehicle by the average traffic flow for that category
(iv) Daily traffic loading (one way). The total daily traffic loading (in ESA/day) for
each direction is obtained by summing up the ESA/day for all vehicle
categories.
(v) Annual traffic loading (one way) if required. This is obtained by multiplying
the total daily traffic loading (ESA/ day) values by 365 the annual traffic
loading for each direction is obtained. This figure is normally presented as
millions of equivalent standard axles per year (MESA/year) for each
direction. The larger of the two directional values should be used for
pavement design purposes.
(vi) Design life and traffic growth. These are determined from project
documents such as the Terms of reference (ToR) and as discussed in
section 4.4.
(vii) Total traffic loading over design life. Using AADT data for each lane, the
total traffic loading over the design life (cumulative number of standard
axles, T) is calculated using the following equation:
⎡ (1 + i )N − 1⎤
T = 365t1 ⎢ ⎥ ………………………………………Equation (6-4)
⎣ i ⎦
Where:
t1 = current average annual daily traffic loading in ESA (one way) in year
of road opening
i = annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction
N = design life (years)
6.6 Errors to be avoided in Data Collection and Analysis
The most common errors committed both during axle load surveys and
subsequent analyses include the following:
• There is a tendency by truck drivers to pass information about the survey to

2009
their colleagues on the way to the weighing site that in most cases end
diverting away to other routes or significantly alter loads carried temporarily
until the survey is concluded.
• The data collection period is often to short resulting into limited sample that
is not representative of axle load distribution on the candidate road. The
surveys need to last for seven (7) days as already explained under sub
section 6.4 so as to avoid any in-built error.
• Failure to distinguish between the directions of flow at the time of weighing

vehicles has the effect of misrepresenting axle loading on the road
consequently leading to poor pavement designs—there is a high chance of
either over/ or under designing the pavement, which is costly in the long-
run.
• Use of poorly calibrated weighpads could lead to collection of less accurate

axle load data. The inaccuracies are likely to introduce large margins of
unreliability in subsequent pavement designs.
• Applying mean EFs of vehicles derived as a national average to individual

candidate roads under the assumption that all roads in Kenya carry similar
distribution of axle loads. This error type is similar that which occurs as a
result of failing to distinguish directional between directions of vehicle travel.
• Failing to indicate whether the loading recorded is wheel load or axle load
can cause mix-up in data analysis. This occurs where the weighpad can
only measure wheel loads as opposed to entire axle load. The axle load
conversion formula is applied to axle load and NOT wheel loads
• Care must be taken to ensure that the vehicle sample taken for weighing is
inclusive of empty and partially loaded vehicles as well in order to avoid
over estimation of axle loading on the candidate road.
• The analyst should avoid calculating the average EF for a vehicle type
using the average axle load; the correct way is to calculate the EF values
for each individual axle, then sum these for each vehicle to give the EF for
the vehicle and then to calculate the average for each vehicle type as
demonstrated in Figure 6-10.

