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CHAPTER 7
Consumer Buying Behavior
TEACHING RESOURCES QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE
Resource Location
Purpose and Perspective IRM, p. 121
Lecture Outline IRM, p. 122
Discussion Starters IRM, p. 130
Class Exercise IRM, p. 132
Semester Project IRM, p. 135
Answers to Developing Your Marketing Plan IRM, p. 136
Answers to Discussion and Review Questions IRM, p. 137
Comments on the Cases IRM, p. 140
Video Case 7.1 IRM, p. 140
Case 7.2 IRM, p. 141
Examination Questions: Essay Cognero
Examination Questions: Multiple-Choice Cognero
Examination Questions: True-False Cognero
PowerPoint Slides Instructor’s website
Note: Additional resources may be found on the accompanying student and instructor websites at
www.cengagebrain.com.
PURPOSE AND PERSPECTIVE

In this chapter, we first examine the major stages of the consumer buying decision process, beginning
with problem recognition, information search, and evaluation of alternatives, and proceeding through
purchase and postpurchase evaluation. We follow this with an examination of how the customer’s level of
involvement affects the type of decision making they use and discuss the types of consumer decision-
making processes. Next, we examine situational influences—surroundings, time, purchase reason, and
buyer’s mood and condition—that affect purchasing decisions. We go on to consider psychological
influences on purchasing decisions: perception, motives, learning, attitudes, personality and self-concept,
and lifestyles. Next, we discuss social influences that affect buying behavior, including roles, family,
reference groups and opinion leaders, social classes, and culture and subcultures. We conclude with a
discussion of consumer misbehavior.
© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a
license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
122 Chapter 7: Consumer Buying Behavior
LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Consumer Buying Behavior
A. Buying behavior is the decision processes and acts of people involved in buying and using
products.
B. Consumer buying behavior refers to the buying behavior of ultimate consumers—those who
purchase products for personal use and not for business purposes.
C. Understanding buying behavior requires knowledge of the consumption process and
consumers’ perceptions of product utility.
II. Consumer Buying Decision Process
A. The consumer buying decision process is a five-stage purchase decision process which
includes problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase, and
post-purchase evaluation (see figure 7.1).
1. The actual act of purchase is only one stage in the process and is not the first stage.
2. Not all decision processes, once initiated, lead to an ultimate purchase; the individual
may terminate the process at any stage.
3. Not all consumer buying decisions include all five stages.
B. Problem Recognition
1. This stage occurs when a buyer becomes aware of a difference between a desired state
and an actual condition.
2. Recognition speed can be slow or fast.
3. An individual may never become aware of the problem or need. Marketers may use sales
personnel, advertising, and packaging to trigger recognition of needs or problems.
C. Information Search
1. After the consumer becomes aware of the problem or need, he or she searches for
information about products that will help resolve the problem or satisfy the need.
2. There are two aspects to an information search:
a. In the internal search, buyers first search their memories for information about
products that might solve the problem.
b. In the external search, buyers seek information from outside sources.
(1) An external search occurs if buyers cannot retrieve enough information from their
memories for a decision.
(2) Buyers seek information from friends, relatives, public sources, such as
government reports or publications, or marketer-dominated sources of
information, such as salespeople, advertising, websites, package labeling, and in -
store demonstrations and displays. The Internet has become a major information
source.
3. Repetition, a technique well known to advertisers, increases consumers’ learning.
Repetition eventually may cause wear-out, meaning consumers pay less attention to the
commercial and respond to it less favorably than they did at first.
D. Evaluation of Alternatives
1. A successful information search within a product category yields a consideration set (or
an evoked set), which is a group of brands that the buyer views as possible alternatives.
a. The consumer establishes a set of evaluative criteria, which are objective and
subjective characteristics that are important to him or her.
b. The consumer uses these criteria to rate and rank brands in the consideration set.
2. Marketers can influence consumers’ evaluations by “framing” the alternatives—that is,
by the manner in which they describe the alternatives and attributes.
E. Purchase
1. Purchase selection is based on the outcome of the evaluation stage and other dimensions.
Chapter 7: Consumer Buying Behavior 123
2. Product availability, seller choice, and terms of sale may influence the final product
selection.
3. The buyer may choose to terminate the buying decision process, in which case no
purchase will be made.
F. Postpurchase Evaluation
1. After purchase, the buyer begins to evaluate the product to ascertain if the actual
performance meets expected levels.
2. Evaluation is based on many of the same criteria used when evaluating alternatives.
3. Cognitive dissonance is a buyer’s doubts that arise shortly after a purchase about
whether it was the right decision.
III. Types of Consumer Decision Making and Level of Involvement
A. To acquire and maintain products that satisfy their current and future needs, consumers
engage in different types of problem-solving processes depending on the nature of the
products involved. The amount of effort, both mental and physical, that buyers expend in
solving problems also varies considerably.
B. A major determinant of the type of problem-solving process employed depends on the
customer’s level of involvement, the degree of interest in a product, and the importance the
individual places on that product.
1. High-involvement products tend to be those that are visible to others (e.g., clothing,
furniture, or automobiles) and expensive, as well as issues of high importance, such as
health care.
2. Low-involvement products tend to be less expensive and have less associated social risk,
such as many grocery items.
3. Enduring involvement is a person’s ongoing and long-term interest in a product or
product category.
4. Situational involvement is temporary and dynamic, and results from a particular set of
circumstances, such as the need to buy a new car after being involved in an accident.
5. Consumer involvement may be attached to product categories (e.g., sports), loyalty to a
specific brand, interest in a specific advertisement (e.g., a funny commercial) or a
medium (such as a particular television show), or to certain decisions and behaviors (e.g.,
a love of shopping).
C. Involvement level and other factors affect a person’s selection of one of three types of
consumer decision making (see Table 7.1).
1. Consumers use routinized response behavior when they purchase products with little
search-and-decision effort; it is used for low-priced, frequently-purchased products.
2. Consumers use limited decision making when they purchase products occasionally or
need information about unfamiliar brands in a familiar product category; it requires a
moderate amount of time for information gathering and deliberation.
3. Consumers use extended problem solving to buy unfamiliar, expensive, or infrequently
purchased products, such as cars, homes, and college educations; buyers use many
criteria to evaluate brands and spend time searching for information and deciding on the
purchase.
D. Purchase of a particular product does not always elicit the same type of decision making; the
process may be different the first time consumers purchase a product, when they switch
brands, or when the purchase become routine.
E. Impulse buying, in contrast, is an unplanned buying behavior involving a powerful urge to
immediately buy something.
IV. Situational Influences on the Buying Decision Process
A. Situational influences are factors that result from circumstances, time, and location that
affect the consumer buying decision process.
B. They can influence a consumer’s actions in any stage of the buying process, and may
shorten, lengthen, or terminate the buying process.
C. Situational factors can be divided into five categories:
1. Physical surroundings include location, store atmosphere, aromas, sounds, lighting,
weather, and other factors in the physical environment in which the decision process
occurs.
2. Social surroundings include characteristics and interactions of others who are present
during a purchase decision or who may be present when the product is used or consumed
(e.g. friends, relatives, or salespeople), as well as conditions during the shopping
environment (e.g. an overcrowded store may cause the buyer to terminate the buying
decision process).
3. The time dimension influences the buying decision process in several ways, such as the
amount of time required to become knowledgeable about a product, to search for it, and
to buy and use it.
a. Time plays a role as the buyer considers the possible frequency of product use, the
length of time required to use the product, and the length of the overall product life.
b. Other time dimensions influence purchases, including time of day, day of the week or
month, seasons, and holidays.
c. The amount of time pressure a consumer is under affects how much time is devoted
to purchase decisions. A customer under severe time constraints is likely either to
make a quick purchase decision or to delay a decision.
4. The reason for the purchase raises the questions of what the product purchase should
accomplish and for whom. For example, people who are buying a gift may buy a different
product from one they would buy for themselves.
5. The buyer’s momentary moods or conditions (e.g., fatigue, illness, having cash) may
have a bearing on the consumer buying decision process. Any of these moods or
conditions can affect a person’s ability and desire to search for information, receive
information, or seek and evaluate alternatives. They can also significantly influence a
consumer’s post-purchase evaluation.
V. Psychological Influences on the Buying Decision Process
A. Psychological influences are those which operate in part to determine people’s general
behavior and thus influence their behavior as consumers. Psychological factors are internal,
but are affected by outside social forces.
B. Perception
1. Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information inputs to
produce meaning.
2. Information inputs are sensations received through sight, taste, hearing, smell, and
touch.
3. Perception is highly complex, leading markets to increasingly take a multi -sensory
approach.
4. Perception is a three-step process:
a. Although we receive numerous pieces of information at once, only a few reach our
awareness through a process called selective exposure. Individuals select which
inputs reach awareness based on their current set of needs.
(1) Selective distortion is changing or twisting currently received information; it
occurs when a person receives information inconsistent with personal feelings or
beliefs.
(2) In selective retention, a person remembers information inputs that support
personal feelings and beliefs and forgets inputs that do not.
b. During perceptual organization, information inputs that reach awareness must be
organized by the brain to produce meaning.
(1) An individual mentally organizes and integrate new information with what is
already stored in memory.
(2) Closure is an organizational method in which a person mentally fills in
information gaps to make a pattern or statement. Some marketers use incomplete
information in advertisements to take advantage of this process.
c. Interpretation is the assignment of meaning to what has been organized. A person
bases interpretation on what he or she expects or what is familiar.
5. Marketers cannot control buyers’ perceptions, but they try to influence them through
information. This approach is problematic.
a. A consumer’s perceptual process may operate so that a seller’s information never
reaches awareness.
b. A buyer may receive a seller’s information but perceives it differently than intended.
c. A buyer may perceive information inputs to be inconsistent with prior beliefs and
therefore are likely to forget the information quickly (selective retention).
C. Motives
1. A motive is an internal energizing force which directs a person’s behavior toward
satisfying needs or achieving goals.
a. A buyer’s actions are affected by a set of motives, and some are stronger than others.
b. Motives affect the direction and intensity of behavior.
2. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs organizes human needs into five levels (see Figure 7.2).
Humans try to satisfy these needs starting with the most basic. Once needs at one level
are met, humans move on to fulfilling needs at the next level:
a. At the most basic level “physiological needs,” requirements for survival such as food,
water, sex, clothing, and shelter.
b. At the next level are “safety needs,” which include security and freedom from
physical and emotional pain and suffering.
c. Next are “social needs,” the human requirements for love and affection and a sense of
belonging.
d. At the level of “esteem needs,” people require respect and recognition from others as
well as self-esteem, a sense of one’s own worth.
e. At the top of the hierarchy are “self-actualization needs,” which refer to people’s
need to grow and develop and to become all they are capable of becoming.
3. Patronage motives are motives such as price, service, or friendly salespeople, which
influence where a person purchases products on a regular basis.
D. Learning
1. Learning refers to changes in an individual’s thought processes and behaviors caused by
information and experience.
2. The learning process is strongly influenced by the consequences of an individual’s
behavior; behaviors with satisfying results tend to be repeated.
3. Inexperienced buyers may use different, more simplistic, types of information than
experienced shoppers familiar with the product and purchase situation.
4. Marketers help customers learn about their products by helping them gain experience
with them, perhaps through free samples, in-store demonstrations, and test drives.
5. Consumers learn about products indirectly through information from salespeople, friends,
relatives, and advertisements.
E. Attitudes
1. An attitude is an individual’s enduring evaluation of, feelings about, and behavioral
tendencies toward a tangible or intangible object or idea.
2. Attitudes remain generally stable in the short term, but they can change over time.
3. An attitude consists of three major components:
a. cognitive (knowledge and information about an object or idea)
b. affective (feelings and emotions toward an object or idea)

