Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638

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Regional Studies in Marine Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsma

Using piles for wave reduction and coastal protection: A review

Cherdvong Saengsupavanich a, * , Vinsensia Ferren a, b , Ikha Magdalena b, c , Effi Helmy Ariffin d ,
Sarinya Sanitwong-Na-Ayutthaya a
a
Faculty of International Maritime Studies, Kasetsart University, Sri Racha Campus, Chonburi 20230, Thailand
b
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bandung Institute of Technology, Jalan Ganesha 10, Bandung, West Java 40132, Indonesia
c
Center for Coastal and Marine Development, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jalan Ganesha No.10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
d
Institute of Oceanography and Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Terengganu 21030, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Piles have been implemented in coastal zones for wave protection. Concrete piles have been installed for wave
PRISMA reduction in ports, while bamboo piles have been implemented as coastal protection structures. Researchers have
Bamboo fence studied extensively to assess the efficacy of these structures, specifically on wave transmission, reflection, and
Pile breakwater
dissipation. On the other hand, concerns have recently arisen due to negative environmental effects associated
Wave mitigation
Environmental impact
with the poor durability of bamboo fences, leading to debris that poses a threat to the coastal ecosystem. This
paper, guided by the Preferred Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Framework 2020, presents a
comprehensive analysis of 48 peer-reviewed articles published between 2013 and 2024. The analysis reveals an
evolving research trend of piles for wave protection. We found that publications that evaluate the environmental
impacts and sustainability of piles as coastal protection structures are notably limited. Recognizing this gap, the
paper discusses limitations and the way forward of applying piles in coastal environments. It also calls for an
environmental impact assessment and community participation to be applied when installing piles, because the
piles are not always environmentally friendly.