2009
7 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
AASHTO (2001) A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 4th Edition,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Bonsall P.W and C.A. O’ Flaherty (1997) Observational traffic surveys: Transportation
Planning and Traffic Engineering, In: O’Flaherty, C.A. (ed.), Oxford: Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann
Falck-Jensen K, J. Kildebogaard and R. Robinson (2004) Traffic, Road Engineering for
Development, 2nd Edition, In: Robinson, R. and B. Thagesen (Eds), London and
New York: Spon Press
Fricker, Jon D. and R.K. Whitford (2004) Fundamentals of Transportation Engineering,
NJ, USA: Pearson Education, Inc
Howe J D G F., (1972) Review of rural traffic-counting methods in developing countries.
Laboratory Report LR427, Crowthorne: TRRL Limited.
Kadyali L.R. and N.B. Lal (2006) Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering,
Including Expressways and Airport Engineering, Khanna Publishers, Delhi, India
Knud Rask Overgaard (2004) Planning methods, Road Engineering for Development,
2nd Edition, In: Robinson, R. and B. Thagesen (Eds), London and New York: Spon
Press
Lebo, J and D Schelling (2001) Design and appraisal of rural transport infrastructure:
Ensuring basic access for rural communities, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Ministry of Transport (2008) Legal Notice No 188 – traffic (Amendment) Rules, Kenya
Gazette Supplement No. 65, The Traffic Act.
Litman, T. (2009) Generated Traffic and Induced Travel, Implications for Transport
Planning, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, Canada
Ministry of Roads (1987): Road Design Manual Part III, Materials and Pavement Design
of New Roads, Ministry of Transport and Communication, Roads department,
Nairobi, Kenya
Ministry of Roads (1979) Road Design Manual Part I, Geometric Design of Rural Roads,
Ministry of Works, Roads department, Nairobi, Kenya
Roger M. (2003) Highway Engineering, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,
Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland: Blackwell Publishing
Rolt J (2004) Structural design of asphalt pavements, Road Engineering for
Development, 2nd Edition, In: Robinson, R. and B. Thagesen (Eds), London and
New York: Spon Press
Rolt J (1981) Optimum axle loads of commercial vehicles in developing countries,
Laboratory Report LR1002. Crowthorne: TRRL Limited
SATCC (2001) Draft Code of Practice for the Design of Road Pavements, Division of
Roads and Transport Technology, CSIR
Slinn, M, P. Guest and P. Matthews (2005) Traffic Engineering Design, Principles and
Practice, Elsevier, Butterworth Heinemann

2009
TRL (2005) Overseas Road Note 5: A guide to road project appraisal, TRL Ltd.,
Crowthorne, UK
TRL (2004), Overseas Road Note 40: A guide to axle load surveys and traffic counts for
determining traffic loading on pavements, TRL Ltd., Crowthorne, UK
TRL (1993), Overseas Road Note 31: A guide to the structural design of bitumen-
surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical countries, TRL Ltd., Crowthorne, UK.

2009
APPENDICES

2009
APPENDIX A: Classified Traffic Count Form

2009
APPENDIX B: List of Items needed for Traffic Surveys
Traffic count
• Shelter (for day and night, if required): including tent, blankets, large umbrella and
chairs.
• Night-time lighting (if required). This is required to illuminate both the road (to aid
identification of vehicle type) and the camp so that observers can see the forms.
• Generator for lighting (if necessary), plus fuel.
• Food and water. A large water container is essential. Cooking facilities may also be
needed.
• Access to toilet facilities.
• Survey sheets (enough copies for the whole duration, plus spares).
• Clipboards and pens, pencils.
• Hand-counters (if required, for high traffic flows).
• Alarm clock (useful to mark the end of each hour and denote shift changes).
Axle load survey

• Axle load survey forms.
• Pens and stationery plus clipboards, folding table.
• Reflective safety vests.
• Road signs (for both directions if required) - e.g. 2x: ‘men at work’, ‘slow down’, ‘60
km/h’, ‘weighbridge ahead’, ‘30 km/h’, ‘prepare to stop’ and ‘stop’.
• Traffic cones.
• Red stop flags.
• Lights and cables (to light the weighing area, the data recording table and, if possible,
the vehicle stopping area).
• Generator plus fuel.
• Torches (including spare batteries).
• Spade.
Additional equipment for surveys using portable axle load equipment

• Weigh pads.
• Ramps (if required for weigh pads).
• Fine sand for leveling the weigh pads.
• Spirit level.
• Pickaxe.
• Broom.
• Table and chairs.
• Large umbrella(s) for shelter from sun or rain.
• Walkie-talkies (optional). Useful for communication between staff stopping vehicles
and staff weighing vehicles.