c. behavioral (actions regarding an object or idea)
4. Consumers’ attitudes toward a firm and its products strongly influence the success or
failure of the organization’s marketing strategy.
5. Marketers should measure consumer attitudes toward prices, package designs, brand
names, advertisements, salespeople, repair services, store locations, features of existing
or proposed products, and social responsibility activities.
6. Seeking to understand attitudes has resulted in two major academic models:
a. The Fishbein Model (the attitude toward the object) can be used to understand a
consumer’s attitude, including beliefs about product attributes, strength of beliefs,
and evaluation of beliefs. These elements combine to form the overall attitude toward
the object.
b. The Theory of Reasoned Action (behavior intentions model) focuses on intentions to
act or purchase. It considers consumer perceptions of what other people believe is the
best choice among a set of alternatives and focuses on attitudes toward buying
behavior.
7. Several methods help marketers gauge and influence consumer attitude:
a. Asking direct questions of consumers. The Internet and social networking sites have
become valuable tools to ask consumers questions and receive feedback.
b. Measuring consumer attitudes on an attitude scale by gauging the intensity of
individuals’ reactions to adjectives, phrases, or sentences about an object.
c. Attempting to change negative attitudes toward an aspect of a marketing mix to make
them more favorable; however, this is generally a long, expensive, and difficult task.
d. Launching an informational campaign to change the cognitive component or a
persuasive (emotional) campaign to influence the affective component.
F. Personality and Self-Concept
1. Personality is a set of internal traits and distinct behavioral tendencies which result in
consistent patterns of behavior.
a. Personality arises from unique hereditary characteristics and personal experiences.
b. Studies of the link between buying behavior and personality have been inconclusive;
although many marketers are convinced there is a link.
c. The VALS program is a consumer framework based on individual personality
characteristics (see Lifestyles below).
d. Advertisements may be aimed at certain personality types, usually focusing on
positively valued personality characteristics.
2. Self-concept, or self-image, is a perception or view of oneself.
a. Buyers purchase products that reflect and enhance self-concept.
b. A person’s self-concept may influence whether he or she buys a product in a specific
product category and may have an impact on brand selection.
G. Lifestyles
1. A lifestyle is an individual’s pattern of living expressed through activities, interests, and
opinions.
2. Lifestyle patterns include the way people spend time, extent of interaction with others,
and general outlook on life and living.
3. People partially determine their own lifestyle, but lifestyles are influenced by other
factors such as personality and demographics.
4. Lifestyles strongly impact the consumer buying decision process, including product
needs.
5. One of the most popular frameworks for understanding consumer lifestyles and their
influences on purchasing behavior is a product called PRIZM. It divides consumers in the
United States into 66 distinct groups based on numerous variables such as education,
income, technology use, employment, and social groups.
VI. Social Influences on the Buying Decision Process
A. Social influences are the forces other people exert on one’s buying behavior (see Figure 7.1).
B. Roles
1. Every person occupies a position within groups, organizations, and institutions.
2. A role is a set of actions and activities an individual in a particular position is supposed
to perform based on the expectations of both the individual and surrounding persons.
3. Each individual has many roles and each role affects both general behavior and buying
behavior.
C. Family Influences
1. An individual’s family roles directly influence their buying behavior.
2. Consumer socialization is the process through which a person acquires the knowledge
and skills to function as a consumer.
3. The extent to which different family members take part in family decision making varies
between families and product categories. Traditional family decision making processes
are divided into four categories: autonomic, husband dominant, wife dominant, and
syncratic (see Table 7.2).
4. The family life cycle stage affects individual and joint needs of family members.
5. Within a household, an individual may perform one or more buying-decision roles.
a. The gatekeeper is the household member who collects and controls information—
price and quality comparisons, locations of sellers, and assessment of which brand
best suits the family’s needs.
b. The influencer is a family member who expresses his or her opinions and tries to
influence buying decisions.
c. The decider is a member who makes the buying choice.
d. The buyer is a member who actually makes the purchase.
e. The user is any household member who consumes or uses the product.
D. Reference Groups
1. A reference group is any group—large or small—that positively or negatively affects a
person’s values, attitudes, or behaviors.
2. There are three major types of reference groups: membership, aspirational, and
dissociative.
a. A membership reference group is one to which an individual actually belongs; the
individual identifies with group members strongly enough to take on the values,
attitudes, and behaviors of people in that group.
b. An aspirational reference group is a group to which a person aspires to belong; the
individual desires to be like those group members.
c. A dissociative or negative reference group is a group that a person does not wish to
be associated with; the individual does not want to take on the values, attitudes, and
behavior of group members.
3. A reference group is an individual’s point of comparison and a source of information.
4. How much a reference group influences a purchasing decision depends on the
individual’s susceptibility to reference group influence and strength of involvement with
the group.
5. Reference group influence may affect the product decision, the brand decision, or both.
6. A marketer sometimes uses reference group influence in advertisements to promote
product purchases and high product satisfaction within a specific group.
E. Opinion Leaders
1. An opinion leader is a reference group member with knowledge or expertise who
provides information about a specific sphere that interests reference group participants.
2. An opinion leader is likely to be most influential when consumers have high product
involvement but low product knowledge, when they share the opinion leader’s values and
attitudes, and when the product details are numerous or complicated (see Table 7.3).
F. Social Classes
1. A social class is an open aggregate of people with similar social rank.
2. Criteria used to group people into classes vary from one society to another.
3. In the United States, we group according to many factors, including occupation,
education, income, wealth, race, ethnic group, and possessions; analyses of social class in
the United States divide people into three to seven class categories (see Table 7.4).
4. Individuals within social classes develop some common patterns of behavior, attitudes,
values, language patterns, and possessions.
5. Because social class influences so many aspects of a person’s life, it also affects buying
decisions; spending, saving, and credit practices; type, quality, and quantity of products;
and shopping patterns and stores patronized.
G. Culture and Subcultures
1. Culture is the accumulation of values, knowledge, beliefs, customs, objects, and
concepts that a society uses to cope with its environment and passes on to future
generations.
2. Culture includes:
a. Tangible items such as food, clothing, furniture, buildings, and tools
b. Intangible concepts such as education, welfare, and laws
c. The values and a broad range of behaviors accepted by a specific society
3. Because cultural influences affect the ways people buy and use products, culture affects
the development, promotion, distribution, and pricing of products.
4. International marketers must take into account global cultural differences.
a. People in other regions of the world have different attitudes, values, and needs.
b. International marketers must adapt to different methods of doing business and must
develop different types of marketing mixes.
5. A Subculture is a group of individuals whose characteristics, values, and behavioral
patterns are similar within the group and different from those of people in the
surrounding culture.
a. Subcultural boundaries are usually based on geographic designations and
demographic factors.
b. Marketers recognize that the growth in the number of U.S. subcultures has resulted in
considerable variation in consumer buying behavior.
(1) African American Subculture
(a) Represents 13.7 percent of the U.S. population.
(b) Spends more money on depreciable products like phone services, children’s
clothing, and shoes.
(c) Many companies have renewed their advertising focus on African Americans.
(2) Hispanic Subculture
(a) Is the largest ethnic group, with 16.7 percent of the U.S. population, and is
growing rapidly.
(b) This subculture is composed of many diverse cultures from across Latin
America.
(c) Many companies have Spanish-language advertising and promotions
featuring Hispanic and Latino celebrities.
(3) Asian American Subculture
(a) Represents 5.7 percent of the U.S. population and is comprised of 15 different
ethnic groups.
(b) Individual language, religion, and value system of each group influences
purchasing decisions, although some traits are common among all the ethnic
groups.
(c) Some cross-culture traits include an emphasis on hard work, strong family
ties, and high value placed on education.
VII. Consumer Misbehavior
A. Consumer misbehavior is behavior that violates generally accepted norms of a particular
society.
B. Definitions of misbehavior can vary between cultures.
C. Shoplifting, consumer fraud, abusive consumers, and pirating/illegally copying products are
all examples of consumer misbehavior.
D. Understanding the psychological and social reasons for misconduct can help in preventing
and responding to problems (see Table 7.5).
DISCUSSION STARTERS
Discussion Starter 1: Consumer Buying Behavior and Social Classes
To do this exercise which links consumer behavior tastes with various social strata, click on the hyperlink
below to access a PBS game on consumer and class tastes.
http://www.pbs.org/peoplelikeus/games/chintz.html
Students can work individually or in teams. As explained on the website, the game has students make a
series of choices to decorate a living room. Upon completion of the game, it tells students what their
choices mean about their social class inclinations based on prior research of consumer behavior. Students
generally have fun with this exercise because they have leeway to decorate the room however they want.
If students play this in groups they may find that the group decision making process leads them to make
different choices than they otherwise would have.
Discussion Starter 2: Level Of Consumer Involvement

