ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to evaluate performance of some soybeans (glycine max (L.) genotypes
in Central Equatoria state, South Sudan. The field experiment was set up at the University Farm
during the rainy season of 2016 to 2017. Eighteen (18) genotypes of soybean including the local
variety were tested. The results of current study revealed that genotypes TGX 1987-62F (223.7),
Local Check 107 (201.9), TGX 2006-3F (201.8) and TGX 1485-1D (190.1) having best highest
yields. TGX 2011-7F recorded to have the heaviest 100% seed weight (16.26) while TGX 2010-
3F had the lowest one (7.72) among all genotypes. TGX 1148-2E (81.75), and TGX 2007-11F
(80.75) reached 50% days to flowering and TGX 2010-11F recorded at (56.25) as showed in (Table
4.5). Genotypes TGX 2007-11F and TGX 2008-2F (121) and TGX 2007-8F (120.5) were found to
have more 95% days to maturity unlike Local Check 107, TGX 2010-3F and 2011-3F (109) which
registered uniform days. TGX 2007-11F (13.92) have been noted with remarkable leave area while
TGX 2004-13F has lowest records. The highest leave area index has been observed in TGX 1485-
1D (73.88) while TGX 2004-3F (32.88) registered at bottommost level. TGX 2010-3F (60.12),
TGX 2004-13F (60.10) and TGX 1148-2E have had uniform leave area index among all genotypes.
TGX 2007-11F and TGX 2011-3F (16.25) as well as TGX 2010-11F were the best performers in
number of leaves, while recorded poor number of leaves in genotype TGX 2004-10F having only
(10.5). The tallest plant heights were found in TGX 2011-3F (68.5) and shortest being TGX 1987-
62F (42.50) respectively. TGX 1987-62F (223.7), Local Check 107 (201.9), TGX 2006-3F (201.8)
and TGX 1485-1D (190.1) have best highest yields compared with TGX 2010-3F (66.5) which
become the poorest genotypes and lower yielder. Hence more trials can be done in the region to
obtain sufficient seed, oil and protein yields. The income to be obtained from soybeans will be
much greater than the current income as the production still low. The parameters collected include,
100 seed weight, 50% days to flowering, 95% days to maturity, leaf area, leaf area index, number
of leaves, plant height and yield.

KEYWORDS: Soybeans, climate, Response, Crop Management, Adaptation, Yields and Planting
Pattern

1
 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is a non-native and non-staple oilseed crop in Sudan with
potential to be a commercial crop owing to its wide range of uses as food, feed, and industrial raw
material. The crop was introduced into Sudan in the 19th century by British colonists (Shurtleff
and Aoyagi 2009).

In the Sudan, soybean trials started as early as 1925 at Gezira Research Farm where a low yield
of 500 kg/ha was obtained. This low yield was attributed to lack of cultivars adaptable to the
Sudan agro-ecological conditions (Ngalamu et al., 2013). Thus, researchers at the stations were
reluctant to work on soybean. Nevertheless, in early 1980’s several attempts were made, one at
Agadi Experimental Farm where a yield of 500–1000 kg/ha was obtained. Furthermore, he
reported that in Damazin an area of 1260 hectares was used for commercial production, but the
crop failed to meet the desired objective of the project. Lack of adaptable cultivar to the Sudan
agro-ecological conditions has enormously contributed into the existing information gap on
association of traits with seed yield (Ngalamu et al., 2013).

However, of recent, work on the soybean has been revived which could be attributed to the
increasing utilization and universal importance of the crop. As a result, its introduction is expected
to contribute towards diversification of cash crops in the Sudan. Although research on soybean in
the Sudan started more than fifty years ago with introduction of genotypes from USA, there are
no released cultivars adapted to Sudanese local conditions (Ngalamu et al., 2012).

It is, therefore, worth noting that soybean is among the 16 major crops (barley, cassava,
groundnut, maize, millet, potato, oil palm, rapeseed, rice, rye, sorghum, soybean, sugar beet,
sugarcane, sunflower, and wheat) cultivated worldwide (Foley et al., 2011). Thus, policymakers
and land managers must improve soybean research (Masuda & Goldsmith, 2009).

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1.2 Problem statement

Developing countries have all been propagating an aspect of crop diversification that strengthens
the fall-back strategies of the vulnerable members of the communities especially those in rural
areas. Moreover, the high demand for soybean production has been due to the presence of important
food supplements in soybeans and the growing consumption. The crop is increasingly becoming
an important crop in South Sudan. There are attempts by academic research institutions like
University of Juba in conducting researches or trials to have the recommended improve soybean
genotypes. However, there are no improved soybean varieties under production in comparison with
other crops and as such production of the crop is still very low. The lack of improved traits used by
farmers have been a challenge; therefore, justifies the need for deliberate involvement of research
institutions, students, farmers and other end-users in variety selection and evaluation.

Although South Sudan has great potential for growing soybeans, unavailability of improved
varieties, processing and utilization technology, guaranteed markets and lack of technical knowhow
were the main constraints hindering commercialization and expansion of soybean production. In
addition, soybean is considered one of the most promising crops which could be introduced into
rainfed and irrigated areas to increase human nutrition and improve soil fertility. A key factor for
successful introduction and promotion of commercial soybean production in irrigated and rainfed
farming is implementation of broad-based research to develop improved variety and suitable
agronomic practices. A field trial was conducted for two consecutive seasons (2016 and 2017), at
the University of Juba to evaluate performance of some soybean’s genotypes for the purpose to
identify superior varieties that are adaptable in Central Equatoria, South Sudan.

In view of this, the purpose of this study was to identify high yielding soybean varieties that are
adaptable and perform well to different climatic conditions of the country.

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1.3 Justification of the study

In South Sudan, several improved soybean genotypes are to be developed with numerous desirable
traits in an effort to boost production. Eighteen soybeans genotypes including Local Check (107)
were tried at University of Juba (CNRES, 2016). Therefore, there is need to establish background
information on these desired traits. It is very important to assess whether the new genotypes are
compatible with trade standards or requirements by other end-users.

Data collected also helped in identification of entries that are superior to existing ones, measure the
stability of performance across sites and to establish the area of adaptation in which the cultivar
will be recommended for cultivation. It is on this idea that some of the soybean genotypes were
tested in different cropping seasons in South Sudan (Ngalamu et al 2013). Therefore,
recommendable approach was to conduct research and to improve chances of widespread
technology.

1.4 Study objectives

The main objectives of this study were to:

1. evaluate performance of some soybean genotypes in Central Equatoria state,

2. identify early and late maturing genotypes that could be adapted for use in South Sudan,
3. select the high yielding genotypes that could be recommended for release to farmers.