2009
APPENDIX C: Origin-Destination Survey Questionnaire

VEHICLE ORIGIN - DESTINATION SURVEY FORM
SURVEY DATE SHEET NO.
SURVEY Interviewer HOUR ENDING

LOCATION
VEHICLE WHERE ESTABLISH WHERE WILL THIS ESTABLISH STOP OVER TRIP NUMBER CARRING GOODS COMMODITY CHARGE/ FARE
TYPE AND DID THIS TYPE AT TRIP END TYPE AT LOCATION PURPOSE OF CAPACITY CARRIED BY CARRIED FROM ORIGIN
REG NO. TRIP ORIGIN DESTINATI PERSONS (TONS) VOLUME TO DEST.
BEGIN ON IN THE FILLED
VEHICLE (CIRCLE)
¼ ½ ¾ 1.0
¼ ½ ¾ 1.0
¼ ½ ¾ 1.0
¼ ½ ¾ 1.0
¼ ½ ¾ 1.0
VEHICLE TYPE MAIN COMMODITY
1. Car ESTABLISH TYPE TRIP PURPOSE 1. Food crop (maize, rice, wheat) etc.
2. Pick –Up 1. Residential 1. Home to work 2. Cash crop (coffee, tea, etc)
3. 4X4 2. Farm 11. Harbour 2. Home to school 3. Perishable (fish, milk, fruit, Vegetable etc.)
4. Matatu 3. Factory 3. Work related 4. Const. Material ( cement, stones, gravel, pipes)
5.Minibus 4. Education 12. Others 4. Business (Trading) 5. Metal/ Machinery
6. Bus 5. Hospital 5. Return to Company 6. Forestry products (timber, charcoal)
7. LGV 6. Terminal 6. Social /Recreation 7. Fuels (any petroleum products)
8. MGV 7. Wholesale 7. Tourism (Game park/ sight- seeing ) 8. Chemical product (fertilizer, paints)
9. HGV (3 axles) 8. Construction site 8. Shopping (buying) 9. Livestock (cows, goats, Carmel, etc)
10. Articulated truck 9. Retail shop/ market 9. Medical (hospital) 10. Household retail products (Beverage, oil, sugar, salt,
(>3 axles) 10. Warehouse 10. Other (to be specified) flour, etc)
11. Other
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads 67 Draft Document –December 2009

2009
ROUTE CHOICE QUESTIONAIRE (Interviewer to write specific stop-over station)
Q1) Route from ………………………………… to………………………………….

………………………………….. to ………………………………….
……………………………………to …………………………………..
……………………………………to …………………………………..
……………………………………to …………………………………..
Q2) How often do you make such trips?

(1.) Once per week (2.) Once per month (3.) Once in a fortnight (4.) Quite often ( 5.)Once in a while
Q3) Why do you prefer this route?

(1.) It is much shorter (2.) The route condition is better (3.) It is secure (no bandits) (4.) Don’t know
Q4) Which alternative routes are available to you?

From…………………………………………..to………………………………………
From…………………………………………..to………………………………………
From…………………………………………..to………………………………………
From…………………………………………..to………………………………………
From…………………………………………..to………………………………………
The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads 68 Draft Document –December 2009

2009
APPENDIX D: ‘Floating Car’ Technique Observation

Sheet

2009
APPENDIX E: Axle Load Survey Form I

2009
Vehicle Survey Form II

2009
APPENDIX E: Common Axle Configurations in Kenya

2009
APPENDIX F: Non-motorized Traffic Count Volume

Count Form

2009
APPENDIX G: Counter Instructions
INSTRUCTIONS FOR BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN COUNTERS

1) Day and Dates: These should be clear enough.
2) Time(s): Weekday: 6:00-9:00am or 4:00-6:00pm

Weekend: 12:00-2:00 pm
3) Count Supervisor: ____ (local contact/agency) Phone No.
4) Enclosures: You should have the following in this packet:

1) a map showing your count location
2) a count form
3) a business-reply envelop to return the completed forms
5) Other Items Needed: Please make sure to bring:

1) a pen / pencil
2) Something to write on (clipboard, portfolio, etc.)
3) some sort of timekeeping device (cell phone, watch)
4) weather-appropriate clothing, water
6) Introduction: This is a routine count taken through out the Nairobi Metropolitan Region.
Data collected from these counts will be used to monitor success in increasing bicycle and
pedestrian travel as identified in the Nairobi Area Regional Bicycle and Pedestrian Plan.
7) Assignments: Each location will have at least one counter. Depending on the number of
counters, some locations may have more than one counter. In these cases, please use only
one count form per location. Since the locations with multiple counters are expected to be
busier, it will work best if one person counts and the other person fill out the forms.
8) Conducting the Count: You have been provided with one copy of the count form. Please,
make sure to coordinate the correct time period with the correct box, as we want to measure
variation in travel method over time. Also, please make sure to write your name and location
on each form.
9) The count itself is very simple: place a hatch mark on the form for each passing cyclist,
pedestrian, or other non-motorized transit. People in wheelchairs are to be counted as
pedestrians. Count the people walking their bicycles as bicyclists. People on rollerblades,
skateboards, scooters, and other non-motorized transport devices are to be counted as
“Other”.
10) Whom do you count? Only count those cyclists passing your post in the direction(s)
indicated on your map! This includes anyone who is walking their bicycle past your post. Do
not count passersby on nearby streets unless specifically instructed to do so, as this could
result in double-counting.
11) Returning the Count Forms: Please submit to.............................................................