Recommended as a group activity
In this chapter we have examined how the level of involvement in a purchase often determines the type of
behavior exhibited by consumers. In this exercise you are asked to examine how consumer behavior
changes as the level of consumer involvement changes.
You will be given a series of scenarios. After each one, write how your group would respond to the
purchase situation.
At work you are informed there is a “Secret Buddy” gift buying program for the holiday party. Each
person’s name is entered into a hat and each person will draw one name. You choose the name of a
person who works in another department that you do not know.
What type of gift do you purchase? How much do you spend? How much time do you take choosing this
gift?
In the mail you receive an invitation to a favorite cousin’s surprise birthday party. You will not be able to
attend, so you decide to send a gift.
What type of gift would you send? How much do you spend? How much time do you take choosing this
gift?
You are recently engaged and have received an invitation to your future spouse’s mother’s birthday
party. This will be the first family party you attended.
What type of gift do you bring? How much do you spend? How much time did you take choosing this
gift?
Discussion Starter 3: How Many Times Can a Company Violate a Customer’s Trust?
ASK: Can automakers regain the public’s trust after their speed out of control or have faulty ignition
switches that prevent airbags from inflating?
Toyota is trying to revive its quality reputation after widespread problems related to stuck accelerator
pedals. Because the company was slow to issue recalls, it had to pay hefty fines. Although a report by the
National Highway Transportation Safety Administration attributed driver error as the cause of many
Toyota collisions, the company still made quality mistakes that resulted in recalls. Will buyers trust
Toyota again?
General Motors issued over 40 recalls in 2014 due to faulty ignition switches which could shut off the
engine during driving and thereby prevent the airbags from inflating. These recalls involved nearly 28
million cars worldwide and over 24.6 million in the United States. The fault had been known to GM for at
least a decade prior to the recall being declared. A statement by the GM CEO fell on deaf ears, especially
when two more recalls occurred since. It will take a much more coordinated—and expensive—campaign
to regain the American consumer's trust. GM must address consumers directly. This will be a long-term
process which will involve total honesty about the current situation of the recalls, a commitment to fix the
problems and finally, the results of GM's efforts and how it is a better company. GM should consider a
more integrated approach, utilizing mobile and digital channels as well.
Discussion Starter 4: Digital Privacy Concerns—Your Choice?

ASK: Should consumers have to take the initiative to opt out of online tracking, or should they be
excluded unless they opt in?
Since the dawn of the Internet age, marketers have studied online behavior to better understand what
consumers do and why. The goal is to deliver relevant online marketing messages when and where a
consumer is likely to be interested.
Privacy advocates worry that consumers don’t know how much data marketers actually collect online.
Few people dig deeply into privacy policies or learn about the tracking techniques being used to follow
their activities online. That’s why critics say consumers should be tracked only if they consent by opting
in. Legal and regulatory action may result in a “Do Not Track” list similar to the “Do Not Call” list that
currently prevents consumers from receiving unwanted telemarketing calls.
Marketers point out that tracking adds convenience, allowing them to personalize pages and offers
according to consumers’ preferences. Still the online advertising industry has set up a program to more
prominently disclose tracking and make it easier to opt out. In addition, most Internet browsers can be
configured to detect tracking and let consumers opt out. Finally, by offering special privileges or other
incentives, marketers have found many consumers very willing to provide personal data and allow
tracking.
CLASS EXERCISES
Class Exercise 1: Social Influences on Consumption
The objective of this class exercise is to help students understand how social influences affect their
consumption behaviors.
Prompt for Students:
Imagine that you are going out tonight. Which of the following social influences will determine what you
wear, where you go, what you do, and what you will buy or consume?
1. Your role as a student, family member, employee, church member, or fraternity or sorority
member.
2. Identification with a positive reference group. Disassociation from a negative reference group.
3. Membership within a particular social class. Aspirations to be in a different social class.
4. Cultural values that accept or reject certain types of behavior. Gender roles: expectations of how
men and women should act.
5. Membership in a subculture based on geography, age, or ethnic background.
6. Knowing how these factors affect your consumption behavior, how can marketers adjust their
marketing mixes to meet your needs?
Answers:
1. As fraternity or sorority members, students may be influenced to stay out late for social reasons,
which may conflict with their roles as students, employees, and church members. The demands of
a person’s many roles may be inconsistent and confusing. Some married students may describe
joint decision-making situations and the influence of children. Other likely responses will relate
to clothing, restaurant choice, and food or beverage consumption.
2. You may also want to ask, “When ordering at a restaurant, do you find that people often order
the same thing?” After one person (opinion leader) has decided to order something, others may
order the same thing (“I’ll take what he/she ordered”). Reference groups clearly affect the choice
of clothing and patronage at retail outlets. Some students may indicate that there are places they
will not go because of the presence of negative reference groups.
3. The cars that students drive may reflect either their present social status or their desired social
status. Social class may also affect what beer, wine, or other beverages students drink. You may
also want to ask, “How does social class affect where you shop?”
4. Ask students the following: “Have any of you been in other cultures where you saw people doing
things that would never be accepted in the United States?” If you have international students in
class, ask them what they find peculiar about American culture. Discussion may be geared toward
views of time and women.
5. Students may be able to identify certain types of food (catfish in the South), clothing (surf wear in
the West), vehicles (pickups in the Midwest and Southwest), or accessories (Gucci handbags in
the East) that are associated with subcultures.
6. Some possible examples include the following:
• Promotion: Show upper-class individuals in luxury car ads.
• Product: Design products (cars) that meet joint needs of family.
• Price: Offer price discounts to students with limited income.
• Distribution: Allocate more pickups to Midwest and Southwest.
Class Exercise 2: The Stages of the Consumer Buying Decision Process