1. Introduction
Piles have been used for wave protection by coastal practitioners.
Pile breakwaters consist of closely-spaced, vertical, cylindrical piles of
uniform diameter (Frantzis et al., 2020a). These structures offer various
advantages compared to conventional breakwaters, including decreased
self-weight and substrate requirements, reduced wave reflection and
loading, enhanced water circulation within the harbor, facilitation of
fish passage, sediment transport across the breakwaters, and lower
construction costs in deeper water depths (Mani & Jayakumar, 1995).
Since water can pass through the spaces between adjacent piles, this
type of breakwater allows water circulation between upstream and
downstream sides (Shao, 2005). Numerous ports worldwide have
implemented pile breakwaters, showcasing their significance in
achieving significant wave transmission reduction (Gardner et al., 1987;
Hutchinson & Raudkivi, 1985; Mei et al., 1974). Recent research has
focused on enhancing pile breakwaters, introducing modifications in
shape, arrangement, or the incorporation of additional structures for
improved wave dissipation performance. For example, Suvarna et al.
(2020a) conducted a study where they increased the diameter of the pile
near the free surface as a means to dissipate wave energy. In another
study, Sathyanarayana et al. (2021) proposed a conical pile head model
and employed a double-row staggered arrangement to enhance wave
energy dissipation. Koraim (2014) and Koraim et al. (2014) introduced
horizontal C-shaped and L-shaped bars to the piles in pile breakwaters to
mitigate reflections. Extensive research has been conducted on the
transmission and reflection characteristics of pile breakwaters employ­
ing closely spaced piles (Zhu, 2011, 2013; Zhu et al., 2015).
Piles with smaller diameters, such as porous fences made from
bamboo and melaleuca, utilizing locally sourced timbers, have emerged
as an approach to combat beach erosion (Mai Van et al., 2021a). This
cost-effective approach has gained prominence, particularly in
mangrove-mud coasts across regions such as Thailand, Indonesia, and
the lower Mekong Delta in Vietnam (Thieu Quang & Mai Trong, 2020a).
In the Mekong Delta, where solid structures face challenges of cost and
technical complexity, these porous bamboo and melaleuca structures
have found their widespread use, especially along gently sloping coasts
(Dao et al., 2018a; Van Cuong et al., 2015a). Another notable variant,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cherdvong.saengsupavanich@hotmail.com (C. Saengsupavanich).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2024.103638
Received 3 February 2024; Received in revised form 12 June 2024; Accepted 12 June 2024
Available online 13 June 2024
2352-4855/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
C. Saengsupavanich et al.
T-shaped bamboo fences, has been employed in the Vietnamese Mekong
Delta as part of wave protection measures (Schmitt & Albers, 2014).
These structures, resembling permeable dams with a double row of
bamboo fences, incorporate soft and stiff brushwood bundles for
enhanced effectiveness (Schmitt & Albers, 2014; Winterwerp et al.,
2020). A significant pilot project in Vinh Chau town, Soc Trang, in 2014,
demonstrated success with the 800 m long T-shaped bamboo fence,
aiming to restore mangrove forests and protect sea dikes, led to sediment
accumulation and the natural regeneration of mangrove species
(Schmitt et al., 2013a). Beyond Vietnam, Thailand has seen the
increasing use of bamboo stems for breakwaters and fences since 2005,
with applications by the Department for Marine and Coastal Resources
(DMCR) and provincial governments. These bamboo structures have
proliferated along Thailand’s Upper Gulf shoreline (DMCR, 2012;
DMCR, 2013). In the Chao Phraya Delta coastline, bamboo fences with
varying layers and lengths have been promoted since 2009, showing
potential in reducing shoreline erosion severity (Charoenlerkthawin
et al., 2023). Another study in the Nanliu Delta, China, three rows of
bamboo fences were employed for hydro-sedimentary observations,
revealing insights into their impacts on tidal flat dynamics (Huang et al.,
2023a). In Guyana, the Mangrove Restoration and Management
Department initiated a rehabilitation project involving the construction
of permeable dams with resilient local bamboo, aiming to reduce
wave-induced erosion and enhance sedimentation rates (Winterwerp
et al., 2020a). Similarly, in Indonesia’s Bogorame village, a coastal
rehabilitation project in 2013 utilized permeable dams, effectively
trapping sediment and raising bed levels behind the structures (MMAF,
2012).
It was not until recently that the environmental consequences of
using piles for coastal protection gained widespread attention. Initially,
researchers have extensively explored the efficacy of bamboo fences in
mitigating wave height through numerical, analytical, or experimental
approaches. For instance, Mai et al. (2020) utilized the non-hydrostatic
model to simulate waves passing through bamboo fences. Their findings
revealed that fence porosity significantly influences wave transmission,
with the transmission coefficient decreasing as relative fence thickness
increases. Shu et al. (2023) conducted physical experiments on wave
transmission through fences, encompassing measurements of trans­
mission, reflection, and dissipation. On the other hand, the environ­
mental consequences of coastal bamboo debris on mangroves also
garnered attention. Saengsupavanich (2013) first pointed out that the
bamboo fences were ineffective and not welcome by coastal commu­
nities. A notable inquiry by Pranchai et al. (2019a) contended that
bamboo structures tend to disintegrate, releasing debris that can inflict
severe damage on mangrove tree stems. The benefits and disadvantages
of utilizing piles for wave protection exist.
Although many aspects of piles for wave protection have been
studied, a systematic review on this topic has never been conducted. It
is, therefore, imperative to recognize the state of these advancements
and identify any research gaps that may exist. This article conducts a
systematic review by employing the PRISMA method to study literature
about piles for wave protection, focusing on wave-damping effective­
ness, durability, and environmental impacts.
2. Methods
This study adheres to the latest systematic review guidelines pro­
vided by the Preferred Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
(PRISMA) 2020, a framework report for systematic reviews and meta-
analyses (Page et al., 2021). Systematic review, at its core, involves a
scholarly synthesis of data on a clearly defined topic, utilizing critical
approaches to identify, categorize, and evaluate relevant research. It
aims to produce an evidence-based conclusion by extracting, critically
assessing, and summarizing data from published studies on the topic
(Armstrong et al., 2011). An integral part of systematic reviews is
meta-analysis, which employs statistical methods to synthesize data
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Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638
from various studies into a single quantitative estimate (Petticrew &
Roberts, 2006). PRISMA review, coupled with field-specific knowledge,