.
ATTN: ................................................................................ .
12) Other Information: The accuracy of the count depends largely on the coverage of all
points during the entire morning and evening commute. Please make sure to get your location
15 minutes or more ahead of count time!
If you have any problems or know that you won’t be able to make it, please call your count
supervisor ASAP (see top for phone numbers). They or one of their colleagues will be coming
around to check on you during the counts.

2009
APPENDIX H: Pedestrian Volume Count Form

2009
APPENDIX I: Summary of Pedestrian Movements

2009
APPENDIX J: Pedestrian Group Size Study Form

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ROAD DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS

Part I: Geometric Design,

The complete set of manuals and other documents comprise:

Part 1 a) Geometric Design

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads Draft Document – December 2009

Prof. O. Mbeche – University of Nairobi Chairman

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads Draft Document – December 2009

1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................ 1-1

2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN STANDARD ................................... 2-1

3 DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA .............................................................. 3-1

4 ROUTE SELECTION AND SURVEY .............................................................. 4-1

5 DESIGN ELEMENTS ....................................................................................... 5-1

6 THE CROSS-SECTION ................................................................................... 6-1

7 AT GRADE INTERSECTION DESIGN ............................................................ 7-1

8 GRADE SEPARATED JUNCTIONS ............................................................... 8-1

9 ROADSIDE AMENITIES.................................................................................. 9-1

10 SAFETY SYSTEMS ....................................................................................... 10-1

APPENDIX A DEFINITION OF TERMS

APPENDIX B TYPICAL CROSS-SECTIONS

APPENDIX C MERGE AND DIVERGE LANES LAYOUTS

APPENDIX D ENGINEERING DRAWINGS

APPENDIX E ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGIES

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads i Draft Document – December 2009

1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................ 1-1

Table 3-1: Definitions of Prefixes 1-2

Figure 1-1 Process for conducting road safety audit 1-7

The Republic of Kenya – Ministry of Roads ii Draft Document – December 2009

The contents of the manual are partly guidelines and recommendations to be

(a) maintain a degree of uniformity, particularly across administrative and regional

1.3 Scope of manual

1.4 Organization of the Manual

The manual is divided into 10 chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 provides a general introduction and gives units of measurement, definition

Chapter 4 covers route selection and survey requirements.

Chapter 6 discusses cross section requirements and standards.

Chapter 7 covers at-grade intersection design

Chapter 8 deals with grade separated junctions

Chapter 10 provides guidance on safety systems.

1.5 Units of Measurement

Table 1-1: Definitions of Prefixes

Factor by which the

Table 1-2: Basic units, multiples and sub-multiples

Recommended Multiples and sub-

1.6 Design Techniques

To arrive at an acceptable design there is no substitute for experience and study of

1.6.1 Flexibility in Highway Design and Departures from Standard

Part 1 a) Geometric Design

Among these are the following:

• Use the flexibility available within the design standards;

In addition to exercising flexibility, a successful highway design process should

• The design speed of the road;

1.6.2 Departure from Standards

on his engineering judgment in relation to design parameters, a Departure from

• The number, name, and description of the road

1.6.3 Road Safety Audits

The benefits of road safety audits include:

• A reduction in the severity of accidents on the road network;

The objectives of a road safety audit are;

Stage 1 Road safety audit: Preliminary design stage

Figure 1-1 Process for conducting road safety audit

1.6.4 Economic Analysis

In addition to the geometric designer’s determination of the horizontal and vertical

Factors that the designer may be able to influence include:

2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGN STANDARD .................................... 2-1