For this exercise, each of the stages of the consumer buying decision process should be thoroughly
discussed and made available to the students before they answer these questions.
Prompt for Students:
In which stage of the consumer buying decision process is each of the following people?
1. A recent college graduate reads Consumer Reports to compare automobile ratings.
2. On the first day of class, a student finds out that a programmable calculator is needed for the
course, but she doesn’t own one.
3. After purchasing an evening gown, a woman decides that it is not quite appropriate for her special
occasion.
4. A car buyer gets a loan to purchase a new car.
5. A teenager compares numerous MP3 players and narrows the choice down to two players.
6. While on the way to work, a person’s automobile stalls and will not start again.
7. At an open-house party, a guest realizes that the host already owns the gift he plans to give.
8. A person receives a sample package of laundry detergent in the mail and uses it to wash a load of
clothes.
Answers:
There are many possible answers for each question. For example, in Question 1, the recent college
graduate reading Consumer Reports to compare automobile ratings could be in any of four stages:
• Problem Recognition: The consumer suddenly sees his or her present car as inferior compared to
the ratings of other cars in the magazine.
• Information Search: The consumer has decided to buy a new car and is seeking all possible
information to make an intelligent choice.
• Evaluation of Alternatives: The consumer has narrowed choices to a few car brands and is
comparing them by using the ratings in the magazine.
• Postpurchase Evaluation: The consumer has just purchased a new car and is comparing its ratings
to those of some other cars.
Class Exercise 3: Level of Involvement and Situational Influences

You have decided to buy a Coach bag for somebody special. Coach is a luxury leather goods company
that specializes in handbags, wallets, briefcases, and luggage. You want this present to be special but
cannot purchase anything more than $600. The person you are buying for has very specific tastes in
accessories.
1. What level of involvement would be appropriate for this shopping experience?
2. What influences will be important in determining which handbag you will buy? There can be
more than one answer.
3. What motive would a consumer have to purchase a Coach bag in particular, using Maslow’s
hierarchy?
Answers:
1. Extended—a consumer decision-making process employed when purchasing unfamiliar,

expensive, or infrequently bought products
2. Psychological—perceptions and attitudes toward this brand are very important to whether it
succeeds, as well as personality and self-concept. Social influences could also be important as the
Coach brand is seen to be higher status.
3. Most likely the motive would be for social or esteem purposes since a Coach bag is thought to
convey higher status and portrays a certain image about the person.
Class Exercise 4: Psychological Influences

Apple is famous for its cult-like following. Apple products are admired for their sleek design and
longevity (they tend to last longer than PCs). Look at the different situations below. Determine whether
the psychological influence involves learning, self-concept, or attitude.
1. Although Martha grew up with PCs, she used Apple computers in the college computer lab and
gained an appreciation for the brand’s high quality. She now wants a Mac of her own.
2. Fred has strong feels about Apple products, viewing the brand as high-quality. Even negative
criticism from his friends about Apple’s newest product does not dissuade him.
3. Jenny cares more about what the Apple product says about her than in how it functions.
Answers:
1. Learning—changes in an individual’s thought processes and behavior caused by information and
experience.
2. Attitude—an individual’s enduring evaluation of feelings about and behavioral tendencies toward
an object or idea.
3. Self-concept—a perception or view of oneself.
Semester Project
Increasingly, organizations seek to attract and hold onto top talent by offering a variety of unique benefits
designed to appeal to employees. These benefits go beyond the traditional health care, retirement, and
vacation plans to include such benefits as concierge services, provisions to bring your dog to work, vegan
or vegetarian entrees in the cafeteria, etc.
For many employees, these benefits are crucial to their lifestyle and therefore crucial to their work
environment. In this exercise, you are to consider the types of benefits you want an organization to
provide. Conduct some research on which types of organizations provide these types of benefits.
Step 1: Research some of the alternative benefits being offered by organizations.
Step 2: Explore what types of industries and organizations provide these benefits.
Step 3: Determine if these industries or organizations offer positions in your chosen career field.
Step 4: Identify a list of the types of benefits you would like to have at your workplace.
ANSWERS TO DEVELOPING YOUR MARKETING PLAN

The information obtained from these questions should assist students in developing various aspects of
your marketing plan found in the Interactive Marketing Plan exercise at www.cengagebrain.com.
1. See Table 7.1. What type of decision making are your customers likely to use when purchasing
your product?
It is essential for marketers to be able to identify and anticipate consumer decision making
responses, as this may affect how a product is marketed. The type of response engendered will
depend on the type of product offered. If a student’s product is low in cost, customers may have a
routinized response. However, if the product is high in cost and very specialized, their response may
be extended.
2. Determine the evaluative criteria that your target market(s) would use when choosing between
alternative brands.
There are many different criteria that customers may consider when looking to purchase a product.
The criteria will vary depending on the type of product. Some possible criteria are price, features,
customer service, color, styling, or packaging.
3. Using Table 7.2, what types of family decision making, if any, would your target market(s)
use?
The different types are: husband dominant, wife dominant, autonomic, and syncratic. These are
general types, and individuals may vary considerably from one household to the next.
4. Identify the reference groups or subcultures that may influence your target market’s product
selection.
There are many different possible answers to this question and responses will vary widely
depending on students’ products.
ANSWERS TO DISCUSSION AND REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the major stages in the consumer buying decision process? Are all of these stages
used in all consumer purchase decisions? Why or why not?
The major stages in the consumer buying-decision process are problem recognition, information
search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase, and post-purchase evaluation.
Not all consumer decisions include all five stages. The individual may terminate the process at any
stage, and not all decisions lead to a purchase. Sometimes individuals engaged in routine behavior
eliminate some stages, while those engaged in extended problem solving usually transition through
all five stages.
2. How does a consumer’s level of involvement affect his or her choice of decision-solving
process?
In a particular situation, a consumer’s level of involvement determines the importance and interest
intensity in a product. A buyer’s level of involvement determines why he or she is motivated to seek
information about certain products and brands but virtually ignores others. The extensiveness of the
buying-decision process varies greatly with the consumer’s level of involvement. Routinized
response behavior is likely to be used for low-involvement products. Limited- or extended-decision
making is required for high-involvement products.
3. Name the types of consumer decision-making processes. List some products you have bought
using each type. Have you ever bought a product on impulse? If so, describe the
circumstances.
The types of consumer decision-making processes include routinized response behavior, limited
decision making, and extended decision making.
Routinized response behavior occurs when people buy frequently purchased, low-cost items which
require little search-and-decision effort. Examples of routinely purchased products include milk,
bread, packaged food products, and laundry services.
Limited decision making occurs when consumers occasionally buy products and when they need to
obtain information about an unfamiliar brand in a familiar product category. This type of decision
making requires a moderate amount of time for information gathering and deliberation. Purchase
decisions might include a new pest control company, a mechanic to install a muffler, or a new
“healthy” cereal.
Extended decision making is used when a purchase involves unfamiliar, expensive, or infrequently
purchased products, such as cars, homes, or stereo systems.
Most students probably will indicate they have purchased a product on impulse. Typical impulse
products include candy, a compact disc, or a pair of jeans.
2. What are the categories of situational factors that influence consumer buying behavior?
Explain how each of these factors influences buyers’ decisions.
Situational factors can be classified into categories: physical surroundings, social surroundings, time
perspective, purchase reason, and the buyer’s momentary mood and condition. Physical
surroundings, such as location, store atmosphere, aromas, sounds, and lighting, can influence
purchase behavior by creating settings more or less conducive to buying. Social surroundings
influence buying behavior when a customer feels pressured to behave in a particular way, depending
on who is in proximity of the buyer. The amount of time required to become knowledgeable about a
product, to search for it, and to buy it, influence the buying decision process. The time of day, week,
or year, such as seasons or holidays, also affect the buying-decision process. The purchase reason
raises the questions about what the product purchase should accomplish and for whom. The buyer’s
momentary moods can affect a person’s ability and desire to search for information, to receive
information, and to seek and evaluate alternatives.
3. What is selective exposure? Why do people engage in it?
Selective exposure is the process of receiving information, then internally screening information
with only partial awareness of the total experience. People select some inputs and ignore many
others because they cannot be conscious of all inputs at one time. An input is more likely to reach
awareness if it relates to an antecedent event or to an unmet need. People are more likely to notice a
TV advertisement for McDonald’s when hungry and wondering about where to eat lunch.
4. How do marketers attempt to shape consumers’ learning?
Marketers attempt to influence consumers’ learning by exposing them to product experiences
through free samples. Indirect experiences of products through product information from
salespeople and advertisements are other avenues by which marketers attempt to influence
purchases through the learning process.
5. Why are marketers concerned about consumer attitudes?
Consumer attitudes toward an organization and its products strongly influence the success or failure
of the marketing program. Negative attitudes among consumers may result in loss of sales, whereas
strong, positive attitudes may increase sales. Because attitudes play such an important role in
determining consumer behavior, marketers seek to measure consumer attitudes toward prices,
packaging, branding, advertising, salespeople, services, images, and new-product features. If a
significant number of consumers hold negative attitudes toward a firm or its products, the marketing
program should be changed to positively impact consumer attitudes.
6. In what ways do lifestyles affect the consumer buying decision process?
A lifestyle is an individual’s pattern of living expressed through activities, interests, and opinions.
Lifestyles have a strong impact on many aspects of the consumer-buying process from problem
recognition to post-purchase evaluation. Lifestyles influence product needs, brand preferences, types
of media used, and how and where people shop.
7. How do roles affect buying behavior? Provide examples.
A role consists of a set of actions and activities expected of a person holding a certain position
within a group, organization, or institution. All individuals assume several roles depending on the
number of positions they occupy. Roles may affect whether, what, where, when, or why a person
buys. The roles of other persons also influence purchasing behavior. Marketers want to know who
does the actual buying as well as who influences the purchase decisions. Consider the types of
clothes you buy and wear to work, school, church, or the gym. You and the people at each of these
destinations know the types of appropriate clothing for each place.
8. What are family influences, and how do they affect buying behavior?
Family influences have a very direct impact on the consumer buying decision process. Parents teach
children how to cope with a variety of problems, including purchasing decisions. Children often
gain consumer socialization, the process through which a person acquires the knowledge and skills
needed to function as a consumer, from their parents. Through observation of family buying
practices and choice of brand names, children are influenced to use some of these techniques or
products when they establish their own families. The extent to which family members participate in
the buying process also affects who will be allowed input later in a person’s life when consumer
buying decisions are made.
9. What are reference groups? How do they influence buying behavior? Name some of your own
reference groups.
A reference group is a group of people with which an individual strongly identifies with, taking on
many of the values, attitudes, or behaviors of group members. The reference group can be large or
small. Individuals usually identify with several reference groups. The effect of reference groups on
purchasing behavior is dependent upon the type of product, an individual’s susceptibility to group
influence, and the extent of an individual’s group involvement.
102. How does an opinion leader influence the buying decision process of reference group
members?
An opinion leader is viewed as being well informed about a sphere of interest and is willing and
able to share information with followers. An opinion leader is trusted by followers because they
share similar values and attitudes.
113. In what ways does social class affect a person’s purchase decisions?
Individuals within social classes often exhibit common consumer behavior patterns; they share
similar attitudes, values, and possessions. Social class influences a person’s attitudes, perceptions,
motives, personality, and learning processes, all of which affect purchasing decisions. Marketers
need to understand how consumer behavior is impacted by social class.
14. What is culture? How does it affect a person’s buying behavior?
Culture is everything in our surroundings made by human beings, including tangible and intangible
items. Culture influences what we wear and eat, where we live, and how we live. It affects the ways
we buy and use products and influences the satisfaction we receive from products. Culture affects
the entire marketing mix because it determines the ways products are purchased and used.
15. Describe the subcultures to which you belong. Identify buying behavior unique to one of your
subcultures.
This question lets students probe the unique subcultures to which they belong. Students should be
encouraged to relate the particular features of their subcultures to their purchasing behavior.
16. What is consumer misbehavior? Describe the various forms of consumer misbehavior.
Consumer misbehavior is behavior that violates generally accepted norms of a particular society.
Shoplifting, consumer fraud, abusive consumers, and pirating/illegally copying products are all
examples of consumer misbehavior, and students should describe each in detail.
COMMENTS ON THE CASES