1.5 Hypothesis

1. What are the best performing soybean genotypes in Central Equatoria State?

2. What are the identified early and late maturing genotypes that could be suitable for farming?

3. What are the recommended high yielding genotypes recommended for release to farmers?

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 CHAPTER TWO

2. Literature Review

2.1 Origin of soybean

Soybean (Glycine max [L] Merrill) is a legume that grows in tropical, subtropical and temperate
climates (IITA, 2009). It was originally domesticated in China, with about 23,000 cultivars in Asia, and
were subsequently introduced into the USA and Brazil (López-López et al., 2010). The crop is an
important legume with multifarious uses. Its cost effectiveness is ensured through its biological nitrogen
fixation and in rotation with exhaustive crops such as maize and sorghum; it helps in replenishing and
maintaining the soil fertility. It provides a large amount of edible vegetable oil as well as soybean cake
and meal which are high protein supplements in mixed feed rations for livestock (Ngalamu et al. 2012).

Soybean is the most dominant source of protein in livestock feeds throughout the world. It could provide
up to 440 to 4,809 kg crude protein per ton, providing high quality and highly digestible protein (FAO,
2006). It contains the required limiting amino acid lysine – an essential amino acid (EAA) - that most
other legumes lack. However, soybean has trypsin inhibitor but this can be destroyed through
systematic application of heat. Soybean is important because of its nutritional qualities. It has high
percentage of high quality and cheap protein and is a rich source of edible oil. Soybean contains up to
45% protein and 23% oil and can be more widely utilized than most of the food legumes. It is used as
human food, for livestock feeds, as oil and for various industrial purposes (Myaka et al., 2005). Soybean
is a major source of a protein in human food and animal feeds in developed countries. Soybean can
contribute to poverty reduction and the eradication of malnutrition among children and expecting
mothers (Myaka et al., 2005). Azhari (1987) reported that soybean contains 20 to 22% of essential
amino acids, and 40% of protein. The study by Malik et al., (2006) revealed that soybean contains 18-
22% oil which comprises of 85% cholesterol free unsaturated fatty acids in comparison to conventional
vegetable and animal fats. Soybean also has many food and industrial uses. Soy food has been reported
to provide protection against heart disease, cancer and other diseases (Carter and Wilson 1987). Owing
to its nutritional value there is a growing demand for soy foods such as soymilk, several types of tofu,
soybean sprouts, soy nuts, cottage cheese like soybean curd rich in protein, and various vitamins and
minerals (Rao et al., 2002).

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2.2 History and current status

Soybean has a relatively brief history of introduction and commercial cultivation in Sudan (Khojely et
al. 2018). It was first introduced to Sudan in 1910 by the colonial Garden (Shurtleff and Aoyagi 2009;
Ibrahim 2012a). Further introductions in the country were made in 1912, and in 1949, soybean was
planted in southwest Sudan to prevent severe malnutrition among infants, children, and pregnant and
lactating women (Khojely et al. 2018). Additionally, soybean introductions were continued (Ibrahim et
al. 2017) with special efforts to encourage soybean cultivation in Sudan. Field studies indicated that
the introduced tropical soybeans were highly adapted to Sudan's agro-environmental conditions,
whereas the temperate germplasm flowered too early under short-day conditions in Sudan, resulting in
poor vegetative growth, short plant height, and low yield (Ibrahim 2012).

In 1982 Sudanese-Egyptian Integration Agricultural Scheme initiated a 2-year commercial soybean

production project in Blue Nile State, Damazin. The area planted to soybeans is 2100 ha. Although
Sudan has great potential for growing soybeans, unavailability of improved varieties, processing and
utilization technology, guaranteed markets and lack of technical knowhow were the main constraints
hindering commercialization and expansion of soybean production during this period. Sudan has
recently experienced sizeable commercial soybean expansion. Gezira, Blue Nile, White Nile, Upper
Nile, Gadarief and Khartoum are the leading soybean-producing states in Sudan (Ngalamu et al., 2012).
The reasons behind the current successful soybean production in Sudan include (a) governmental
policies to produce food locally rather than depending on imports; (b) progress in research to improve
varieties and practices adapted to a wide range of agro-climatic zones; (c) willingness of local farmers
and private practitioners to introduce soybean in irrigated and rainfed farming systems; and (d)
promotion of soybean production and utilization by organizations, agricultural development projects,
and local governments(Ngalamu et al., 2012).

In 1949 soybean was introduced into South-West Sudan to prevent the severe malnutrition that exists
among infants, children, pregnant and lactating women. Research on soybean in Sudan started as early
as 1930. Soybean varieties were tested at Gezira Research Station, Wad Medani, central Sudan,
between 1973 and 1977 (Salih 1977). International Soybean Variety Evaluation Experiment (ISVEX)
trials were conducted at Wad Medani, Abu Naama and Kadugli during 1977-1984. Results of field
trials indicated that Sudan has great potential for growing soybeans as irrigated and rainfed crop
(Ngalamu et al., 2012).

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Recently, the ongoing soybean research program at the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) is
currently focusing on developing improved soybeans varieties and suitable agronomic practices
(Ibrahim 2011). Soybean varieties introduced from USA and International Institute of Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria were tested at multi-locations over many years. The results of variety and
on-farm trials show that grain yields of over 2.5 ton/ha could be obtained under irrigated conditions.

2.3 Soybean production at Global Level

The world soybean production was projected at 311.1 million metric tons in 2020 and 371.3 million
metric tons in 2030. The annual growth rates are 2.9% from 2005–07 to 2010 and were projected to be
2.5% from 2010 to 2020, and 1.8% from 2020 to 2030. The United States of America, Brazil, and
Argentina are the top largest producers of soybean in the world (Masuda & Goldsmith, 2009).
Generally, the term soybean refers to the bean from which soy sauce is manufactured.

Southern Africa, in particular, is prone to frequent droughts and uneven rainfall distribution in both
time and space (Kinuthia, 1997), hence, considering the frequent occurrence of droughts in the region,
it makes the production of soybean feasible due to its resilience levels. Thus, in some years, the
contribution of agriculture to food security and national economies in this region is reduced due to these
climatic factors. Like many other parts of the world, the climate of southern Africa is also highly
variable and unpredictable.

Soybeans production is one of the worlds’ booming industries with an increase of 200 million tons in
global consumption since the 1970s (Garrett et al., 2013). Climatic extremes including droughts and
floods characterize the climate of the region and these often result in poor crop yields, hence, the need
for drought resistance crops (Martin et al., 2000).

Nevertheless, fifty years ago, soybean was a niche crop that lacked processing and consumer markets
and it was underutilized. Despite it being underutilized in the past, the crop has increased to about 13‐
fold in global production since 1961 to over 340 million metric tonnes (MMT) in 2016
(FAOSTAT, 2017). And today, soybean production is one of the most important crops across the globe,
even though SSA countries have not fully realized the benefits of soybean compared to the developed
world. Generally, currently, soybean importation and exportation values have outstripped major crops
like wheat and rice even without the inclusion of soybean oil or other processed forms. The ever-
increasing demand for soybean in Africa was an increase in the land dedicated to soybean cultivation
in 2016 exceeding 1.5 million hectares. The development of new rust‐resistant varieties and high‐
7
yielding lines that have adapted to production in African climates now faces a sellers’ market. This is
more so, for soybean oil for cooking and high‐protein meal cake, which is a much sought‐after
ingredient in poultry and other animal feeds (Ncube, Roberts, & Zengeni, 2016).

