M-Tech Project/Thesis

INVESTIGATE THE EFFECT OF DIETHYL ETHER ON

DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS OPERATED WITH DIESEL
BLENDS IN DUAL FUEL MODE WITH BIOGAS
By

YARED ABEBE MENGSTIE

Ethiopian Defense University, College of Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MOTOR VEHICLE ENGINEERING

Specialization Of Automotive Technology

January- 2023

BISHOFTU, ETHIOPIA
 M-Tech Project/Thesis

INVESTIGATE THE EFFECT OF DIETHYL ETHER ON

DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION
CHARACTERISTICS OPERATED WITH DIESEL
BLENDS IN DUAL FUEL MODE WITH BIOGAS
Thesis

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

degree of Master of Technology in Automotive Engineering
By
Yared Abebe Mengstie

Under the guidance of

Col. Menelik Walle (Ph.D.)

Department of Motor Vehicle Engineering

Ethiopian Defense University, College of Engineering

January- 2023

BISHOFTU, ETHIOPIA
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this MSc thesis entitled “Investigate the Effect of Diethyl Ether on the
Diesel Engine Performance and Emission Characteristics Operated with Diesel Blends in
Dual Fuel Mode with Biogas’’ in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
Degree of Masters of Science in Automotive engineering is my original work, the thesis project
has not been presented for a degree in any other university, and all sources of material used for
this thesis have been duly acknowledged.

____________________

Signature of the student

Bishoftu, Ethiopia

January-2023

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis project entitled "Investigate the Effect of Diethyl Ether on
Diesel Engine Performance and Emission Characteristics Operated with Diesel Blends in
Dual Fuel Mode with Biogas" is the work carried out by Yared Abebe Mengstie, a student at
Defence Engineering College, Bishoftu, during 2021 to 2023. He has worked under my guidance
and supervision and has fulfilled the requirements for the submission of this thesis for the award
of the degree of M-Tech with a focus area of Automotive Engineering. The results represented in
this thesis have not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma,
associateship, fellowship, or any other similar rule.

____________________

Col.Menelik Walle (ph.D.)

Academic Rank: Assistant professor,

Research Dean,

Defence University, College of Engineering

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 Approval By the Board of Examiner

1. External examiner:

________________ ______________ ______________

Name Signature Date

2. Internal Examiner:

_________________ ______________ ______________

Name Signature Date

3. Chairperson/HoD:

_________________ ______________ ______________

Name: Signature Date

4. Advisor:

__________________ ______________ _____________

Name Signature Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First, I would like to express my enormous thanks to the Almighty God for his continuous and
priceless help from the beginning and end of this thesis work. Next, I would like to express my
deep gratitude to my advisor, Col. Menelik Walle (Ph.D.), for his valuable advice and for sharing
supportive materials, information, and concrete ideas when I get confused. I would like to
express my sincere gratitude to my teachers, Lt. Col. Bisrat Yoseph (Ph.D.), and Prof.
Rajandiran Gopal for their continuous guidance, encouragement, and support in making this
research possible.

I am also thankful to Dr. Alemayehu Amdemariam and all his company member (from
Bishoftu), who gives me biogas since the biogas digester is available inside his company, and
Elias, who helped me with the manufacturing of the biogas-air mixer from the production
department.

I would like to express my gratitude to all administrative and technical staff of the Motor Vehicle
Engineering department, Defence University College of Engineering. Finally, I would like to
express my sincerest appreciation to my family, for their endless love, support, and their
encouragement in achieving my goals.

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 ABSTRACT

Diesel engines are known for their reliability and efficiency, making them a popular choice in a
wide range of applications. However, as the global energy consumption rate increases due to
population growth, the reliance on fossil fuels has led to depletion and pollution. To address
these issues, renewable energy sources such as biogas and diethyl ether have been proposed as
potential solutions. This research, it is aimed to study the effect of diethyl ether on the
performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines operated with diesel blends in dual
fuel mode with biogas. The experiment is conducted using a single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-
cooled diesel engine with a rated power output of 5.67 kW. The biogas-air mixer design was
investigated using Ansys fluent software by changing design parameters such as beta ratio and
biogas inlet angle. According to the numerical analysis, the beta ratio and biogas inlet angle of
0.6 and 450 produced a more homogeneous mixture of biogas and air than the other options. For
the experimental investigation, diesel fuel was injected by conventional injector setup, and the
biogas was inducted through the intake manifold with air at different flow rates of 2L/min,
4L/min, and 6L/min. The results show that biogas inducted at a flow rate of 2L/min had better
performance and lower emissions compared to the other flow rates. However, a dual-fuel mode
was found to increase fuel consumption, decrease brake thermal efficiency, and increase
emissions of CO and HC. Furthermore, the effect of diethyl ether (5%, 10%, and 15%) blended
with diesel fuel in dual-fuel mode with an optimal biogas flow rate of 2L/min was
experimentally investigated. The experimental results showed that in a fuel blend of D95DEE5
in dual-fuel mode with a biogas flow rate of 2L/min, there was an average drop in brake power,
BSFC, CO, HC, and NOx of 2.19%, 4.6%, 2.75%, 3.96%, and 20.48% respectively, whereas
average increment in BTE, and CO2 emission of 2.63%, and 28.84% respectively when
compared to diesel fuel mode. Finally, the addition of 5 % DEE in diesel fuel improves a long
ignition delay period encouraged by pure diesel dual-fuel operation.