VIDEO CASE 7.1: STARBUCKS REFINES THE CUSTOMER
EXPERIENCE
Summary
Starbucks is popular in the United States thanks to its focus on the customer experience. While the
company continues to improve its American stores through innovations such as mobile pay, Starbucks is
also expanding globally, especially in Asian markets. It is also diversifying; Starbucks recently purchased
premium-juice company Evolution Fresh and is adding the company’s nutritious blended drinks to the
traditional Starbucks menu. Starbucks plans to open more Evolution Fresh stores as the demand for
healthy foods increases. The company is also competing with energy drink companies after releasing its
all-natural Starbucks Refreshers. Starbucks is also promoting its focus on social responsibility.
Questions for Discussion
1. In terms of situational influences and level of involvement, what are the benefits of mobile pay?
Starbucks is working to keep customers involved by creating routinized response behavior. Mobile
pay reduces search-and-decision effort, and the ease of payment and accumulation of Starbucks
rewards makes it easy for their customers to prefer Starbucks as a brand. Starbucks is also taking
advantage of customers’ momentary conditions to make sure they have an easy and fast way to pay.
2. With Evolution Fresh, which psychological influences on consumer buying decisions does
Starbucks seem to be addressing?
Motives, attitudes, personalities, and lifestyles are all important to Starbucks. With Evolution Fresh,
Starbucks is primarily addressing consumers’ attitudes, especially perceptions and interpretations of
the company. By providing products such as smoothies, juices, salads, and wraps, Starbucks is
creating the impression that it cares about consumers’ health and is working to fit into their healthy
lifestyles.
3. Why would Starbucks want customers to know that it believes in social responsibility?
Once again, Starbucks wants to improve consumers’ perceptions and interpretations of the company
and its actions. If consumers believe the company values ethical and socially responsible behavior,
they will be more involved with the brand and more willing to purchase the company’s products.
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And who will sit in Nóvgorod?”
There stepped forward Diví Murza, son of Ulán:
“Listen, our lord, Crimea’s tsar!
You, our lord, shall sit in stone-built Moscow,
And your son in Vladímir,
And your nephew in Súzdal,
And your relative in Zvenígorod,
And let the equerry hold old Ryazán,
But to me, O lord, grant Nóvgorod:
There, in Nóvgorod, lies my luck.”
The voice of the Lord called out from heaven:
“Listen, you dog, Crimea’s tsar!
Know you not the tsarate of Muscovy?
There are in Moscow seventy Apostles,[117]
Besides the three Sanctified;
And there is in Moscow still an orthodox Tsar.”
And you fled, you dog, Crimea’s tsar,
Not over the highways, nor the main road,
Nor following the black standard.
THE SONG OF THE PRINCESS KSÉNIYA BORÍSOVNA [118]
There weepeth a little bird,

A little white quail:
“Alas, that I so young must grieve!
They wish to burn the green oak,
To destroy my little nest,
To kill my little ones,
To catch me, quail.”
In Moscow the Princess weepeth:
“Alas that I so young must grieve!
For there comes to Moscow the traitor,
Gríshka Otrépev Rozstríga,[119]
Who wants to take me captive,
And having captured make me a nun,
To send me into the monastery.
But I do not wish to become a nun,
To go into a monastery:
I shall keep my dark cell open,
To look at the fine fellows.
O our beautiful corridors!
Who will walk over you
After our tsarian life
And after Borís Godunóv?
O our beautiful palace halls!
Who will be sitting in you
After our tsarian life
And after Borís Godunóv?”
And in Moscow the Princess weepeth,
The daughter of Borís Godunóv:
“O God, our merciful Saviour!
Wherefore is our tsardom perished,—
Is it for father’s sinning,
Or for mother’s not praying?
And you beloved palace halls!
Who will rule in you,
After our tsarian life?
Fine stuffs of drawn lace!—
Shall we wind you around the birches?
Fine gold-worked towels!
Shall we throw you into the woods?
Fine earrings of hyacinth
Shall we hang you on branches,
After our tsarian life,
After the reign of our father,
Glorious Borís Godunóv?
Wherefore comes to Moscow Rozstríga,
And wants to break down the palaces,
And to take me, princess, captive,
And to send me to Ustyúzhna Zheléznaya,
To make me, princess, a nun,
To place me behind a walled garden?
Why must I grieve,
As they take me to the dark cell,
And the abbess gives me her blessing?”
THE RETURN OF PATRIARCH FILARÉT TO MOSCOW[120]
The tsarate of Muscovy was happy

And all the holy Russian land.
Happy was the sovereign, the orthodox Tsar,
The Grand Duke Mikhaíl Fedórovich,
For he was told that his father had arrived,
His father Filarét Nikítich,
From the land of the infidel, from Lithuania.
He had brought back with him many princes and boyárs,
He had also brought the boyár of the Tsar,
Prince Mikhaíl Borísovich Sheyn.
There had come together many princes, boyárs, and dignitaries,
In the mighty tsarate of Muscovy:
They wished to meet Filarét Nikítich
Outside the famous stone-built Moscow.
’Tis not the red sun in its course,—
’Tis the orthodox Tsar that has gone out,
To meet his father dear,
Lord Filarét Nikítich.
With the Tsar went his uncle,
Iván Nikítich the boyár.—
“The Lord grant my father be well,
My father, lord Filarét Nikítich.”
They went not into the palace of the Tsar,
They went into the cathedral of the Most Holy Virgin,
To sing an honourable mass.
And he blessed his beloved child:
“God grant the orthodox Tsar be well,
Grand Duke Mikhaíl Fedórovich!
And for him to rule the tsarate of Muscovy
And the holy Russian land.
FOOTNOTES:
[116] Having destroyed almost the whole of Moscow by fire in