The world at the moment and especially the developing countries needs effective adaptation actions to
mitigate the harmful impacts of climate change and enhance the livelihoods of the vulnerable members
of the communities. Climate change has the potential to allow a significant increase in soybean
production in Africa, irrespective of which production scenario becomes reality in the future (Fodor et
al., 2017). The increasing demand for soybean production in recent years has made the crop to be
regarded as Africa’s Cinderella crop (Kolapo, 2011).

Masuda and Goldsmith (2009) estimated that the yearly production of soybean will be at 2.2% and
approach a yearly production of 371.3 million tons by 2030. Also, Masuda and Goldsmith projected
that the production and area harvested of soybean worldwide is going to increase due to the increasing
demand for soybean products.

2.4 Soybean production in Africa

Even though, soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is one of the most feasible legumes in the prevailing
climates in Africa, the crop is a non-native and non-staple crop in SSA. Although it is a non-staple crop
in Africa, it has the potential to become a commercial crop owing to its wide range of uses as food,
feed, and industrial raw material. Soybean has a relatively brief history of introduction and commercial
cultivation in SSA countries (Mpepereki et al., 2000). It was introduced to SSA in the 19th century by
Chinese traders along the east coast of Africa (Giller & Dashiell, 2006). Until now, the production
potential has not been reached yet by the majority of African countries despite the environmental
conduciveness.

The soybean area has expanded recently in Eastern and Southern Africa and this is expected to continue
to do so because of the increased demand for soybean products. If soybean is a relatively simple crop
to grow with a short growing season, it, therefore, means that room for yield improvement exists.
Especially in most East and Southern African areas where the crop has the potential to be an important
and viable crop for the small-scale farmers who are the most vulnerable members of the communities
(Sinclair et al., 2014).

8
With the enormous impacts of climate change on rural farmers in developing countries, soybean
production has the potential of enhancing their income levels through trade within and amongst the
farmers. This trade is helping farmers to adapt to the ever-changing climate. The trade-in soybeans, as
an important animal feed product, exemplifies the environmental and socio-economic impact of global
markets and global agricultural policy. Soybean has the potential of expanding trade amongst farmers
in their rural setups in the form of butter systems in ensuring food availability. That is if most farmers
are to fully focus on the production of soybean in its entirety (comparative advantage), then the local
demand by other farmers offers the opportunity for trading amongst and within themselves. But at
another stage, there is an increasing demand for soybean products globally and this offers a feasible
market to the producers of soybean. Nevertheless, the success of soybean lies within its multiple usages:
soybeans can be used in food products (for example, tofu, soybean sauce), an edible vegetable oil,
biofuel, and most importantly, its meal can be used as a protein source in livestock feeds (Garrett et
al., 2013).

Within the last decade, huge investments and research on soybean has been carried out in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Between 2005 and 2008 through the support of Rockefeller Foundation,
TSBF-CIAT introduced farmers to soybean agronomy, value addition and marketing in
Eastern and Southern Africa. Through this program, over 20,000 ha of land in these regions
were put under soybean and more than 10,000 poor households trained on soybean
agronomy, utilization, health benefits, value addition and marketing (Chianu et al., 2008).

2.5 Importance of Soybeans

Small-scale farmers in Africa could earn a lot of benefits from growing soybeans as soy constitutes one
of the largest sources of vegetable oil and animal protein feed in the world (Sugiyama et al., 2015). It
has the highest protein content for the human diet (40–42%) of all other food crops and is second only
to groundnut concerning the oil content (18–22%) among food legumes (Masuda & Goldsmith, 2009;
Robert, 1986). Moreover, obesity and muscle fatigue can be prevented by soy protein (Agyei et
al., 2015).

For example, South Africa and Nigeria currently dominate soybean production in Africa, comprising
70% of the total output in 2014 yet, these countries are still not meeting the local demand for soybeans
(Akibode & Maredia, 2012). Another opportunity for exploring soy production lies in the ever-
increasing demand for soybean cake for animal feed, as a consequence of the growth in the middle‐

9
class population in South Africa and other neighbouring countries (Bureau for Food and Agricultural
Policy, 2017). The production from South Africa alone cannot meet the local market demand and
currently, the production in South Africa is only 30% of crushing capacity to about approximately 2
MMT, with total demand at 3.5 MMT. Also, the recent rapid growth in the production of soybean in
Malawi and Zambia shows the geographic expansion and diversification of farming systems in the
region since the turn of the century (Akibode & Maredia, 2012).

Crops like soybeans when looked at in a short term, can be considered the best crop for adapting to
climate change due to the available market for the farmers. Moreover, in terms of nitrogen-fixing levels
in the soil, the crop can be a good legume for mitigating environmental degradation in developing
countries especially amongst rural farmers with smaller hectares of land for production. The majority
of these small-scale farmers plant their crops year in year out on the same land resulting in soil
degradation. Mitigation is necessary because even the most effective adaptation efforts will not be able
to counteract all the negative effects of climate change if greenhouse gas concentrations increase
beyond a certain level (IPCC, 2014a). Adaptation is necessary because the planet will continue to warm
up for centuries unless current net Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions are quickly replaced with net
sequestration over a sustained period (IPCC, 2014a).

When describing adaptations in crop production, some authors such as Easterling (1996) have
distinguished between long-term major changes, which they define as adaptations, and short-term,
minor changes, which they define as adjustments. In this nomenclature system, adaptations are changes
that transform crop production systems and require new research, technologies, market mechanisms,
or government policies, including the introduction of new crops, the translocation of crops, and resource
substitution (Easterling, 1996).

Largely, soybeans production worldwide has been considered one of the legumes that can enhance soil
fertility and at the same time enhance the livelihoods of the farmers. Interest in the impact of agriculture
on soil structure or changing soil species in-habitats has increased (Pagano et al., 2011; Wall &
Nielsen, 2012). Amongst, the many legumes known by farmers, soybean affects different aspects of
the ecosystem including the soil microbes. Accordingly, concerning the high cultivation of soybean
crop world-wide, some of the most important parameters related to the production of soybean are
presented among which the soil biota including rhizobia and mycorrhizal fungi are of great significance.

10
Furthermore, Siamabele (2019) showed how the production of soybeans has the potential in alleviating
poverty among rural farmers as the crop is referred to as one of the miracle crops which provide cheap
and affordable quality oil and vegetable protein. This makes the crop a good adaptation option for
small-scale farmers whose income levels are not only low but weak to find other survival strategies
when faced with climate changes. Soybeans are classified under the oilseed category of edible oil which
is produced in large quantities. The crop embraces diverse climatic conditions and different types of
soil making it a versatile crop, something not common in many traditional crops like maize, cotton, and
sorghum to mention a few. Even though SSA has conducive environmental conditions for the
production of soybean, the crop can withstand drought to some extent compared to traditional crops but
it is somehow weak to flooding stress (Hou & Thseng, 1991).

2.6 Soybeans Seed Storage

Storage conditions and duration are important factors affecting germination parameters.