Keywords: Alternative Fuel, Biogas, Diesel Engine, Dual-fuel, diethyl ether, Venturi Biogas-Air
mixer

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i

CERTIFICATE ............................................................................................................................... ii

Approval By the Board of Examiner ............................................................................................. iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iv

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ x

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ xii

NOMENCLATURE .................................................................................................................... xiv

CHAPTER – ONE .......................................................................................................................... 1

1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background of the study .................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Research objective............................................................................................................ 3

1.3.1 Main Objective.......................................................................................................... 3

1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Significance of the study .................................................................................................. 4

1.5 Scope of the Study............................................................................................................ 4

1.6 Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 4

1.7 Organization of the Thesis ............................................................................................... 5

CHAPTER-TWO ............................................................................................................................ 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 6

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 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 6

2.2 Feedstock and production of biogas ................................................................................. 6

2.3 Composition of biogas ..................................................................................................... 7

2.4 Properties of Biogas as a Fuel .......................................................................................... 8

2.5 Application of Biogas in diesel engine .......................................................................... 10

2.6 Feedstock and Production of Diethyl ether (DEE)......................................................... 10

2.7 Properties of Diethyl ether as a Fuel for diesel engine .................................................. 11

2.8 Diethyl ether as alternative additive fuel for diesel engine ............................................ 12

2.9 Factors Affecting the Performance and Emission characteristics of Biogas-Diesel dual
fuel diesel engine ...................................................................................................................... 12

2.9.1 Mass Flow Rate of Biogas ...................................................................................... 13

2.9.2 Biogas-air Mixer Device ......................................................................................... 14

2.9.3 Fuel-Air Equivalence ratio, and compression ratio ................................................ 15

2.9.4 Additives ................................................................................................................. 15

2.10 Summary of the Literature .......................................................................................... 18

2.11 Research Gaps ............................................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER-THREE ...................................................................................................................... 20

3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 20

3.1 Materials ......................................................................................................................... 20

3.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 22

3.3 Design of biogas-air mixer device ................................................................................. 23

3.3.1 Design calculation of the venturi mixer .................................................................. 23

3.4 Modeling and mesh Generation ..................................................................................... 33

3.5 Boundary condition ........................................................................................................ 34

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 3.6 Venturi Gas Mixer Manufacturing Process .................................................................... 35

3.7 Compositions and Storage Mechanism of Biogas.......................................................... 36

3.7.1 Compositions of Biogas .......................................................................................... 36

3.7.2 Storage of Biogas .................................................................................................... 37

3.8 Experimental setup and procedure ................................................................................. 37

3.9 Fuel properties ................................................................................................................ 40

3.10 Experimental test matrix ............................................................................................. 44

3.11 Performance Parameter Analysis................................................................................ 44

3.11.1 Brake power (Pb) ..................................................................................................... 44

3.11.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE).............................................................................. 45

3.11.3 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) ............................................................. 46

3.12 Emission Parameters and Measuring Procedure ........................................................ 47

3.13 Measuring Procedure .................................................................................................. 48

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 49

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 49

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 49

4.2 Numerical Analysis of Mixer design ............................................................................. 49

4.3 Venturi gas mixer simulation results.............................................................................. 49

4.4 Engine performance and exhaust emission of Biogas-diesel dual fuel diesel engine .... 53

4.4.1 Brake Power (BP) ................................................................................................... 53

4.4.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE).............................................................................. 54

4.4.3 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) ............................................................... 55

4.4.4 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Monoxide (% Vol.) ................................................. 56

4.4.5 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Dioxide (%Vol.) ..................................................... 57

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 4.4.6 Exhaust Emissions of Hydrocarbons (ppm Vol.) ................................................... 58

4.4.7 Exhaust Emissions Nitrogen Oxide (ppm Vol.) ..................................................... 59

4.5 Engine performance and exhaust emission of diesel engine operated with DEE-diesel
blends in dual fuel with biogas ................................................................................................. 60

4.5.1 Brake power (Pb) .................................................................................................... 60

4.5.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE).............................................................................. 61