1572, Devlét-Giréy made again an incursion the next year. He
was so sure of an easy victory, that the streets of Moscow, so
Kúrbski tells, were alotted in advance to the Murzas. He came
with an army of 120,000 men, and left on the field of battle
100,000.
[117] Either churches or images of the apostles; a similar
interpretation holds for the next line.
[118] She was shorn a nun by order of the False Demetrius,
and was sent to a distant monastery.
[119] Rozstríga means “he who has abandoned his tonsure.”
[120] Filarét Nikítich, the father of Mikhaíl Fedórovich, returned
from his Lithuanian captivity in 1619 and was at once proclaimed
Patriarch.
Yúri Krizhánich. (1617-about 1677.)
Krizhánich was a Croatian who had studied at the Croatian
Seminary at Vienna, at the university of Bologna, and at the
Greek College of St. Athanasius at Rome, where he came in
contact with some Russians. He early dreamed of a union of
all the Slavic nations under the rule of Russia, and in 1657 he
went to Southern Russia, where he began a propaganda
among the Cossacks in favour of a union with that country.
Two years later he appeared in Moscow, where his Catholic
religion and his efforts at introducing a Western culture
brought him into disrepute, and he was at once banished to
Siberia, where he lived until the year 1676. He composed a
large number of works on an Universal Slavic language, on
the Russian empire in the seventeenth century, and on the
union of the Churches, writing not in Russian, but in a strange
mixture of several Slavic languages, of his own invention. In
these he developed a strong Panslavism, full of hatred of
everything foreign, except foreign culture, and expressed high
hopes for Russia’s future greatness. His works are said to
have been used by Peter the Great, but they were not
published until 1860.
POLITICAL REASONS FOR THE UNION OF THE CHURCHES
The sixth reason for my contention is of a political nature, and

refers to the nation’s weal. For this discord of the Churches is even
now the cause of Doroshénko’s rebellion and the Turkish invasion,
and continuation of the present war, and has from the beginning
been the cause of much evil. The Poles have an ancient adage: Aut
Moscovia Polonizat, aut Polonia Moscovizat, i. e., Either Moscow
shall become Polish, or Poland shall be a part of the Russian
empire. It is written in the histories of other nations, and the advisers
of the Tsar know it, that in the days of Feódor Ivánovich and later
there have been many congresses held and embassies sent for the
purpose of securing a Russian ruler for Poland and Lithuania. There
is no doubt but that Poland and Lithuania would have become
possessions of the Russian Tsars, if it were not for the division of the
Churches. And there would not have been many old and new wars,
nor bloodshed, in which so many hundreds of thousands of innocent
people have perished by the sword, and have been led into
Mussulman captivity. And the Russian nation would have long ago
been far advanced in profane and political sciences that are so
necessary for all well-educated persons, and would not be scorned
and ridiculed and hated by the European nations for its barbarism.
Nor would it suffer such unbearable disgrace and losses in war and
commerce from the Germans and Crimeans, as it is suffering now.
Book knowledge and political wisdom is a leaven of the mind, and a
fast friendship with the Poles and Lithuanians would have made the
Russian nation more renowned and more feared by the surrounding
peoples, and richer in all earthly possessions.
ON KNOWLEDGE
Kings must instruct their subjects, parents their children, how to

obtain knowledge. The time has come for our nation to be instructed
in various branches, for God has in His mercy and kindness uplifted
through Russia a Slavic kingdom to glory, power and majesty, such
as for splendour has never existed before among us. We observe
with other nations that as soon as a kingdom rises to higher
importance, the sciences and arts at once begin to flourish among
them. We, too, must learn, for under the honoured rule of the
Righteous Tsar and Great King Alexis Mikháylovich we have an
opportunity to wipe off the mould of our ancient barbarism, to acquire
various sciences, to adopt a better organisation of society, and to
reach a higher well-being.
ON FOREIGNERS
We are not possessed of an innate vivacity, nor praiseworthy

national characteristics, nor sincerity of heart. For people who have
such pride do not allow foreigners to command them, except by
force, whereas our nation of its own free will invites foreigners to
come to its country. Not one people under the sun has since the
beginning of the world been so abused and disgraced by foreigners
as we Slavs have been by the Germans. Our whole Slavic nation
has been subject to this kind of treatment; everywhere we have upon
our shoulders Germans, Jews, Scotchmen, Gypsies, Armenians,
Greeks and merchants of other nationalities, who suck our blood. In
Russia you will see nowhere any wealth, except in the Tsar’s
treasury; everywhere there is dire, bare poverty.
Grigóri Kotoshíkhin. (1630-1667.)
Grigóri Kotoshíkhin was a clerk, and later a scribe
(podyáchi) in the Department of Legations, a kind of Foreign
Office. He had been frequently employed as an ambassador
in connection with various treaties between Russia and
Sweden and Poland. While at Moscow, he had been guilty of
some dishonesty to his own country by giving certain secrets
of State to the Swedish ambassador; but that was an offence
not uncommon at Moscow, where patriotism was seldom of a
disinterested character. In 1664 he was sent out with the
Russian army that was then operating against Poland. Shortly
after, its two generals, Cherkásski and Prozoróvski, were
recalled, and Dolgorúki was sent in their place. The latter tried
to get Kotoshíkhin’s aid in denouncing his two predecessors
for traitorous actions, but Kotoshíkhin refused. Fearing the
wrath of Dolgorúki, he fled, first to Poland, and then, through
Prussia and Lubeck, to Sweden. He settled in Stockholm,
where he was employed in a semi-official capacity in the
Foreign Office. In a fit of intoxication he killed his host, who
was the official Russian translator of Sweden, and for this
crime he was beheaded.
Kotoshíkhin had evidently formed the plan of writing about
Russian customs before his arrival in Stockholm, but he was
also encouraged by distinguished Swedish statesmen, who
hoped to find important information about Russia in his work.
In his capacity of Legation scribe Kotoshíkhin had an
excellent opportunity to become intimately acquainted with
the immediate surroundings of the Tsar; but he supplemented
his knowledge by a clear insight, which he had gained in his
intercourse with other nations. There is no other work of Old
Russia that gives so detailed an account of contemporary
society. Kotoshíkhin’s work was first discovered in 1840,
though several manuscript translations in Swedish were
known to be extant in various libraries.
THE EDUCATION OF THE PRINCES
FROM CHAP. 1.
For the bringing up of the Tsarévich or Tsarévna they select from