facilitates the cumulative assessment of unknown study components
(Shamsollahi et al., 2021). To mitigate document selection bias, the
PRISMA method exhaustively explores all available resources inter­
secting with or relevant to the research (Pae, 2015).
The search results were imported into EndNote, a reference man­
agement tool, where duplicate articles were removed, and additional
screening procedures were conducted following the PRISMA framework
(Haddaway et al., 2022), as illustrated in Fig. 1. Articles meeting eligi­
bility criteria will be included in the review, while ineligible ones will be
excluded. The eligibility criteria encompass:Table 1.
• Peer-reviewed articles
• Published between 2013 and 2024
• Using the English language
• Discussing coastal protection methods involving bamboo or wooden
fences or pile breakwaters (exclude articles that discussed bamboo
fences not used for coastal protection, and exclude articles that dis­
cussed the use of floating or submerged breakwater)
• Addressing the environmental impact of bamboo fence deterioration
causing debris in coastal areas.
In the searching phase, an automation tool excluded articles based on
the first three criteria (peer-reviewed, published during 2013–2024, and
written in English), resulting in 604 articles out of 4848. There were157
duplicated articles being removed at this stage and were eliminated from
the set of 604 articles prior to the screening process, leaving 447 articles
for the eligibility criteria to be applied to. During the initial screening,
which considered only titles and abstracts, 259 articles were excluded.
The full text of 15 of the 188 remaining articles could not be located, so
those 15 articles were also eliminated. Subsequently, checking was
conducted for 173 full-text articles, leading to the exclusion of 29 arti­
cles for not describing the utilization of bamboo fences or pile break­
water as a coastal protection measure, 40 articles for using floating or
submerged breakwater instead of pile breakwater, and 56 articles for not
discussing marine litter brought on by bamboo debris in the coastal
environment. Following the screening process, there were 48 articles
passing the eligibility test for further detailed discussion. Additionally,
two approaches, manual reading of full-text articles and automated
analysis using the Bibliometrix package in RStudio were employed for
data extraction and analysis.
3. Results
This comprehensive review scrutinized 48 peer-reviewed journal
articles spanning from 2013 to 2024, focusing on references to the
application of bamboo or wooden fences and pile breakwaters as wave
protection measures. Notably, the publication rate varied across years,
with 2020 and 2022 standing out with the highest rate of 10 articles
each, contributing to an average of 4 articles per year. The distribution
across subject areas revealed a concentration in Environmental Science
(29.5 %) and Engineering (24.1 %), with additional contributions from
Agricultural and Biological Sciences (13.4 %) and Earth and Planetary
Sciences (13.4 %). Other areas, including Energy (3.6 %), Social Sci­
ences (3.6 %), and miscellaneous fields (4.5 %), also featured in the
review. A significant aspect of the analysis is the predominant focus on
the interaction of coastal waves with structures, with 70.83 % of the
articles exploring this theme. Furthermore, 64.58 % of the studies
employed numerical or experimental models to investigate wave
attenuation or damping. A subset of 25.00 % specifically delved into the
wave attenuation within the mangrove-mud coastal zone, while 16.67 %
adopted an analytical approach to scrutinize the performance of the
structures. However, only a modest 2.94 % of the articles addressed the
environmental impacts of bamboo or wooden fences. Geographically,
C. Saengsupavanich et al.
Fig. 1. The updated PRISMA 2020 framework (Haddaway et al., 2022).
the study areas covered a broad spectrum, encompassing 25 countries.
Noteworthy concentrations emerged in China (14.63 %) and Vietnam
(13.42 %) as the most prevalent locations, followed by India (8.54 %),
Thailand (8.54 %), and Indonesia (7.32 %), as depicted in Fig. 2. This
diverse geographical coverage enhances the review’s breadth and pro­
vides a comprehensive perspective on the global application and
research landscape of bamboo and pile breakwater structures in wave
reduction and coastal protection.
Fig. 2 provides insights into the collaborative efforts in article pro­
duction resulting from partnerships between countries. Joint publica­
tions are prominent, with Thailand-Germany, Thailand-Japan,
Thailand-USA, and USA-Australia leading the way, each contributing
2 articles. Noteworthy collaborations extend beyond these, involving
countries such as the Netherlands, Iran, India, Estonia, Suriname, and
more. This collaborative pattern underscores a global endeavour in the
exploration of bamboo fence and pile breakwater as coastal protection
methods.
Additionally, Fig. 3 offers an understanding of evolving trends
observed in the reviewed articles from 2013 to 2023. Over this period, a
consistent focus on the coastal erosion problem and the exploration of
coastal protection structures to address this issue was evident. The pri­
mary emphasis revolved around the application of pile breakwaters as
coastal protection measures. The discourse subsequently expanded to
study wave propagation and wave reflection over the structures for
shore protection. Notable terms and their prominence in different years
provided a temporal context. In 2014, "coastal erosion" emerged,
featuring in 12.50 % of the total reviewed articles, and stayed relevant
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Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638
for seven years until 2020. In 2016, "shore protection" was discussed in
12.50 % of articles and remained pertinent for five years until 2020. The
thematic landscape shifted in 2019, with a notable increase in discus­
sions on "mangrove," being mentioned in 20.83 % of articles within the
timeframe of 2017–2020. In 2020, the discourse was extended to
include "coastal protection," being mentioned in 37.50 % of articles, and
"coastal engineering," being mentioned in 29.17 % of articles, marking a
trend that commenced in 2018 and persisted until 2022. Simulta­
neously, "breakwater(s)" became a trending term in 2020. The term
"piles" gained substantial attention in 2021, featuring in 37.50 % of
articles. Another term, “energy dissipation,” was noticeable in the same
year. By 2021, the topic evolved to encompass terms like "wave prop­
agation" and "wave reflection," collectively being discussed in 12.50 %
of articles, with this trend enduring for three years. In the latest devel­
opment, the term "dynamic response" gained traction in 2022, featuring
in around 10.42 % of the total articles. This recent shift in focus in­
dicates an evolving research landscape with a heightened interest in
these emerging themes.
In Fig. 4, a WordCloud analysis provides a visual representation of
the most frequently mentioned words across the 48 reviewed articles.
Notably, the words "coastal protection" and “piles” emerged promi­
nently, featuring in 47.50 % of the articles. Following closely, "break­