Seed vigor is used as a measure of accumulated damage in seed as viability declines. Preservation of
seed viability depended on storage condition and duration (Balesevic et al 2010). The decline of
germination is much more acute under tropical conditions. These environmental conditions make very
difficult to maintain its viability during storage (Shelar VR, Shaikh RS, Nikam AS, 2008). Seed
deteriorated during storage is one of the basic reasons for low productivity in soybean. Changes that
occur in seed during ageing are significant in terms of seed quality among other things, also implies
seed longevity (Milošević M et al., 2004). Different periods of seed storage, as well as ageing
conditions adversely affected the seed vigour (Tatic M. et al., 2012). Arif et al.,2006 concluded that
seed viability gradually decreased from 64.5 to 39.2% as the time of storage increased, from 2 to 12
months. Changes occurring in seed during ageing are very significant with regard to quality and
longevity of seed. Seed composition characteristics of oily plants are related to specific processes
occurring in seed during storage (Ghasemnezhad A, Honermeier B. 2007).

The soybean seed generally deteriorated with storage and deterioration was particularly strong for
grains stored with initial moisture contents of 12.8 and 14.8 % at 40ºC. The grains stored with initial
moisture contents of 14.8 % at 30 and 40ºC were classified as out of market standard after 135 and 90
days respectively [6]. Differences in oil percentage that affected by storage longevity were significant
among tested crops and genotypes. Storage longevity was negatively associated with oil content. At
storage conditions at 12ºC/60%, decreasing of seed oil content than in storage conditions at 25ºC/75%

11
(Simic B et al., 2006). In addition, Milošević M et al., 2004) and (Balesevic et al 2010) showed that
preservation of seed viability depended on storage condition and duration (Khaliliaqdam et al., 2012)
suggested that variations occurred with the viability constants of a seed deterioration model between
the soybean cultivars. Different periods of seed storage, as well as storage conditions adversely affected
the seed vigor Khaliliaqdam et al., (2012).

Regarding to storage materials, (Padma V, Muralimohan Reddy B. 2001) stated that storability of
soybean cultivars could be enhanced by four months after storing seed in polythene bag compared to
cloth bag. Singh et al. (2003) reported that soybean seeds stored in cloth bag maintained satisfactory
germination only for 4 months of storage. Wheat seed stored in gunny, cloth and plastic bags were in
good moisture content levels and recorded higher germination percentage in comparison with those
stored in metal and earthen bins (Chattha et al., 2012). Sorghum seeds stored inside gene bank and
freezer irrespective of the packaging materials and type of accession retain their viability to the tune of
90.67 to 100%

2.7 Soybean varietal selection and evaluation

The ultimate goal of selection is to increase genetic gain and/or shift the population mean.
Yield, resistance or tolerance to pests and diseases, standability and maturity are attributes
normally considered when selecting the best adapted varieties (Staton and Thelen, 2009).
Rouse (2007) described variety selection as prediction of lines which will do best in the
future as opposed to identifying which lines did best over the past year. For this purpose,
many desired attributes and the effects of the environment are therefore considered in the
selection process.

Yield is the most important characteristic to look for in potentially successful varieties
(Helsel and Minor, 1993; Staton and Thelen, 2009). However, is determined by many
underlying genetic and environmental characteristics together with their interactions (Elings,
1999). Genotypes which perform well in different environments are preferred over varieties
which only respond well in an environment which favors that genotype (Klein et al., 2004).
Since the relative performance of different varieties can vary from year to year depending
on weather and management, Rouse (2007) recommended that yield trial data should be used
to make variety selections only if it includes regional yield averages.

12
Varieties could be desired and maintained for other reasons than yield or yield related
characteristics. The main feature of traditional varieties in comparison with modern varieties
is their better compatibility with local farming systems and social economic structures which
reflects in specific characteristics (Elings, 1999). Other criteria such as double cropping,
crop use, varietal purity, shattering resistance, seed cost and seed quality have been
considered in variety selection (Helsel and Minor, 1993). A combination of all varietal
characteristics will determine the overall suitability of a genotype (Elings, 1999), and a
research approach that brings out these other attributes should be adopted.

2.8 Significance of environment on soybean performance

Ideally, plant breeder would prefer identifying and/or selecting varieties that are adapted to
a wide range of target environments. Therefore, understanding and predicting of crop
response to environment is very important. An ideal variety should have a high mean yield
combined with a low degree of fluctuation when grown over diverse environments.
Genotype – environment interaction (GEI) in varieties is the differential response of
genotypes to changing environmental conditions (Ngalamu et al; 2012).

2.9 Soybean agronomic practices

The agronomic practices of soybean are best optimized when a systematic approach to
management is utilized with the understanding of soil types, climate conditions, pest
concentrates, fertility requirements, and equipment capacities for a producer’s operation.
Producers can only plan ahead for, or react to, the conditions they have for many of these
factors. However, the agronomic factors most easily controlled by the grower include when
the crop is planted, how many seeds are planted, and in what row spacing, or arrangement,
the seeds are placed. A review of literature for these agronomic factors follows (MSU
extension paper, 2012).

2.9.1 Planting date

Regardless of other advancements in soybean production in the last 50 years, planting date
still has significant and varying effects on soybean yield from year to year (Egli and
Cornelius, 2009). Concerns with planting soybean too early include cold and wet soils which
have the potential to delay emergence (Major et al., 1975), reduce plant stands (Oplinger
and Philbrook, 1992), and cause poor seedling health (Hamman et al., 2002). Cartter and
13
Hartwig (1963) stated that no single cultural factor was more important to soybean
production than planting date.

Mooers (1908) in their work on early planting date for soybean, as a grain and forage, done
in Knoxville, TN in 1907 and 1908, contradicts that planting around the first week of June
returned the most favorable grain yields. Moreover, planting soybeans too early, such as
early-April, or too late, such as July can result in premature flowering as a result of
inadequate photoperiod (Board and Hall, 1983). On the other hand, delayed planting tends
to reduce the number of days from emergence to flowering (Pedersen and Lauer, 2004a),
push both vegetative and reproductive growth into less favorable environmental conditions
(Egli and Bruening, 2000; Egli and Cornelius, 2009), and ultimately reduce yield potential
by reducing season length. While many studies focus on calendar date, Hoeft et al. (2000)
recommended to not begin planting soybeans before soil temperature reaches 10° C or above
regardless of calendar date.

For many years it was generally accepted that soybean yield could be maximized when
planted during the month of May in the Corn Belt. This historical view was supported by
Egli and Cornelius (2009). Additional research in Iowa was conducted from 2003 to 2006
across 13 environments; target planting dates were the fourth week of April, the second week
of May, the fourth week of May, and the second week of June. There was no yield difference
in planting in late-April versus early-May. Yield reductions of 130 kg haˉ¹ wkˉ¹ began when
planting was delayed between early- and late-May. Yield reductions reached 404 kg ha-1 wk-
1
when planting was delayed from late-May through early-June. According to their research,
April planting does not influence plant establishment, and in order to achieve maximum
yield in most parts of Iowa, planting between late-April and early-May is necessary (De
Bruin and Pedersen, 2008a).