4.5.3 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) ............................................................... 62

4.5.4 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Monoxide (% Vol.) ................................................. 63

4.5.5 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Dioxide (%Vol.) ..................................................... 64

4.5.6 Exhaust Emissions of Hydrocarbons (ppm Vol.) ................................................... 66

4.5.7 Nitrogen Oxide Exhaust Emissions (ppm Vol.) ..................................................... 67

4.6 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 68

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 69

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................... 69

5.1 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 69

5.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................................ 70

5.3 Future Work ................................................................................................................... 71

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 72

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 78

Appendix A: Drawings ............................................................................................................. 78

Appendix B: Measuring Instrumentation and Principles .......................................................... 79

Appendix C: Experimental Uncertainties ................................................................................. 80

Appendix D: Pictures ................................................................................................................ 81

Appendix E: Experimental observation data for pure diesel and dual fuel engine ................... 82

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1 Production process of biogas in anaerobic digestion . .................................................. 8

Figure 2-2 Production process of diethyl ether. ............................................................................ 11

Figure 3-1: Block diagram of the procedure of this thesis work. ................................................. 22

Figure 3-2 Model and Mesh of the biogas-air mixer device ......................................................... 33

Figure 3-3 Produced biogas-air mixer device. .............................................................................. 36

Figure 3-4 Gas composition measuring instrument and raw biogas Sample. ............................... 36

Figure 3-5 Compressed biogas...................................................................................................... 37

Figure 3-6 Schematic representation of experimental setup of the test engine ............................ 38

Figure 3-7 Photograph of the experimental setup. ........................................................................ 39

Figure 3-8 diesel and diethyl ether fuel ready for experimentation .............................................. 41

Figure 3-9 Photographic view of FGA-4100(4G) exhaust gas analyzer ...................................... 48

Figure 4-1 Distribution of methane mass fraction contour at 21 degrees. .................................... 50

Figure 4-2 The concentration of methane mass fraction CH4 through the Venturi mixer for
different gas inlet angles. .............................................................................................................. 52

Figure 4-3 The concentration of air through the Venturi mixer for different gas inlet angles. .... 52

Figure 4-4 Variation of brake power versus engine load. ............................................................. 54

Figure 4-5 Variation of brake thermal efficiency versus engine load. ......................................... 55

Figure 4-6 Variation of brake-specific fuel consumption versus engine load. ............................. 56

Figure 4-7 Variation of CO emissions versus engine load. .......................................................... 57

Figure 4-8 Variation of CO2 emissions versus engine load. ........................................................ 58

Figure 4-9 Variation of HC emissions versus engine load. .......................................................... 59

Figure 4-10 Variation of NOx emissions versus engine load. ...................................................... 60

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Figure 4-11 Variation of brake power versus engine load. ........................................................... 61

Figure 4-12 Variation of brake thermal efficiency versus engine load. ....................................... 62

Figure 4-13 Variation of brake-specific fuel consumption versus engine load. ........................... 63

Figure 4-14 Variation of CO emissions versus engine load. ........................................................ 64

Figure 4-15 Variation of CO2 emissions versus engine load. ...................................................... 65

Figure 4-16 Variation of HC emissions with engine load. ........................................................... 66

Figure 4-17 Variation of NOx emissions versus engine load. ...................................................... 67

Figure A-1 air-biogas venturi mixer device. ................................................................................. 78

Figure B-1 flow meters. ……………………………………………………………………79

Figure D-1 During compressed biogas in an ordinary compressor. ……………………81

Figure D-2 During the engine running in dual fuel mode. ........................................................... 81

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1 Composition of biogas, depending on its origin............................................................. 7

Table 2-2 Physical properties of biogas. ......................................................................................... 9

Table 2-3 Thermodynamic properties of CH4. ............................................................................. 10

Table 2-4 Properties of Diethyl ether............................................................................................ 12

Table 3-1 Materials, tools, and machines used for mixer manufacturing. .................................... 20

Table 3-2 List of materials and equipment used for experimental test. ....................................... 21

Table 3-3 Different parameters of a venturi mixer at a different beta ratio. ................................. 31

Table 3-4: Geometrical dimensions of venturi mixer for Ansys numerical simulation. .............. 33

Table 3-5 Boundary conditions..................................................................................................... 35

Table 3-6 Composition of biogas. ................................................................................................. 36

Table 3-7 Technical specifications for diesel engine. ................................................................... 40

Table 3-8 Properties of the base fuel. ........................................................................................... 41

Table 3-9 Properties of biogas[42]. .............................................................................................. 42

Table 3-10 The composition and properties of tested fuels. ......................................................... 42

Table 3-11 Experimental test matrixes ......................................................................................... 44

Table 3-12 Typical Measurement range of FGA-4100(4G) exhaust gas analyzer. ...................... 47