water(s)” accounted for 31.25 % of the articles. Furthermore, "coastal
engineering" and "energy dissipation" were discussed in 29.17 % of the
articles, while "hydrodynamics” was mentioned in 27.08 % of the arti­
cles. The terms "mangrove" and “Vietnam” stood out as notable focuses,
appearing in approximately 20.833 % of the total articles. The
C. Saengsupavanich et al.
Table 1
Search string for the PRISMA systematic review.
Database Search String
Scopus TITLE-ABS-KEY (bamboo OR wooden OR
melaleuca OR pile) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (fence
OR breakwater) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (coastal OR
wetland OR beach OR shoreline OR mud) AND
TITLE-ABS-KEY (protection OR erosion) OR
TITLE-ABS-KEY (debris OR deterioration OR
durability) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (sediment OR
mangrove) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (wave) AND
TITLE-ABS-KEY (damping OR attenuation OR
reduction OR transmission) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY
(maintenance OR management OR mitigation OR
planning OR strategy OR restoration OR defense)
ScienceDirect (Bamboo or wooden fence or pile breakwater for
coastal protection) OR (Coastal bamboo debris or
deterioration) OR (wave damping or attenuation
or reduction or transmission)
MDPI (Bamboo or wooden fence or pile breakwater)
and (coastal or wetland or beach or shoreline or
mud) or (erosion or protection or management)
or (debris or deterioration or durability) or (wave
damping or attenuation or reduction or
transmission)
SpringerLink (Bamboo or wooden fence or pile breakwater for
coastal protection) or (bamboo fence or pile
breakwater for wave attenuation or reduction or
damping) or (coastal bamboo or wooden fence
debris or deterioration or durability or
sustainability) or (bamboo fence in mangrove-
mud coast) or (bamboo fence to mitigate beach or
shoreline erosion)
Web of (Bamboo or wooden fence or pile breakwater for
Science coastal protection) or (bamboo fence or pile
breakwater for wave attenuation or reduction or
damping) or (coastal bamboo or wooden fence
debris)
remaining keywords were discussed in less than 20 % of the articles.
The Co-occurrence Network in Fig. 5 sheds light on the relationships
between specific words and the strength of these connections. Words of
the same color belong to the same cluster, with the thickness of con­
necting lines indicating connection strength. Larger fonts and circle sizes
denote words more relevant to the review. The term "coastal protection"
is prominently linked to key terms such as "mangrove," "Vietnam,”
"bamboo," "Mekong delta," “shore protection,” "erosion," and "Thailand.
In contrast, words like "dynamic response," “soil-structure interaction,”
and "pile response" are smaller and weakly connected, indicating a
relative lack of relevance.
The Thematic Map analysis (Fig. 6) serves as a comprehensive
overview of the topics covered in the 48 reviewed articles. The map is
systematically divided into four quadrants: motor theme, basic theme,
emerging/declining theme, and niche theme. Motor themes, character­
ized by well-developed and crucial topics, are prominently featured in
this analysis. Cluster "breakwater" encompasses various themes such as
Fig. 2. Distribution of study areas for bamboo fence and breakwater pile utilization in wave reduction and coastal protection, along with the collaboration network
and article counts from international collaborations.
Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638
breakwaters, coastal engineering, piles, wave-structure interaction, nu­
merical model, and wave transmission, constituting approximately
Number of 28.80 % of the total occurrences. Another significant cluster, "coastal
articles protection," covers Vietnam, transmission coefficient, mangrove, and
15 bamboo, representing 44.92 % of the total occurrences. These motor
themes signify central and extensively explored aspects within the
research field. Additionally, Cluster "pile response" includes themes like
soil-structure interaction and dynamic response, contributing to
33.33 % of the total occurrences. While these themes hold moderate
significance, they have not reached the level of extensive exploration
seen in the other two clusters of motor themes. Basic themes, which
comprise topics crucial to the research field but not yet extensively
developed, do not have a cluster included in this analysis. However,
clusters like "seashore," "porous medium," and "experimental study"
940 represent emerging or declining themes, accounting for 28.57 %,
33.33 %, and 24.67 % of the total occurrences, respectively. These
themes may necessitate further investigation or are becoming less
13
relevant within the research landscape. Niche themes, representing less
relevant but well-developed topics, are not found in any cluster in this
analysis. Overall, this Thematic Map analysis offers a nuanced under­
standing of the distribution and development levels of various topics
within the reviewed articles, providing valuable insights into the
3833 research landscape.
Our review found that piles have been used as wave reduction and
coastal protection structures (Fig. 7). While the primary focus of this
review was on bamboo fences and pile breakwaters, some articles used
alternative terms to denote modifications to these structures. Modified
designs of pile structures included perforated breakwaters, that are
constructed from porous materials or featuring artificial perforations,
47 facilitating water passage through their structures (Somervell et al.,
2018). Recent innovations introduced a sheet-pile groin structure
composed of row piles and a tied sheet, specifically designed to with­
stand the impact of tidal bores (Wu et al., 2023). Among the adaptations
to conventional pile breakwaters, the conical head pile breakwaters
stood out. They are the pile with the widened cross-sectional area at the
surface level, akin to an enlarged pile head breakwater (Sathyanarayana
et al., 2021). Another proposed modification incorporated horizontal
slotted plates behind conventional pile breakwaters to simultaneously
address wave reflection and transmission (Peng et al., 2023). A hybrid
structure, studied by Huang & Chen (2020), involved a pile-supported
wharf connected to a pile breakwater, also known as a self-wave dissi­
pation pile-supported wharf. A distinct type of coastal protection
structure, the permeable dam, may feature openings and/or side walls,
with all such dams generally comprising vertical poles supporting hor­
izontally oriented elements, often made of brushwood (Winterwerp
et al., 2020b). In contrast, a bamboo fence entails the insertion of
bamboo piles into the ground in front of the erosion belt to create
fencing dams. Similarly, a wooden fence structure utilizes vertical
bamboo poles as a frame to house horizontal bamboo and tree branches
(brushwood) (Dao et al., 2018b). Additional forms of coastal protection,
such as the melaleuca fence made from Melaleuca cajuputi, act as wave
barriers and silt trap fences, primarily aiding in mangrove restoration in
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C. Saengsupavanich et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638