In summary, producers have a relatively broad window to complete planting before yield is
significantly affected. According to the literature, high yields can be achieved in the Midwest
by planting in late-April or early-May (De Bruin and Pedersen, 2008; Pedersen and Lauer,
2004b; Robinson et al., 2009), or from early-May to late-May (Beaver and Johnson, 1981;
Egli and Cornelius, 2009; Elmore, 1990). Ultimately, soybean yield decreases most rapidly
when planting is delayed beyond the end of May (Beaver and Johnson, 1981; De Bruin and

14
Pedersen, 2008; Egli and Cornelius, 1990; Elmore, 1990; Pedersen and Lauer, 2004b;
Robinson et al., 2009).

However, one could also hypothesize newer cultivars have become more responsive to
earlier planting dates as more-recent data describes (De Bruin and Pedersen, 2008; Pedersen
and Lauer, 2004b; Robinson et al., 2009), compared to earlier work (Beaver and Johnson,
1981; Egli and Cornelius, 2009; Elmore, 1990).

Early plantings often yield more than later plantings and investigations into yield
components have been conducted to determine how early planted soybean increase yield.
Early planting has been observed to have more nodes (Wilcox and Frankenberger, 1987;
Beaver and Johnson, 1981) as well as more pods and seeds for a given area (Pedersen and
Lauer, 2004) which can in result in high yield (Robinson et al., 2009). Soybean plants
sometimes partially compensate for delayed planting with increases in seed mass (Robinson
et al., 2009), but this doesn’t always occur (Pedersen and Lauer, 2004; De Bruin and
Pedersen, 2008b).

Across years, soybean yields have shown to improve with early May planting. The yield
gain from planting date is dependent upon the cultivar chosen as well as the environmental
effects of location and weather (Lueschen et al., 1992; De Bruin and Pedersen, 2008b). There
is greater yield gain when longer season varieties are used with early planting practices.
Weather can have a significant impact upon yield regardless of planting date, but early
planted soybean can be especially sensitive to the impact of weather on seedbed conditions.
This impact is likely more important in April than May because cold spells and rain are more
likely to create adverse operating conditions for machinery as well as inhibit the growth and
emergence of soybean. Besides planting too early, it is also important for farmers to note
that planting after mid-May in the Midwest can cause progressively lower yields (rapid
decline) (De Bruin and Pedersen, 2008b; Egli and Cornelius, 2009).

2.9.2 Soil conservation and soil fertility management

Sole cropping systems of legumes crops, appears to be nutrients recycler to soil because of
its better soil cover. In addition of canopy growth, recycle available nutrients and holds water
due its nearness of leaves to the ground other (Siddoway and Bamet, 1983; Francis, 1986;
Willem, 1990). Besides the improvement of soil fertility, legumes increase protection of the

15
ground against sunlight and impact of high-intensity raindrops, so that erosion is impeded
(SPORE, 1988; Humphrey, 1994). Legumes ameliorate soil fertility through the fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen. Even with the best yielding varieties, soils in Sub-Saharan Africa
(SSA) cannot support optimal soybean yields without soil fertility amendment. A range of
studies have shown that soybeans will perform well in soils with pH of between 5.5 and 7.0
and that correction for soil pH could improve crop response to P and K by over 30%.
Soybeans are more sensitive to high levels of soil acidity than most other field crops. The
optimum pH for soybeans on sandy and clay-textured soils ranges from 5.8 to 6.2. Yields on
mineral soils decrease as soil pH decreases below pH 5.5. For organic soils, optimum
soybean yields can be achieved at pH 5.0 (IPNI, 1999)

2.9.3 Challenges

Despite having made some rapid strides for research, soybean still suffers on productivity
front. There are a number of challenges, pertaining to climate, edaphic, production, and
technology aspects hindering higher productivity.

i. Soil moisture stress at critical growth stages, especially seed-filling stage.

ii. Limited number of improved varieties.
iii. Lack of access to high quality seed, inputs, and technology.
iv. Limited mechanization.
v. Poor adoption of improved production technology.
vi. Unavailability of appropriate processing, and utilization technologies.
vii. Lack of awareness about health/nutritional benefits.

2.9.4 Future prospects

South Sudan is a country with grim protein deficiency among infants, children, and pregnant and
lactating women, partially because starchy foods are widely consumed and animal protein often is
too expensive and out of reach for low-income families. Increases in protein production are needed
in South Sudan to address the challenges of food security by increasing income and improving
human nutrition at the household level.
To fill the gap between the demand and supply of food, especially protein, growing
soybean as a commercial crop in South Sudan is an ideal solution. In addition, soybean

16
 has the capacity to fix nitrogen even with native Brady rhizobium strains and fits well
into current crop rotations in irrigated, rainfed and sugarcane farming systems.

Since exports of high-protein feed ingredients are already an important source of foreign
exchange earnings to the country, this crop may also have special importance in future
economic planning in Sudan. The scaling up of soybean production and utilization in
Sudan can be further promoted through strengthening the entire soybean value chain and
networking research scientists, policy makers, extension services, non-governmental
organizations, and public and private breeders.

2.9.5 Recommendations

The expansion of soybeans in South Sudan will be the first milestone to farmers to ensure
sustainable development in the region. The research carried out was to evaluate performance of
some soybeans genotypes for the purpose to identify superior varieties. From the findings, it
showed that the crop, soybeans can do well in the soils of South Sudan. But the production has not
reached a higher level due to some factors.

To improve productivity, the following recommendations must be considered;

i. Improving productivity of soybean through development of new gene technologies.

ii. Enhancing and enriching the gene pool to broaden the selection pool along with gene flagging
to assign the worth to our genetic wealth.
iii. Development of new varieties that would fit into futuristic crop management regimes and can
harness the opportunities created by shift in weather patterns.
iv. Exploitation of heterotic vigor to create an opportunity window for development of hybrids for
further increasing the yield potential.
v. Exploitation of new biotechnological tools in exercising efficient selection in reduced time
frame.
vi. Development of varieties with efficient extraction metabolism to assimilate ever limiting
phosphorous and zinc availability.
vii. Breeding varieties that could cope with abiotic stresses like water deficit and excesses.

17
 Chapter Three

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field trial was conducted at the University of Juba Research Farm to evaluate
performance of some soybeans (Glycine max (L.) genotypes in Central Equatoria state.
University of Juba Research farm lies between latitude 4o 84354’N and longitude 31o
589’E. The experimental trial was carried out between 2016 and 2017 cropping season.
Sowing dates were 3rd September 2016 and 30th April, 2017. Eighteen genotypes of
soybean seeds of which seventeen varieties obtained from International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture (IITA, 2011) and a local check were used in the experiment:
TGx1485-1D (check early), TGx 2010-3F, TGx 1448-2E (check medium), TGx 2004-
10F, TGx 1987-62F (R check), TGx 2007-11F, TGx 2004-13F, TGx 2008-2F, TGx
2007-8F, TGx 2008-4F, TGx 2006-3F, TGx 2008-12F, TGx 2011-3F, TGx 2011-7F,
TGx 2010-15F, TGx 2004-3F,TGx 2010-12F and Local check (107).