among the women of all ranks a good, pure, sweet-tempered and
healthy woman, and that woman resides for a year in the Upper
Palace, in the apartments of the Tsarítsa. At the expiration of the
year, the husband of that woman, if she be of noble origin, is made
governor of a city, or receives some lands in perpetuity; if she be a
scribe’s, or some other serving-man’s wife, he is promoted and
granted a goodly salary; if he be a countryman, he is given a good
sum, and both are freed from the taxes and other imposts of the Tsar
during their whole lives. The Tsarévich and Tsarévna have also a
chief-nurse to look after them, a distinguished boyár’s wife,—an old
widow, and a nurse and other servants. When the Tsarévich reaches
the age of five, he is put in the keeping of a renowned boyár, a quiet
and wise man, and the latter has for a companion a man from the
lower ranks; they also choose from among the children of the boyárs
a few of the same age as the Tsarévich, to be his servants and
butlers. When the time arrives to teach the Tsarévich to read and
write, they select teachers from the instructed people, who are of a
quiet disposition and not given to drinking; the teacher of writing is
chosen from among the Legation scribes; they receive instruction in
Russia in no other language, neither Latin, Greek, German nor any
other, except Russian.
The Tsaréviches and Tsarévnas have each separate apartments
and servants to look after them. No one is permitted to see the
Tsarévich before his fifteenth year, except those people who serve
him, and the boyárs and Near People[121]; but after fifteen years he
is shown to all people, as his father goes with him to church or to
entertainments. When the people find out that he has been
presented, they come on purpose from many cities to get a look at
him. As the Tsaréviches, when they are young, and the elder and
younger Tsarévnas go to church, there are borne cloth screens all
around them, so that they cannot be seen; likewise, they cannot be
seen when they stand in church, except by the clergy, for they are
surrounded in church with taffeta, and there are few people in church
during that time but boyárs and Near People. Similarly, when they
travel to the monasteries to pray, their carriages are covered with
taffeta. For their winter rides, the Tsarítsa and Tsarévnas use
kaptánas, that is, sleighs in the shape of small huts that are covered
with velvet or red cloth, with doors at both sides, with mica windows
and taffeta curtains; for their summer rides they use kolymágas that
are also covered with cloth; these are entered by steps and are
made like simple carts on wheels, and not like carriages that hang
down on leather straps. These kolymágas and kaptánas have two
shafts, and are without an axle; only one horse is hitched in them,
with other horses in tandem.
PRIVATE LIFE OF THE BOYÁRS AND OF OTHER RANKS (CHAP. 13)
Boyárs and Near People live in their houses, both of stone and
wood, that are not well arranged; their wives and children live all in
separate rooms. Only a few of the greater boyárs have their own
churches in their courts; and those of the high and middle boyárs
who have no churches of their own, but who are permitted to have
priests at their houses, have the matins and vespers and other
prayers said in their own apartments, but they attend mass in any
church they may choose; they never have the mass in their own
houses. The boyárs and Near People pay their priests a yearly
salary, according to agreement; if the priests are married people,
they receive a monthly allowance of food and drink, but the widowed
priests eat at the same table with their boyárs.
On church holidays, and on other celebrations, such as name
days, birthdays and christenings, they frequently celebrate together.
It is their custom to prepare simple dishes, without seasoning,
without berries, or sugar, without pepper, ginger or other spices, and
they are little salted and without vinegar. They place on the table one
dish at a time; the other dishes are brought from the kitchen and are
held in the hands by the servants. The dishes that have little vinegar,
salt and pepper are seasoned at the table; there are in all fifty to one
hundred such dishes.
The table manners are as follows: before dinner the hosts order
their wives to come out and greet their guests. When the women
come, they place themselves in the hall, or room, where the guests
are dining, at the place of honour,[122] and the guests stand at the
door; the women greet the guests with the small salute,[123] but the
guests bow to the ground. Then the host makes a low obeisance to
his guests and bids them kiss his wife. At the request of his guests,
the host kisses his wife first; then the guests make individual bows
and, stepping forward, kiss his wife and, walking back again, bow to
her once more; she makes the small salute each time she kisses a
guest. Then the hostess brings each guest a glass of double-or
treble-spiced brandy, the size of the glass being a fourth, or a little
more, of a quart. The host makes as many low obeisances as there
are guests, asking each one in particular to partake of the brandy
which his wife is offering them. By the request of the guests, the host
bids his wife to drink first, then he drinks himself, and then the guests
are served; the guests make a low obeisance before drinking, and
also after they have drunk and as they return the glass. To those that
do not drink brandy, a cup of Rumney or Rhine wine, or some other
liquor, is offered.
After this drinking the hostess makes a bow to the guests and
retires to her apartments to meet her guests, the wives of the boyárs.
The hostess and the wives of the guests never dine with the men,
except at weddings; an exception is also made when the guests are
near relatives and there are no outsiders present at the dinner.
During the dinner, the host and guests drink after every course a cup
of brandy, or Rumney or Rhine wine, and spiced and pure beer, and
various kinds of meads. When they bring the round cakes to the
table, the host’s daughters-in-law, or married daughters, or the wives
of near relatives come into the room, and the guests rise and,
leaving the table, go to the door and salute the women; then the
husbands of the women salute them, and beg the guests to kiss their
wives and drink the wine they offer. The guests comply with their
request and return to the table, while the women go back to their
apartments. After dinner the host and guests drink more freely each
other’s healths, and drive home again. The boyárs’ wives dine and
drink in the same manner in their own apartments, where there are
no men present.
When a boyár or Near Man is about to marry off his son, or
himself, or a brother, or nephew, or daughter, or sister, or niece, he,
having found out where there is a marriageable girl, sends his
friends, men or women, to the father of that girl, to say that such and
such a one had sent them to inquire whether he would be willing to
give his daughter or relative to him or his relative, and what the girl’s
dowry would be in the trousseau, money, patrimony and serfs. If the
person addressed is willing to give him his daughter, or relative, he
replies to the inquiry that he intends to marry off the girl, only he has
to consider the matter with his wife and family, and that he will give a
definite answer on a certain day; but if he does not wish to give him
the girl, knowing that he is a drunkard, or fast, or has some other bad
habit, he will say at once that he will not give him the girl, or he will
find some excuse for refusing the request.
Having taken counsel with his wife and family, and having decided
to give him the girl, he makes a detailed list of her dowry, in money,
silver and other ware, dresses, patrimony and serfs, and sends it to
the people who had come to him from the prospective bridegroom,
and they, in their turn, take it to the bridegroom. Nothing is told of the
matter to the prospective bride, who remains in ignorance thereof.
The dowry of the bride appearing satisfactory, the groom sends his
people to the bride’s parents, to ask them to present the girl. The
bride’s parents reply that they are willing to show their daughter, only
not to the prospective groom, but to his father, mother, sister or near
female relative, in whom the groom may have special confidence.
On the appointed day the groom sends his mother or sister to
inspect the bride; the bride’s parents make preparations for that day,
attire their daughter in a fine garment, invite their relatives to dinner,
and seat their daughter at the table.
When the inspectress arrives, she is met with the honour due her,
and is placed at the table near the bride. Sitting at the table, the
inspectress converses with the girl on all kinds of subjects, in order
to try her mind and manner of speech, and closely watches her face,
eyes and special marks, in order to bring a correct report to the
bridegroom; having stayed a short time, she returns to the
bridegroom. If the inspectress takes no liking to the bride, having
discovered that she is silly, or homely, or has imperfect eyes, or is
lame, or a poor talker, and so reports to the groom, he gives her up,
and that is the last of it. But if the bride has found favour in the
inspectress’s eyes, and she tells the groom that the girl is good and
clever, and perfect in speech and all things, the groom sends his
former friends again to the girl’s parents, telling them that he likes
their daughter, and that he wishes to come to a parley to write the
marriage contract, in order to marry her on a certain date. The
bride’s parents send word to the groom through his trusted people
that he should come to the parley with a few of his friends in whom
he has most confidence on a certain day, in the forenoon or
afternoon.
On the appointed day the groom puts on his best clothes, and
drives with his father, or near relatives, or friends whom he loves
best to the bride’s parents. Upon arrival, the bride’s parents and her
near relatives meet them with due honour, after which they go into
the house and seat themselves according to rank. Having sat a
while, the groom’s father or other relative remarks that they have
come for the good work, as he has bid them; the host answers that
he is glad to see them, and that he is ready to take up the matter.
Then both sides begin to discuss all kinds of marriage articles and to
set the day for the wedding according to how soon they can get
ready for it, in a week, a month, half a year, a year, or even more.
Then they enter their names and the bride’s name and the names of
witnesses in the marriage contract, and it is agreed that he is to take
the girl on a certain date, without fail, and that the girl is to be turned
over to him on that date, without fail; and it is provided in that
contract that if the groom does not take the girl on the appointed day,
or the father will not give him his daughter on that day, the offending
party has to pay 1000, or 5000, or 10,000 roubles, as the agreement
may be. Having stayed a while, and having eaten and drunk, they
return home, without having seen the bride, and without the bride
having seen the groom; but the mother, or married sister, or wife of
some relative comes out to present the groom with some embroidery
from the bride.
If after that parley the groom finds out something prejudicial to the
bride, or someone interested in the groom tells him that she is deaf,
or mute, or maimed, or has some other bad characteristic, and the
groom does not want to take her,—and the parents of the bride
complain about it to the Patriarch that he has not taken the girl
according to the marriage articles, and does not want to take her,
and thus has dishonoured her; or the bride’s parents, having found
out about the groom that he is a drunkard, or diceplayer, or maimed,
or has done something bad, will not give him their daughter, and the
groom complains to the Patriarch,—the Patriarch institutes an
inquiry, and the fine is collected from the guilty party according to the
contract, and is given to the groom or bride, as the case may be; and
then both may marry whom they please.
But if both parties carry out their agreement, and get ready for the
wedding on the appointed day, then the groom invites to the wedding
his relatives and such other people as he likes, to be his ceremonial
guests, in the same manner as I described before about the Tsar’s
wedding[124]; on the part of the bride the guests are invited in the
same way. On the day of the wedding tables are set at the houses of
the groom and bride, and the word being given the groom that it is
time to fetch the bride, they all set out according to the ceremonial
rank: First the bread-men carry bread on a tray, then, if it be summer,
the priest with the cross rides on horseback, but in winter in a sleigh;
then follow the boyárs, the thousand-man, and the groom.
Having reached the court of the bride’s house, they enter the hall
in ceremonial order, and the bride’s father and his guests meet them
with due honour, and the order of the wedding is the same as
described in the Tsar’s wedding. When the time arrives to drive to
church to perform the marriage, the bride’smaids ask her parents to
give the groom and bride their blessing for the marriage. They bless
them with words, but before leaving bless them with a holy image,
and, taking their daughter’s hand, give her to the groom.
Then the ceremonial guests, the priest, and the groom with his
bride, whose hand he is holding, go out of the hall, and her parents
and their guests accompany them to the court; the groom places the
bride in a kolymága or kaptána, mounts a horse, or seats himself in
a sleigh; the ceremonial guests do likewise, and all drive to the
church where they are to be married. The bride’s parents and their
guests return to the hall, where they eat and drink until news is
brought from the groom; the bride is accompanied only by her own
and the bridegroom’s go-betweens. The two having been united, the
whole troop drives to the groom’s house, and news is sent to the
bride’s father that they have been propitiously married. When they
arrive at the groom’s court, the groom’s parents and their guests
meet them, and the parents, or those who are in their stead, bless
them with the images, and offer them bread and salt, and then all
seat themselves at the table and begin to eat, according to the
ceremony; and then the bride is unveiled.
The next morning the groom drives out with the bride’s-maid to call
the guests, those of his and the bride’s, to dinner. When he comes to
the bride’s parents, he thanks them for their having well brought up
their daughter, and for having given her to him in perfect health; after
having made the round to all the guests, he returns home. When all
the guests have arrived, the bride offers gifts to all the ceremonial
guests. Before dinner the groom goes with all the company to the
palace to make his obeisance to the Tsar. Having arrived in the
presence of the Tsar, all make a low obeisance, and the Tsar, without
taking off his cap, asks the married couple’s health. The groom bows
to the ground, and then the Tsar congratulates those who are united
in legitimate wedlock, and blesses the married pair with images, and
he presents them with forty sables, and for their garments a bolt of
velvet, and atlas, and gold-coloured silk, and calamanco, and simple
taffeta, and a silver vessel, a pound and a half to two pounds in
weight, to each of them; but the bride is not present at the audience.
Then the Tsar offers the thousand-man, and bridegroom, and the
ceremonial guests a cup of Rumney wine, and then a pitcher of
cherry wine, and after they have emptied their wine the Tsar
dismisses them.
After arriving home, they begin to eat and drink, and after the
dinner the parents and guests bless the married couple with images
and make them all kinds of presents, and after dinner the guests
drive home. On the third day, the bride and groom and the guests go
to dinner to the bride’s parents, with all their guests, and after the
dinner the bride’s parents and their guests make presents to the
married couple, and they drive home; and that is the end of the
festivity.
During the time that the groom is in the presence of the Tsar, the
bride sends in her name presents to the Tsarítsa and Tsarévnas,
tidies of taffeta, worked with gold and silver and pearls; the Tsarítsa
and Tsarévnas accept these gifts, and send to inquire about the
bride’s health.
During all the wedding festivities, no women are present, and
there is no music, except blowing of horns and beating of drums.
The proceeding is the same when a widowed daughter, or sister,
or niece is married off: the ceremonial and the festivity are the same.
In the beginning of the festivity, the priest who is to marry the pair
receives from the Patriarch and the authorities a permit, with the seal
attached to it, to marry them, having first ascertained that the bride
and groom are not related by sponsorship, nor by the ties of
consanguinity in the sixth and seventh generation, nor that he is the
husband of a fourth wife, nor she the wife of a fourth husband; but if
he discover that they are related by sponsorship, and so forth, he is
not allowed to marry them. Should the priest permit such an unlawful
marriage to take place, with his knowledge or without his knowledge,
he would be discharged from his priesthood and, if he was knowingly
guilty, he has to pay a big fine, and the authorities lock him up for a
year; but the married pair is divorced, without being fined, except the
sin which they have incurred, and if they have not been previously
married three times, they may marry again.
If a widower wants to marry a maiden, the ceremonial at the
wedding is the same, but during the wreathing in church the wreath
is placed on the groom’s right shoulder, whereas the bride wears her
wreath upon her head; if a widower for the third time marries a
maiden, the ceremonial is the same, but the wreath is placed on the
groom’s left shoulder, and the bride wears hers upon her head. The
same is done when a widow marries for the second or third time. But
when a widower marries for the second or third time a widow, then
there is no wreathing, and only a prayer is said instead of the
wreathing, and the wedding ceremonial is different from the one
mentioned above.
The manner of the parley, marriage and ceremonial wedding is the
same with the lower orders of the nobility as described above, and
the wedding is as sumptuous as they can afford to make it, but they
do not call upon the Tsar, except those of his retinue.
Among the merchants and peasants the parley and the ceremonial
are exactly the same, but they differ in their acts and dresses from
the nobility, each according to his means.
It sometimes happens that a father or mother has two or three
daughters, where the eldest daughter is maimed, being blind, or
lame, or deaf, or mute, while the other sisters are perfect in shape
and beauty and speech. When a man begins to sue for their
daughter, and he sends his mother, or sister, or someone else in
whom he has confidence to inspect her, the parents sometimes
substitute the second or third daughter for their maimed sister, giving
her the name of the latter, so that the inspectress, not knowing the
deceit, takes a liking to the girl and reports to the groom that she is a
proper person to marry. Then the groom, depending upon her words,
has a parley with the girl’s parents, that he is to marry her upon an
appointed day, and that the parents are to give her to him upon the
appointed day, and the fine is set so high that the guilty party is not
able to pay it. When the wedding takes place, the parents turn over
to him the maimed daughter, whose name is given in the articles of
marriage, but who is not the one the inspectresses had seen. But the
groom cannot discover on the wedding day that she is blind, or
disfigured, or has some other defect, or that she is deaf or mute, for
at the wedding she is veiled and does not say a word, nor can he
know whether she is lame, because her bride’smaids lead her under
her arms.
But in that case the man who has been deceived complains to the
Patriarch and authorities, and these take the articles of marriage and
institute an inquiry among the neighbours and housefolk, each one
individually, whether the person he had married is the one indicated
by name in the marriage articles. If so, the articles are valid, and no
faith is to be put in his contention, on the ground that it was his
business to be sure whom he was going to marry. But if the
neighbours and housefolk depose that the bride is not the same as
mentioned by name in the articles, the married pair is divorced, and
the parents have to pay a large fine and damages to the groom, and
besides the father is beaten with the knout, or his punishment is
even more severe, according to the Tsar’s will.
The same punishment is meted out to the man who presents his
serving maid or a widow in place of his unmarried daughter, by
giving her another name and dressing her up so as to look like his
daughter, or when his daughter is of short stature and they place her
on a high chair in such a way that her defect is not noticeable.
When parents have maimed or old daughters, and no one wants
to marry them, they are sent to a monastery to be shorn nuns.
When a man wants to inspect the bride himself, and the parents
grant the request, knowing that she is fair and that they need not be
ashamed of her, but the groom, having taken no liking to her, decries
her with damaging and injurious words, and thus keeps other suitors
away from her,—and the bride’s parents complain to the Patriarch or
authorities: these institute an inquiry, and having found the man
guilty, marry him to the girl by force; but if he has married another girl
before the complaint has been entered, the girl’s disgrace is taken
from her by an ukase.
When a man marries off his daughter or sister, and gives her a
large dowry in serfs and patrimony, and that daughter or sister,
having borne no children, or having borne some who have all died,
dies herself,—the dowry is all taken from her husband and is turned
over to those who had married her off. But if she leaves a son or
daughter, the dowry is, for the sake of her child, not taken from her
husband.
Gentle reader! Wonder not, it is nothing but the truth when I say
that nowhere in the whole world is there such deception practised
with marriageable girls as in the kingdom of Muscovy; there does not
exist there the custom, as in other countries, for the suitor to see and
sue for the bride himself.
The boyárs and Near People have in their houses 100, or 200, or
300, or 500, or 1000 servants, male and female, according to their
dignity and possessions. These servants receive a yearly salary, if
they are married, 2, 3, 5 or 10 roubles, according to their services,
and their wearing apparel, and a monthly allowance of bread and
victuals; they live in their own rooms in the court of the boyár’s
house. The best of these married servants are sent out by the
boyárs every year, by rotation, to their estates and villages, with the
order to collect from their peasants the taxes and rents. The
unmarried older servants receive some small wages, but the
younger ones receive nothing; all the unmarried servants get their
wearing apparel, hats, shirts and boots; the older of these servants
live in the farther lower apartments, and receive their food and drink
from the kitchen; on holidays they receive two cups of brandy each.
The female servants who are widows remain living in the houses of
their husbands, and they receive a yearly wage and a monthly
allowance of food; other widows and girls stay in the rooms of the
boyárs’ wives and daughters, and they receive their wearing apparel,
and their food from the boyár’s kitchen.
When these girls are grown up, the boyárs marry them, and also
the widows, to some one of their servants to whom they have taken
a liking, but sometimes by force. The wedding takes place in the
boyár’s hall, according to the rank of the marrying parties; the food
and festive dresses are furnished by the boyár. The girls are never
married to any person outside the boyár’s court, because both male
and female servants are his perpetual serfs. In the boyár’s house
there is an office for all domestic affairs, where an account is kept of
income and expenses, and all the affairs of the servants and
peasants are investigated and settled.
FOOTNOTES:
[121] A division of nobility below the boyárs.