Fig. 3. Trending topics graph generated using bibliometrix RStudio.

Fig. 4. WordCloud generated using bibliometrix RStudio.

erosion-prone areas (Van Cuong et al., 2015b). Despite the diversity of
structures discussed in the selected articles, the commonality lies in their
modification of bamboo fences or pile breakwaters. These structures
exhibit characteristics typical of coastal defenses, featuring loosely ar­
ranged multiple piles designed to safeguard harbors and coastlines from
wave impacts, while still permitting water circulation between the
adjacent piles on both upstream and downstream sides (Sathyanarayana
et al., 2021).
Finally, we investigated approaches to study wave-structure in­
teractions. We categorized them into numerical, physical, and analytical
methods. Many articles utilized one or more of these methods. Numer­
ical studies explore various cases, such as waves propagating over
slotted or porous breakwaters, the effectiveness of pile breakwaters in
sediment trapping, the wave attenuation characteristics of a conical pile
head breakwater, wave reduction of a bamboo breakwater, tsunami flow
reduction, and pile group effect on wave-induced seabed response
(Armono et al., 2021; Luom et al., 2021; Sathyanarayana et al., 2021;
Yao et al., 2020). Experimental studies assess the performance charac­
teristics of a conical pile head breakwater, flow resistance of coastal
wooden fences, reduction of tsunami flow using multiple flexible pipes,
wave load on a pile-supported wharf with pile breakwater, coastal wave
energy attenuation by wooden fences, and horizontal and vertical wave
forces on an elevated coastal structure (Dao et al., 2020; Huang & Chen,
2020; Sathyanarayana et al., 2021; Shu et al., 2023). Analytical methods

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Fig. 5. Co-occurrence Network analysis generated using bibliometrix RStudio.

Fig. 6. Thematic Map Analysis generated using Bibliometrix in RStudio.

are predominantly used to study the potential flow of porous and prevalent use of numerical models, followed closely by experimental
perforated breakwaters and the dynamic responses of pile groins (Han & approaches, in comprehensively understanding the dynamics of
Wang, 2022; Wu et al., 2023). In terms of investigating the effectiveness wave-structure interaction in the context of wave protection.
of these structures, 75.00 % of studies involved numerical modeling,
68.75 % employed experimental assessment, and 16.67 % reported
analytical investigation. This percentage distribution highlights the

6
C. Saengsupavanich et al. Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638

Fig. 7. A variety of pile structures for wave reduction and coastal protection.

4. Discussion 4.1. Implementation of piles in coastal and port environments

In this section, a thorough examination of 48 eligible peer-reviewed
articles published from 2013 to 2024 is discussed. This section is divided
into three main subjects: (1) the deployment of piles as wave protection
structures, (2) the effectiveness of piles in reducing wave height, and (3)
the environmental consequences of utilizing piles, especially bamboo
and wooden fences in coastal areas (Fig. 8). We also discuss the strengths
and limitations of each pile structure or strategy, effectiveness, dura­
bility, and sustainability of the structures. Additionally, recommenda­
tions are provided to mitigate limitations and minimize potential side
effects.
This subsection discusses the implementation of piles as wave pro­
tection structures, such as pile breakwaters and various types of
breakwaters that feature loosely arranged multiple piles with a wave-
damping effect. We begin by discussing pile breakwaters used in har­
bors and ports for wave height reduction. Later, we discuss piles as soft
coastal protection structures like bamboo, melaleuca, and wooden fen­
ces, which are widely used along gently sloping coasts to mitigate wave-
induced erosion and promote sedimentation.