3.1 Experimental design and layout

The design of the experiment was Randomized Complete Block Design divided into 2
blocks with each having 54 plots measuring (2.5 x 1.0) square meters. One plot size was
(2 x 1) square meters. 2 seeds planted per hole at the depth of 2 to 3 inches. During data
collection and harvesting, two rows (one from the left and one from the right) were
excluded to avoid border effects. Finally, the biomass and grain yields were converted
in to kg ha-1 base. Seeds were planted in furrows manually after all the stages of land
preparation, insect, disease, and weed control operations were carried out according to
the recommendations followed in the region.

3.2 Growth parameters

3.2.1 Plant height

Plant selected randomly from each plot at harvest stage, then a plant height (cm) was
measured using a tape measure from a point immediately above the soil surface to the
top of the plant and then the mean of height per plant was obtained from the average of
the single plants collected from each replicate. Three plants were selected randomly and

18
measured the height in centimeters using tape measure, equally mean was obtained the
same way.

3.2.2 Number of leaves

One plant was selected randomly from each plot at harvest stage from both treatments.
Number of leaves were counted from a point immediately above the soil surface to the
top of the plant and then the mean of number of leaves were obtained from the average
of the 3 plants collected from each replicate.

3.2.3 Leaf area (LA)

Leaf area is defined as the maximum width of the central leaflet of each leaf of the plants
tagged and were measured with a ruler. The leaf area estimated for each plant from the
empirical relationship (Lamauti, 1995)

LA=2.1371×(L1.9642)-2.7013. Where, LA is leaf area (cm2) and L is the maximum width

of the central leaflet of each leaf (cm).

3.2.4 Leaf area index (LAI)

At 50-days after sowing, 5 secured plants were taken randomly from outer ridges of each
sub-plot to determined leaf area index (LAI). Leaf area (LA) estimated via the disk
method according to Watson (1958) as following equation.

Unit leaf area per plant (cm2)

LAI = Plant ground area (cm2)

3.2.5 Days to 50% flowering (DAF)

Days to 50 percent flowering: measured as days from planting to when 50 percent of the
plants have attained 50 percent flowering within the pot.

3.2.6 Yield per plant

Number of pods per plant: all the matured pods per plant were harvested and physically
counted and average over three plants. Similarly, number of seeds per pod: the total
number of seeds in each pod was physically counted. (mention parameters measured and
analyzed).

19
3.4 Data collection and statistical analysis

All data collected were subjected to statistical analysis of variance following the
procedure described by Gomez and Gomez (1984) using SAS version 9.0 and mean
performance of genotypes were compared using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT)
by Ashraf (Ashraf MA, 2008). Each sowing date was considered as environment and the
genotype was considered as a fix effect while plots (main and sub-plots), and replications
as random effects. Correlation coefficient analysis was estimated using (Pearson’s
simple correlation) according to Fishers’ significance test using SAS [2000] package.

20
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Results and Discussions
4.1 Results
4.1.1 Combined analysis of variance for agronomic and yield traits
Combined ANOVA for the performance of 18 soybean genotypes across the two years [2016 and 2017)
obtained from this study are presented on (Table 4.1). Almost all traits showed in the table are highly
significant different between blocks except 50% days to flowering and plant yield that are not significant.
Only plant yield was significantly different among tested genotypes, while other traits were not significant
different at (P=0.05). The Association for performance of all tested soybeans genotypes across the two
years (year one and year two) period showed non-significant difference as indicated (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Combine ANOVA for Performance of 18 Soybeans Genotypes

Sum of Means Square explained
SOV DF %100 swt %50 fl %95 mat LA LAI NL Plh YI
BLK 17 16.521*** 192.1ns 88.3399*** 7.352*** 417.89*** 12.445*** 178.68** 5061ns.
Geno 1 2.561ns 4.5ns 0.0000ns 4.500ns 26.46ns 5.014ns 34.72ns 27047**.
Year 17 0.496ns 147.2ns 0.0000ns 0.349ns 4.07ns 0.955ns 7.79ns 817ns.
Residual 35 2.306 145.1 0.2222 1.581 66.92 1.709 80.75 3810
Total 71
*, **, *** Significantly different at 0.05,0.01 and 0.001 levels of probability, respectively, ns=Not Significant, SOV=Source of variation;
BLK=Block, Geno=Genotype; MS=Mean Square, DF=Degree of Freedom

The 100%seed weight, 95% days to maturity and the number of leaves showed highest significant
differences at (0.001) among all genotypes; while leave area and leave area index remained significantly
different (0.01) respectively. Only 50% days to flowering, plant height and plant yield was not significant
in year one (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2: Year 1 Performance of 18 Soybeans Genotypes
Sum of Means Square in Year 1
SOV DF %100 swt %50 fl %95 mat LA LAI NL Plh YI
**
BLK 1 59.47 0.85 0.1111 0.78 90.41 2.778 1 123150
Geno 17 7.953*** 158.6ns 44.1699*** 3.739** 229.47** 5.706*** 97.88ns 3349ns
Residual 17 1.619 141.8 0.2288 1.173 70.57 1.307 77.1 2976
Total 35
*, **, *** Significantly different at 0.05,0.01 and 0.001 levels of probability, respectively, ns=Not Significant, SOV=Source of
Variation; BLK=Block, Geno=Genotype; MS=Mean Square, DF=Degree of Freedom

21
The 95% days to maturity and number of leaves per plant turned to be highly significant at (0.001); while
100% seed weight and the leave area index become significant at (0.01) among the genotypes in year two
as shown in (Table 4.3). There was registered non-significant difference in 50% days to flowering, leave
area, plant height and plant yield in year two respectively. TGX 2011-7F recorded to have the heaviest
100% seed weight (16.26) while TGX 2010-3F had the lowest one (7.72) among all tested genotypes. TGX
1148-2E and TGX 2007-11F were identified to have reach 50% days to flowering at (81.75) and (80.75)
and TGX 2010-11F recorded at (56.25) as showed in (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Year 2 Performance of 18 Soybeans Genotypes

Sum of Means Square in Year 2
SOV DF %100 swt %50 fl %95 mat LA LAI NL Plh YI
BLK 1 57.633 312.1 0.1111 0 73.1 6.25 87.11 5.32
Geno 17 9.063** 180.7ns 44.1699*** 3.961ns 192.49** 7.694*** 88.59ns 2528ns
Residual 17 3.128 155.6 0.2288 2.058 67.18 2.191 87.11 3519
Total 35
*, **, *** Significantly different at 0.05,0.01 and 0.001 levels of probability, respectively, ns=Not Significant, SOV=Source of Variation;
BLK=Block, Geno=Genotype; MS=Mean Square, DF=Degree of Freedom

Genotypes TGX 2007-11F and TGX 2008-2F (121) and TGX 2007-8F (120.5) were found to have more
95% days to maturity unlike Local Check 107, TGX 2010-3F and 2011-3F (109) which registered uniform
days. TGX 2007-11F (13.92) have been noted with remarkable leave area while TGX 2004-13F has lowest
records.
The highest leave area index has been observed in TGX 1485-1D (73.88) while TGX 2004-3F (32.88)
registered at bottommost level. TGX 2010-3F (60.12), TGX 2004-13F (60.10) and TGX 1148-2E have had
uniform Leave area index among all genotypes (Table 5).
TGX 2007-11F and TGX 2011-3F (16.25) as well as TGX 2010-11F were the best performers in number
of leaves, while recorded poor number of leaves in genotype TGX 2004-10F having only (10.5).