[122] In the front corner, under the holy images.
[123] Bending as far as the girdle.
[124] “The wedding ceremony is as follows: on the Tsar’s side
the first order is the father and mother, or those who are in place
of his parents; the second order, the travellers,—the chief priest
with the cross, the thousand-man, who is a great personage in
that procession, and then the Tsar: eight boyárs. The duties of the
travellers are as follows: they stay with the Tsar and Tsarítsa at
the crowning in church, and at the table occupy higher places
than the others; the friends (drúzhka), whose duty it is to call the
guests to the wedding, to make speeches at the wedding in the
name of the thousand-man and Tsar, and to carry presents; the
bride’s maids (svákha) whose duty it is to watch the Tsarítsa, to
dress her and undress her; the candleholder, who holds the
candle when they get the Tsarítsa ready for the crowning; the
breadholders, who carry the bread on litters to and from church
(these litters are covered with gold velvet and embroidered cloth
and sable furs); the equerry with his suite. The third order is the
sitting boyárs, twelve men and twelve women, who sit as guests
at the tables, with the Tsar’s parents, but do not go to church with
the Tsar. The fourth order is of the court, who attend to the food
and drink.”

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PRIVATE LIFE OF THE BOYÁRS AND OF OTHER RANKS (CHAP. 13)

[121] A division of nobility below the boyárs.

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