Fig. 8. Methodologies, challenges, and effectiveness of pile structures for wave reduction and coastal protection (Source: authors).

7
C. Saengsupavanich et al.
4.1.1. Applications of pile breakwaters in harbors and ports
In this systematic review, pile breakwater structures emerge as the
predominant and well-recognized engineering solution, constituting
45.83 % of wave protection structures. The global implementation of
pile breakwaters for wave protection is evident in various countries,
including China (Huang & Chen, 2020; Jiang et al., 2019; Peng et al.,
2023; Tong et al., 2018a; Wu et al., 2022, 2023; Yao et al., 2020; Yin
et al., 2021), India (Sathyanarayana et al., 2021, 2022; Somervell et al.,
2018; Suvarna et al., 2020b, 2021), Australia (Han & Wang, 2022; Le
Xuan et al., 2022a; Tong et al., 2018b), Iran (Feizbahr et al., 2018;
Mojtahedi et al., 2020), Indonesia (Sugianto et al., 2022a), and Cyprus
(Frantzis et al., 2020b). These studies extensively evaluate wave in­
teractions with pile breakwater structures, employing numerical,
experimental, and analytical methods to determine wave transmission,
reflection, and dissipation.
Notably, compared to conventional breakwaters constructed with
gravity caissons, which obstruct water circulation and degrade water
quality near the coast (Agarwala & Saengsupavanich (2023), pile
permeable breakwaters facilitate superior water circulation, enhancing
harbor water quality by dispersing pollutions from land-based dis­
charges and ballast water (Onyena & Nwaogbe, 2024), minimizing
disruption to aquatic life (Sathyanarayana et al., 2021). Saengsupava­
nich (2019) presented that poor circulation could degrade water quality
in the port basin. Suvarna et al. (2020) affirm the effectiveness of con­
ventional pile-type breakwaters as an alternative solution for
gravity-type structures, citing successful applications in various loca­
tions globally, including Hanstholm in Denmark, Marsa el Brega in
Libya, Port of Osaka in Japan, Pass Christian in Mississippi, Bay Marina
in New Zealand, Auckland harbor in New Zealand, Langkawi port in
Malaysia, and the North-Western coast of Egypt (Hayashi et al., 1966;
Sundar & Subbarao, 2003). Furthermore, a lot of researchers (Park,
2000; Suh et al., 2006; Van Weele & Herbich, 1972; Zhu, 2011; Zhu
et al., 2015) have explored the wave attenuation characteristics of pile
breakwaters, consistently concluding their superiority over conven­
tional types where complete wave protection is unnecessary. In ports,
pile breakwaters effectively reduce wave energy and reflection, creating
more stable and secure harbor environments (Suh et al., 2006). By
dissipating wave energy through interaction with the piles, these
structures minimize the impact on port infrastructure and enhance the
safety of cargo handling operations. Studies by (Armono & Hall, 2003)
(Losada et al., 1996) demonstrate that pile breakwaters significantly
decrease wave reflection, leading to calmer waters for mooring vessels,
preventing excessive movement and potential damage (Suh et al., 2006).
Additionally, improved water circulation around pile breakwaters en­
hances marine water quality, benefiting both ecological balance and
port operations (Huang et al., 2011; Suh et al., 2006).
The kinetic energy of waves in pile-type breakwaters is dissipated
through interaction and turbulence across the pile structure, aligning
with the concept of extracting wave energy for wave protection
(Suvarna et al., 2020b). In the pursuit of enhancing this wave attenua­
tion mechanism, some studies propose modifications to pile-type
breakwaters, introducing the concept of a pile head near the free
water surface. This modification concentrates on tapping down a sig­
nificant portion of wave energy by increasing the diameter of the pile
near the free surface, termed as a pile head, while the portion below is
the pile trunk. Resulting in increased wave-structure interaction, this
modification has shown better wave attenuation, as evidenced in
various studies. (Hayashi et al., 1966; Z. Huang et al., 2011; Sathya­
narayana et al., 2021; Suvarna et al., 2020b, 2021). Section 4.2.1 de­
scribes specific details regarding the quantification of pile breakwater
effectiveness in attenuating wave height, offering valuable insights into
its application for wave height mitigation.
4.1.2. Applications of bamboo and wooden fences for coastal erosion
The discussion on coastal protection extends beyond pile breakwa­
ters to embrace alternative strategies like bamboo and wooden fences,
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Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638
constituting 41.67 % of known structures. In areas where erosion has
devastated mangrove forests, successful rehabilitation hinges on
reducing wave energy and stimulating sedimentation (Chong, 2005;
Fröhle et al., 2008; Zemlys et al., 2007). Efforts in the Vietnamese
Mekong Delta, combining sea dyke construction with mangrove seedling
transplantation, faced challenges as dykes failed to meet expectations,
resulting in extensive erosion and mangrove loss (Luom et al., 2021).
Consequently, the application of bamboo and wooden fences becomes
imperative, offering a softer, porous structure that allows partial wave
passage and minimizes adverse effects (Winterwerp et al., 2013). The
study gathered in this review covers many countries Dao et al., 2020;
Dao et al., 2018b; Le Xuan et al., 2022b; Luom et al., 2021; Mai Van
et al., 2021b; Schmitt et al., 2013b; Takagi et al., 2020; Thieu Quang &
Mai Trong, 2020b; Van Cuong et al., 2015b), Thailand (Char­
oenlerkthawin et al., 2022; Pranchai et al., 2019a; Saengsupavanich,
2013), Germany(Albers & Schmitt, 2015a; Schmitt et al., 2013c; Win­
terwerp et al., 2020b), China (Huang et al., 2023b; Shu et al., 2023;
Zhou et al., 2024), and Indonesia (Sugianto et al., 2022b; Suripin et al.,
2017).
Bamboo and wooden fences emerge as a cost-effective alternative,
especially in areas with unstable soil foundations. Their installation al­
lows sediment transport and seawater exchange without significant
hindrance (Takagi et al., 2020). Mangrove restoration, aided by bamboo
fences, demonstrates efficacy in reducing wave energy, stabilizing mud,
and fostering a conducive environment for seedling survival and growth
(Winterwerp et al., 2013, 2020b). The effectiveness of bamboo fences in
stabilizing shorelines has positioned them as a nature-based solution,
preferred by some coastal practitioners over traditional seawalls and
breakwaters along Thailand’s coastlines (Charoenlerkthawin et al.,
2022). Their capacity to absorb and dissipate wave energy, reduce mud
movement, and create stable conditions contributes significantly to the
survival of new seedlings and propagules, countering stress factors like
inundation, hydrology, and sediment dynamics (Balke et al., 2011). As a
protective measure, bamboo fences not only shield against drifting
rubbish but also restrict human access to regeneration areas, offering
comprehensive solutions to combat coastal erosion (Van Cuong et al.,
2015b).
4.2. Efficacy of pile structures in wave height mitigation
This section critically examines the ability of pile structures to
mitigate wave height for ports and coastlines. Numerical, experimental,
and analytical studies have comprehensively analysed pile structures for
wave transmission coefficients, wave reflection, and wave energy
dissipation. Emphasis is placed on investigating various wave charac­
teristics and structural designs to identify the key factors influencing the
performance of these wave protection measures.
4.2.1. Pile breakwater configurations for effective wave attenuation
The effectiveness of pile breakwater structures in dampening waves
depends on their configurations. Suvarna et al. (2020b) conducted
experimental investigations on an enlarged pile head breakwater,
highlighting specific structural configurations that yielded optimal
performance, including a transmission coefficient of 0.62, a reflection
coefficient of 0.123, and a dissipation coefficient of 0.77. This study
underscores the influence of crucial structural and wave parameters,
such as relative spacing between piles, pile diameter, the height of pile
head, wave period, wavelength, and water depth, on wave transmission,
reflection, and energy dissipation. Notably, decreasing the relative
spacing between piles from 0.9 to 0.2 resulted in a maximum reduction
of 19.75 % in wave transmission coefficient (Kt ), accompanied by an
average 20 % increase in the dissipation coefficient compared to other
breakwaters (Huang, 2007; Mani & Jayakumar, 1995; Rao & Rao, 1999,
2001). In a subsequent study, Suvarna et al. (2021) delved into the
impact of perforations on the wave transmission, reflection, and dissi­
pation characteristics of an enlarged pile head breakwater. The findings
C. Saengsupavanich et al.
highlighted the dominance of pore size over perforation percentage,
leading to a Kt reduction of about 10 %–18 % compared to a
non-perforated pile head breakwater. An optimized perforated pile
breakwater structure demonstrated a Kt value of 0.58, along with Kr =