The tallest plant heights were found in TGX 2011-3F (68.5) and shortest being TGX 1987-62F (42.50)
respectively. In terms of yield performance TGX 1987-62F (223.7), Local Check 107 (201.9), TGX 2006-
3F (201.8) and TGX 1485-1D (190.1) have best highest yields compared with TGX 2010-3F (66.5) which
become the poorest genotypes with lowest yield (Table 4.4).

22
 Table 4.4: Performance of 18 soybean genotypes
Means
Geno %100 swt %50 fl %95 mat LA LAI NL Plh YI
TGX 2011-7F 16.26a 75.75abc 118d 11.52bcdef 43.76cdef 11.5ghi 52.5bcd 168.3ab
TGX 2010-12F 15.1ab 77.25ab 119bc 10.02def 41.88def 11hi 50.75bcd 140.2ab
TGX 2004-3F 14.87ab 70.25abc 111h 9.87def 32.88f 13.25defg 46.5bcd 137.8ab
TGX 2006-3F 14.46abc 74.5abc 113g 13.1ab 40def 12fghi 55abcd 201.8a
Local 107 14.01abcd 68.75abc 109j 11.97abcd 52.25bcd 12.75efgh 58.5abc 201.9a
TGX 1987-62F 13.74bcd 75.5abc 115f 9.97def 36.38ef 13.25defg 42.5d 223.7a
TGX 2004-10F 13.5bcd 78ab 117e 10.85cdef 49.25bcde 10.5i 50.25bcd 128.4ab
TGX 2010-11F 13.43bcd 56.25c 119bc 10.15def 50.25bcd 16b 50bcd 161.7ab
TGX 2007-11F 13.11bcd 80.75a 121a 13.92a 52.38bcd 16.25a 57.88abcd 144.9ab
TGX 1485-1D 13.06bcd 70abc 109.5ij 9.65ef 73.88a 13.75cdef 48.25bcd 190.1a
TGX 2010-15F 13.01bcd 77.5ab 119.5b 9.92def 41.4def 14.25abcde 60.5ab 129.2ab
TGX 2007-8F 12.9bcd 79.5ab 120.5a 12.92ab 56.62bc 14bcdef 60.5ab 166.8ab
TGX 2011-3F 11.96cd 69abc 109j 10.4cdef 41.03def 16.25a 68.5a 156.4ab
TGX 1148-2E 11.75d 81.75a 118.5cd 11.55bcde 59.75b 14.25abcde 56.5abcd 130.8ab
TGX 2008-2F 11.66d 59.75bc 121a 12.27abc 47.83bcde 13defgh 47.25bcd 161.2ab
TGX 2008-4F 11.62d 76.25abc 119bc 11.4bcdef 45.5cdef 12.25efghi 48.62bcd 175.6a
TGX 2004-13F 9.32e 68abc 110i 9.4f 60.1b 15.5abc 55.5abcd 148.6ab
TGX 2010-3F 7.72e 68.75abc 109j 9.82ef 60.12b 15abcd 44cd 66.5b
Means followed by the same letters do not differ significantly

4.1.2 Correlation coefficients

Correlation coefficient measured among traits presented on (Table 4.4) showed that plant 100% seed
weight had strong significant correlation with yield. It had weak association with 50% days to flowering,
95% days to maturity and leave area but had non-significant correlation with all the other traits. The
negative correlations were observed in leaf area index, number of leaves and plant height respectively.
The 100% seed weight was non-significantly correlated with number of days to 50% flowering, 95%
days to maturity, and leaf area and had very weak association with 95% maturity, 50% flowering and
leave area. The number of 50% days to flowering had also no correlation with 95% days to maturity,
leave area, plant height and yield. It had a negative correlation with leave area index and number of
leaves in a plant. Number of 95% days to maturity were not correlated with leaf area and plant height
had a strong negative association with leaf area index, number of leaves and seed yield. The leaf area
was non-significant with all traits as it showed no correlations. The leaf area index was not correlated
with number of leaves per plant and negatively correlated with plant height and yield. The number of

23
 leaves was positively associated with plant height and negatively associated with yield. The plant height
had no correlation with yields (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5: Correlation coefficients among 18 soybeans genotypes in Central Equatoria state
%100 swt(g) %50 fl %95 mat LA (cm) LAI NL Plh(cm) YI
%100swt 1 -
%50%fl 2 0.234 -
%95%mat 3 0.2008 0.16 -
LA 4 0.1079 0.0915 0.2241 -
LAI 5 -0.4032 -0.0781 -0.1378 0.0132 -
NL 6 -0.4569 -0.1696 -0.1425 0.0688 0.1847 -
Plh 7 -0.0907 0.0223 0.001 0.2508 -0.0056 0.4215 -
Yl 8 0.6197** 0.1277 -0.0258 0.1381 -0.2025 -0.1448 0.0264
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
**: Significant at P≤0.01 level *: Significant at P≤0.05 level ns: Not Significant
Key: -SWT= 100 Seed Weight, FL=Flowering, Mat=Maturity, LA=Leaf Area, LAI=Leaf Area Index, NL=Number of Leaves, Plh=Plant height,
and YI=Seed Yield