0.36 and Kd = 0.73, suggesting its potential as a wave protection solu­
tion depending on site conditions.
Moreover, numerical investigations by Sathyanarayana et al. (2022)
utilizing the open-source computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model
validated experimental results, showcasing that the perforated conical
pile head breakwater (CPHB) had the capacity to reduce wave trans­
mission by up to 67 % in irregular waves. The study revealed an inverse
relationship between Kt and wave steepness, while wave reflection (Kr )
and wave dissipation (Kd ) exhibited the opposite pattern. In the case of
irregular waves, Kt ranged from 0.72 to 0.36 for the non-perforated
CPHB with an optimum configuration, and for the same setup, Kt var­
ied between 0.83 and 0.64 with monochromatic waves. Introducing
perforations with the optimum configuration on the CPHs enhanced the
transmission capability of the CPHB by about 5–16.5 % with mono­
chromatic waves and 5–10 % with irregular waves. The study suggests
that the CPHB, with its proposed configuration, could be suitable for
port protection where partial wave protection suffices. In another
innovative pile configuration, Peng et al. (2023) proposed pile break­
waters with horizontal slotted plates (PHSP) to induce turbulence and
jet phenomena, effectively doubling wave energy dissipation and
significantly reducing wave transmission. Numerical simulations
demonstrated the adaptability of PHSP to diverse wave environments
through parameter adjustments.
Overall, the majority of the studies indicate that conical pile head
breakwater (CPHB) or enlarged pile head breakwater is a superior wave
attenuator compared to conventional pile breakwater. Introducing the
best-performing configuration of a conical hollow pile head over the
conventional pile breakwater improves the wave transmission charac­
teristics of the structure by about 25 %, along with more than a 60 %
higher wave dissipation (Sathyanarayana et al., 2021). The CPHB
structure was found to be competent in wave attenuation with minimal
reflection and higher energy dissipation than other types of pile break­
waters. Therefore, the CPHB may be considered in designing breakwa­
ters for sites requiring partial wave attenuation. The comprehensive
evaluation of these studies clearly confirms the effectiveness of pile
breakwaters, especially the modified versions like the conical or
enlarged pile head breakwater, in reducing wave height and mitigating
wave height. Whether through experimental investigations or numerical
simulations, the results consistently underscore the potential of diverse
configurations, such as perforated pile breakwaters and those featuring
horizontal slotted plates, as prominent solutions for wave protection.
4.2.2. Structural insights and design consideration of bamboo fence for
wave protection
The exploration of wave protection strategies in this review extends
beyond pile breakwaters to encompass bamboo and wooden fences,
presenting alternative solutions for mitigating coastal erosion. In the
Mekong Delta of Vietnam, Mai Van et al. (2021b) focused on bamboo
fences, assessing their wave transmission characteristics and effective­
ness in safeguarding mangroves. The study revealed substantial wave
reduction by the fences, reaching Kt = 0.73 as the relative fence free­
board increased, and the crest fence level approached the water level,
resulting in rapid sedimentation in sheltered areas with sedimentation
depth increased up to 0.60 m, fostering mangrove recovery and growth.
Notably, the wave transmission coefficient (Kt ) showed dependencies on
wave steepness, relative water depth, and fence freeboard, providing a
technical guideline for designing nature-based coastal protection solu­
tions using bamboo and wooden fences. In Kien Giang Province, Viet­
nam, Van Cuong et al. (2015b) designed Melaleuca fences,
demonstrating a 63 % reduction in wave height behind the fence
compared to the open coast. Over three years, these fences retained
significant mud deposits, reaching up to 45–47 cm, facilitating the
9
Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638
growth of Avicennia seedlings, with seedling density varying from 2300
to 7100 seedlings/ha. The study underlines the efficacy of Melaleuca
fences in enhancing coastal protection and supporting mangrove
regeneration.
Researchers have attempted to increase the wave-damping effec­
tiveness of bamboo fences. Shu et al. (2023) explored artificial bamboo
fences for mangrove reforestation, studying two types through physical
model experiments. The research emphasized the role of infill and its
porosity in wave transmission, revealing that incident wave character­
istics significantly influence wave attenuation performance. The pres­
ence of infill greatly improved wave attenuation, with higher porosity
(90 %) contributing to enhanced dissipation efficiency. The study also
highlighted the impact of frame density on wave transmission, partic­
ularly for fences without infill, where high-density frames improved
attenuation but increased reflection. The findings underscore the com­
plex interplay of structural factors in determining the wave attenuation
effectiveness of bamboo fences. A quantitative assessment of wooden
fence resistance was conducted by Dao et al. (2020), who measured the
drag coefficient exerted by the fence material on the flow. With inho­
mogeneous and staggered configurations, porosities varying from 62 %
to 90 % were investigated. The results indicated that the lowest porosity
case exhibited the smallest bulk drag coefficient values, providing in­
sights into the hydraulic resistance of wooden fences. These diverse
studies collectively underscore the potential of bamboo and wooden
fences in reducing wave height and addressing coastal erosion.
Turning to suggestions for improving fence design, it is essential to
consider that, in supporting newly-planted mangroves, the fences should
shield mangroves from high waves during severe monsoon periods,
while still allowing for fine sediment exchange through the fence at all
times (Thieu Quang & Mai Trong, 2020b). Wave reflection should be
kept sufficiently small to minimize negative impacts, such as
scour-induced fence instability or offshore-directed sediment transport.
Therefore, the fence design must ensure an appropriate level of wave
transmission, governed by a well-balanced combination of fence
geometrical dimensions (height and width) and porosity.
In practice, the fence height, determined by available local bamboo/
melaleuca poles and embedded pole length in the deep mud foundation
for stability, generally does not exceed 1.50 m. To maximize control
over wave transmission at high water levels, it is a prerequisite to
building fences at their maximum possible height, making fence height a
fixed parameter (Thieu Quang & Mai Trong, 2020b). On the other hand,
fence width is flexible but less sensitive to wave transmission. In support
of this perspective, experimental research by Dao et al. (2021)
confirmed that increasing the fence width may not necessarily increase
wave reflection for the same porosity. In mangrove restoration practice,
infill density should not be increased alone, which can be maintained at
70 %–80 %, and fence width should be increased to achieve better wave
damping. Considerations can be given to combining high-porosity fen­
ces with other porous structures, such as rubble mounds and oyster
reefs, to provide adequate protection for mangrove seedlings. The
bamboo fence construction should reduce incident waves while pro­
moting sedimentation on tidal flats, maintaining stability to prevent
negative effects on seedlings. The fence plan or profile arrangement on
tidal flats should align with the actual hydrodynamic and topographic
circumstances of afforestation sites. In light of these considerations,
optimizing fence design for cost-effectiveness while meeting the
required wave transmission levels leans towards addressing fence
porosity rather than fence width. The construction cost of fences is
significantly influenced by the number of rows of bamboo poles,
rendering wide-fence alternatives (i.e., with high fence porosities) less
economically viable. Fence porosity emerges as a critical factor in
optimizing fence design and can be fine-tuned using bundles that mix
various-sized branches. However, excessively small fence porosity
should be avoided, as it could impede sediment exchange across the
fence, proving undesirable in achieving the desired protective outcomes.
Top of Form
C. Saengsupavanich et al.
4.3. Failures, and socio-environmental impacts of bamboo fences
Unlike other engineering structures, such as revetments where the
coast is well-protected, and the coastal community’s livelihood is
enhanced (Saengsupavanich, 2022; Saengsupavanich and Pranzini,
2023; Sanitwong-Na-Ayutthaya et al., 2022), bamboo structures face
inherent challenges of durability (Saengsupavanich et al., 2023), pri­
marily a restricted lifespan spanning four to seven years (Albers &
Schmitt, 2015b). After bamboo fences deteriorate, sediment deposited
behind them can be moved offshore by tidal currents, leading to low
sedimentation rates. This movement of sediment indicates a challenge to
the long-term effectiveness of bamboo fences in mitigating coastal
erosion. Initially, these fences act as barriers, accumulating sediment
and stabilizing the shoreline. However, as they degrade, their protective
function diminishes, allowing deposited sediment to migrate offshore
due to tidal currents, which affects long-term sedimentation rates in the
protected area.
Numerous studies have highlighted instances where bamboo fence
implementation faced a disappointing success rate, as seen near a wind
power plant in Bac Lieu province. Harsh marine conditions resulted in
structural failures, the uprooting of mangrove seedlings, and unfavor­
able growth conditions (Le Xuan et al., 2022c). The project in Vinh Chau
town, Soc Trang, provides an insight into the vulnerability of bamboo
fences. After a few monsoon seasons, the bamboo fence succumbed to
severe environmental conditions, including alternating dry and wet
periods, leading to the rotting of bamboo trunks (Fig. 9 A). The sub­
merged part of the bamboo poles was extensively damaged by barnacles,
resulting in structural deflection and loosening of joints. In Demak,
initial observations from long-term monitoring revealed initial sedi­
mentation behind the bamboo fences, but over time sedimentation rates
significantly declined. Mangroves thrived only in a few well-protected
sedimentation basins. Conversely, juvenile mangroves vanished after
one or two years, likely due to the relative bed level dropping below the
mean sea level. Over the project’s lifetime, the first bamboo fences,
initially above mean high water, subsided by 0.25 m or more, dis­
appearing below mean sea level. Consequently, they became less and
less effective, escalating maintenance costs and requiring increased ef­
forts to sustain them (Winterwerp et al., 2020a). Results from the study
of bamboo fence implementation in the Chao Phraya Delta, Thailand,
indicate the diminishing effectiveness in trapping sediment over time
due to bamboo deterioration, typically occurring within four years
(Charoenlerkthawin et al., 2023). The bamboo fence demonstrated
efficient sediment trapping for only a couple of years before its
Fig. 9. (A) a failed bamboo project that deteriorated after a few years, (B) bamboo debris near a deteriorated fence, (C) shoreline covered with broken bamboo stems.
(D) Sharp-shelled mollusks on the lower parts of bamboo poles. All in Thailand. (Sources: Authors).
10
Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638
deterioration set in, underscoring the bamboo fences are neither durable
nor suitable for sustainable coastal protection (Fig. 9B). Despite the
promotion of bamboo fences as an environmentally friendly material
along many coastal areas in Thailand, unforeseen environmental im­
pacts became apparent after a few years of installation (Pranchai et al.,
2019b).
Bamboo fences cause substantial environmental over time. Once
detached from coastal fences, bamboo stems, buoyant due to their air-
filled cavities, could drift into mangrove forests during high tide,
causing severe damage to natural mangroves (Pranchai et al., 2019b).
Despite the well-acknowledged fact in Thailand, that coastal bamboo
structures contribute to debris, the harmful effects on mangrove forests
have not been recognized or investigated, exemplified by the absence of
an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirement for their con­
struction. As these structures break down, brushwood and bamboo parts
become debris that the responsible governmental body ignores
(Fig. 9 C). It is crucial to integrate debris management into maintenance
plans (Smith, 2012). In Chachoengsao Province, Thailand, the experi­
ence with bamboo fencing was not favorable; (a) the bamboo lasted for
two to three years, decomposing into debris, (b) this debris drifted,
obstructing navigation and damaging nearby geotube breakwaters, and
(c) part of the bamboo poles remained within the soil, causing harm to
local fishermen collecting cockles and krill (Pranchai et al., 2019a;
Saengsupavanich, 2013). Debris can also harm the stems of landward
mangrove vegetation, resulting in observable degradation of the sur­
rounding forest (Pranchai et al., 2019a). It is possible that forest decline
can affect mangroves further landward, reducing the already narrow
forested area. Any future sea-level rise will confront these
highly-stressed mangrove forests with additional stressors reducing
their ability to recover from temporary stress.
The social dangers associated with bamboo breakwaters, particularly
regarding swimmer safety, are significant and must be addressed. These
dangers are compounded by bamboo debris, which can drift into
swimming areas and create additional hazards. Swimmers may collide
with bamboo debris or submerged poles encrusted with sharp-shelled
mollusks (Fig. 9D), leading to severe injuries. Integrating debris man­
agement into maintenance plans is crucial to mitigate these risks (Smith,
2012). Since the involvement of coastal communities is an essential
component of any successful coastal protection (Saengsupavanich et al.,
2012; Saengsupavanich, 2020), any bamboo installation project should
consider whether local people are happy with the bamboo. There are
many instances in Thailand where local people strongly declined
bamboo fences because of their ineffectiveness and negative
C. Saengsupavanich et al.
environmental and social consequences. Moreover, comprehensive
safety assessments in pile breakwater projects are necessary, empha­
sizing clear signage, public awareness campaigns, and safety equipment
like life rings and ladders, alongside environmental and economic
evaluations. Given these challenges, it is recommended that the con­
struction of coastal bamboo structures include an environmental impact
assessment and a long-term maintenance plan. While bamboo fences
initially appear promising for mangrove regeneration, many docu­
mented environmental consequences necessitate careful planning.
5. Conclusion
This paper presents a comprehensive review of 48 peer-reviewed
articles from 2013 to 2024, focusing on utilizing piles for wave reduc­
tion and coastal protection. Using the PRISMA Framework 2020 and
Bibliometrix analyses in RStudio, we identified China, Vietnam, India,
Thailand, and Indonesia as the most common countries that have
implemented these structures. Initially, the research trend emphasized
piles as wave-damping measures, and later expanded to study wave
propagation and wave reflection for harbors and ports. Our analysis
categorizes wave protection structures into two types: (1) pile break­
waters and various breakwaters with loosely arranged multiple piles
featuring a wave-damping effect, and (2) soft coastal protection struc­
tures such as bamboo, melaleuca, and wooden fences.
Regarding pile breakwaters for ports, modified versions, particularly
the enlarged pile head breakwater or conical pile head breakwater
structures, stood out as the most published topic. These structures prove
superior to conventional breakwater types because they significantly
reduce wave transmission and reflection. When piles are used for coastal
protection, particularly bamboo fences, their efficacy in absorbing and
dissipating wave energy depends on the infills and the fence’s height.
However, researchers recently began to realize, and have published that
bamboo fences create harmful socio-environmental impacts that are the
result of bamboo’s poor durability. We critically recommend under­
taking an Environmental Impact Assessment for any kind of using piles
for coastal protection. What seems to be “soft” coastal protection mea­
sures may not always be “green”.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Vinsensia Ferren: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
draft, Visualization, Validation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data
curation. Cherdvong Saengsupavanich: Writing – review & editing,
Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Soft­
ware, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation,
Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
Effi Helmy Ariffin: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation,
Formal analysis, Data curation. Ikha Magdalena: Writing – review &
editing, Writing – original draft, Validation, Supervision, Methodology,
Formal analysis, Data curation. Sarinya Sanitwong-Na-Ayutthaya:
Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization,
Validation, Supervision, Software, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data
curation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data Availability
Data will be made available on request.
11
Regional Studies in Marine Science 77 (2024) 103638
Acknowledgements
The work was partially supported by Kasetsart University, Sri Racha
campus, and Cherdvong Saengsupavanich’s personal funds. The authors
also thank the support of Riset Kolaborasi Indonesia No. 1841/IT1.
B07.1/TA.00/2024.
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