24
4.2 Discussions
The combined means square for the performance of 18 soybean genotypes across the two years period
[2016 and 2017) obtained from study were presented on (Table 4.1). Almost all traits showed in the table
are highly significant different between blocks except 50% days to flowering and plant yield that are not
significant. Only plant yield was significantly different among tested genotypes, while other traits were not
significant different at (P=0.05). The Association for Performance of all tested soybeans genotypes across
the two years (year one and year two) period showed non-significant difference as indicated (Table 4.1).
The interaction across the two years clearly demonstrated that genotypes and block play a significant role
in breeding adaptable genotype. This collaboration was validated by the highly significant difference at
(P=0.05) for 100% seed weight, leave area, leave area index, plant height, number of days to 95% maturity.
These results confirm the findings of Gebeyehu and Assefa, (2003) who reported that selection based on
the highest yielding genotypes appeared less stable than the average of all lines. Furthermore, they reported
that selection solely for seed yield could result in rejection of several stable genotypes.
The 100%seed weight, 95% days to maturity and the number of leaves showed highest significant
differences at (0.001) among all genotypes; while leave area and leave area index remained significantly
different (0.01) respectively. Only 50% days to flowering, plant height and plant yield was not significant
in year one (Table 4.2). The 95% days to maturity and number of leaves per plant turned to be highly
significant at (0.001); while 100% seed weight and the leave area index become significant at (0.01) among
the genotypes in year two as shown in (Table 4.3). There was registered non-significant difference in 50%
days to flowering, leave area, plant height and plant yield in year two respectively.
TGX 2011-7F recorded to have the heaviest 100% seed weight (16.26) while TGX 2010-3F had the lowest
one (7.72) among all tested genotypes. TGX 1148-2E and TGX 2007-11F were identified to have reach
50% days to flowering at (81.75) and (80.75) and TGX 2010-11F recorded at (56.25) as showed in (Table
4.5). Genotypes TGX 2007-11F and TGX 2008-2F (121) and TGX 2007-8F (120.5) were found to have
more 95% days to maturity unlike Local Check 107, TGX 2010-3F and 2011-3F (109) which registered
uniform days. TGX 2007-11F (13.92) have been noted with remarkable leave area while TGX 2004-13F
has lowest records. The highest leave area index has been observed in TGX 1485-1D (73.88) while TGX
2004-3F (32.88) registered at bottommost level. TGX 2010-3F (60.12), TGX 2004-13F (60.10) and TGX
1148-2E have had uniform leave area index among all genotypes. TGX 2007-11F and TGX 2011-3F
(16.25) as well as TGX 2010-11F were the best performers in number of leaves, while recorded poor
number of leaves in genotype TGX 2004-10F having only (10.5). The tallest plant heights were found in
TGX 2011-3F (68.5) and shortest being TGX 1987-62F (42.50) respectively. TGX 1987-62F (223.7), Local
Check 107 (201.9), TGX 2006-3F (201.8) and TGX 1485-1D (190.1) have best highest yields compared
25
with TGX 2010-3F (66.5) which become the poorest genotypes and lower yielder. Thus, the outstanding
performance by these genotypes in terms of yield and yield related traits made them best performers across
two years sowing dates. These conform to (Egli,1998) explanation for soybean performance that yield
variation across environments and years was associated with changes in number of seeds per unit area. A
contrary explanation is that an ideal soybean genotype was one that achieves the greatest yield across many
environments (Fasoula, 2002). The genotypes out yielded others because of their yield components in
different years such as, number of pods per plant and number of seeds per pod and some other growth traits
like leaf area, 100% seed weight days to 50% flowering that do contribute to the highest yield. In contrast;
Arslanoglu and Aytac, (2010) reported contrary finding on the effect of genotype and blocks, whereby
days to 50% flowering and plant yield were non-significant in a combine means square. The non-significant
variation exhibited by genotype and environment interaction on various other traits indicates their response
to climatic condition, and planting date do influence seed yield.
From the findings of this study, (Table 4.2) it was very evident that seed yield and 100-seed weight were
correlated in the same trend. Thus, early planting was observed to be essential in the efficient crop
husbandry. Salem (2004) confirmed the finding by reporting that date plays an important role in the crop
productivity as the seed yield of genotypes decreased with delayed sowing date. The interaction across the
two years clearly demonstrated that genotypes and block play a significant role in breeding adaptable
genotype. This collaboration was validated by the highly significant difference at (P=0.05) for 100% seed
weight, leave area, leave area index, plant height, number of days to 95% maturity (Table 4.1). These results
confirm the findings of Gebeyehu and Assefa (2003) who reported that selection based on the highest
yielding genotypes appeared less stable than the average of all lines. Furthermore, they reported that
selection solely for seed yield could result in rejection of several stable genotypes.
The correlation coefficient measured among traits presented on (Table 4.4) showed that 100% seed weight
had strong significant correlation with yield. The positive correlation estimated between seed yield and
100% seed weight agrees with the findings of Malik et al., (2006). This implies that selections aimed at
increasing seed yield would invariably select for higher leaf area and earliness to flower and against first
pod height, 100 seed weight, number of seeds per pod, number of branches per plant and plant height. This
finding agreed with several scientists (Jaktap, Choudhary 1993) and OZ M. et al., (2002). But Haliloglu et
al., (2007) reported a contradictory result that the number of pods per plant indicated a positive association
with number of seeds and seed yield. Thus, the correlation estimation in this study clearly defines the
contribution of various other traits such as days to 50% flowering, leaf area, number of branches and number
of pods per plant to yield.

26
It was evident that all other genotypes were significantly different in year one except days to 50% flowering
and yield which were non-significantly correlated (Table 2). The number of 50% days to flowering, plant
height and yield had also no correlation with 95% days to maturity, leave area, leave area index and 100%
seed weight (Table 4.3). From the study it could be cited that the correlation coefficient of the eighteen
genotypes across the two years indicated strong significant correlations. This finding conformed to the
reports of several researchers Liyanage and Martin, (1983). Number of 95% days to maturity were not
correlated with leaf area and plant height had a strong negative association with leaf area index, number of
leaves and seed yield.
From the study it could be cited that the correlation coefficient of the eighteen genotypes across the two
years indicated 100% seed weight had strong correlation with yields and have very weak association with
other traits.

27
4.3. CONCLUSION

Apparently, the main reasons of growing soybean are to produce oil and protein. However, the farmers
want to grow the genotype that yields higher in per unit area. Considering the aforementioned expectations,
the results of current study revealed that genotypes TGX 1987-62F (223.7), Local Check 107 (201.9), TGX
2006-3F (201.8) and TGX 1485-1D (190.1) having best highest yields. Hence more trials can be done in
the region to obtain sufficient seed, oil and protein yields. The income to be obtained from soybeans will
be much greater than the current income as the production still low. These results also suggested that high
seed yield potential was associated with 100% seed weight, number of branches per plant, number of
productive pods per plant and leaf area. These strongly associated traits could be exploited in crop
improvement and as selection criteria in breeding programmes. Two more trials are still required to validate
the trend of performance of genotypes across the environments in South Sudan. Therefore, the probability
of expanding the soybean cultivation in the region seems low under circumstances of having limited
expansion and lack of inputs.

28
4.4 Recommendations

The expansion of soybeans in South Sudan will be the first milestone to farmers to ensure
sustainable development in the region. The research carried out was to evaluate performance of
some soybeans genotypes for the purpose to identify superior varieties. From the findings, it
showed that the crop, soybeans can do well in the soils of South Sudan. But the production has not
reached a higher level due to some factors.

To improve productivity, the following recommendations must be considered;

i. Improving productivity of soybean through development of new gene technologies.

ii. Enhancing and enriching the gene pool to broaden the selection pool along with gene
flagging to assign the worth to our genetic wealth.
iii. Development of new varieties that would fit into futuristic crop management regimes and
can harness the opportunities created by shift in weather patterns.
iv. Exploitation of heterotic vigor to create an opportunity window for development of hybrids
for further increasing the yield potential.
v. Exploitation of new biotechnological tools in exercising efficient selection in reduced time
frame.
vi. Development of varieties with efficient extraction metabolism to assimilate ever limiting
phosphorous and zinc availability.
vii. Breeding varieties that could cope with abiotic stresses like water deficit and excesses.

29
4.5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was self-funding from student and the study material was sourced from International Institute of
Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan Nigeria and a local genotype Local Check (107) was provided by college of
Natural Resources and Environmental Studies (CNRES), University of Juba. All efforts of Dr. Peter B.S.
Gama and Associate Professor Dr. Tony Ngalamu are highly appreciated.

30