Table 4-1 Comparison between mathematical and numerical calculations with specified
Approximation error at the outlet of the Venturi mixer. ............................................................... 51

Table C-1 Rotameter measurement range..................................................................................... 80

Table C-2 Overall measurement uncertainty for emission parameters. ........................................ 80

Table E-1 Brake power for all tests. ……………………………………………………………82

Table E-2 Brake thermal efficiency for all tests. .......................................................................... 82

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Table E-3 Brake-specific fuel consumption for all tests. .............................................................. 83

Table E-4 Carbon monoxide exhausts emissions for all tests....................................................... 83

Table E-5 Carbon dioxide exhausts emissions for all tests........................................................... 83

Table E-6 unburnt hydrocarbon exhaust emissions for all tests. .................................................. 84

Table E-7 NOx exhaust emissions for all tests. ............................................................................ 84

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 NOMENCLATURE

AFR Air fuel ratio 𝑉̇𝑏𝑔 Inlet biogas velocity

𝐴𝑖 Air inlet area of the mixer IC Internal combustion
𝐴𝑡 Area at the throat IT Injection Timing
Abg Area of biogas inlet PM Particulate Matter
Β Beta ratio CI Compression ignition
BTE Brake thermal efficiency KIMM Korean institute of machine

BSFC Brake-specific fuel consumption LPG Liquefied petrol gas

BP Brake Power M Mach number

•
CO2 Carbon Dioxide m bg mass flow rate of biogas
•
CO Carbon Monoxide ma mass flow rate of air
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics N Maximum engine speed
Maximum velocity through
CNG Compressed Natural Gas V
venturi
b Cylinder bore diameter Nox Nitrogen Oxide
𝑠 Cylinder stroke length n Number of holes
•
𝜌 Density Qa Required airflow rate
•
𝐷𝑡 Diameter of throat Q bg Required biogas flow rate

DEE Diethyl ether C Speed of sound

𝑉̇𝑑 Displacement volume UHC Unburnt hydrocarbon
DF Dual fuel 𝑉̇𝑡 Velocity at the throat

∇ Gradient operator v Volumetric efficiency

g Gravitational acceleration

𝑉̇𝑖 Inlet air velocity to the mixer

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 CHAPTER – ONE

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Diesel engines are most reliable, durable, versatile, easy to maintain, and have a low cost of
manufacture and high-power density. In the development and progress of mankind, diesel
engines have been serving the citizens of the world liberally in multiple directions[1]. One of the
world’s biggest challenges is to sustain a pollution-free environment. However, due to the
presence of heat engines and thermal power plants, living in such an environment is unlikely.
The diesel engines, however, show better thermal brake performance and emit a high volume of
NOX and smoke as well. In diesel engines, it is a big challenge to achieve low exhaust particles
with lower fuel consumption[2].

Maintaining a pollution-free environment is one of the largest difficulties facing the entire
world. However, habitation in such a setting is impossible given the presence of heat engines and
thermal power plants. It is difficult to attain low exhaust particle levels while using less fuel in
diesel engines [2]. The rapid depletion of fossil fuel reserves and environmental concerns have
prompted various researchers to explore alternative fuel options for internal combustion engines
in recent times. because the performance and exhaust emissions of the engine are directly
dependent on the combustion type and the combustion reaction kinetics of the fuel and air
mixture [3]. Biogas is considered to be a good alternative and renewable gaseous fuel for internal
combustion engines, because of its low cost, ease of production, and good mixing characteristics
with air[4].

Due to the versatility of diesel engines, almost any type of liquid or gaseous fuel can be used in
different modes of engine operation. Dual-fuel diesel mode catches the eye of researchers
because of its ability to run on both liquid (highly reactive) and gaseous (less reactive) fuels with
minor modifications of the engine [1]. This is the most practical and efficient method to utilize
the high spontaneous ignition temperature of alternative fuels, such as biogas[5]. Because of the

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difficulty of using fuels with a low cetane number in CI engines, the application of biogases in
CI engines is mainly utilized in the biogas–diesel dual-fuel mode[6].

In a dual-fuel compression ignition (CI) engine that uses biogas as the primary fuel and a small
amount of diesel fuel as an ignition source, the biogas is mixed with intake air and compressed
like in a traditional diesel engine. However, the mixture of biogas and air has a high auto-ignition
temperature and does not ignite on its own. To ignite the mixture, a small amount of diesel fuel is
injected near the end of the compression stroke. This requires modifying the engine to include a
gas mixer at the intake manifold[7]. While operating in dual-fuel mode, the engine may emit
more hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) with lower thermal efficiency. However,
smoke and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions are lower compared to a conventional CI engine due
to the gaseous nature of biogas and the presence of carbon dioxide (CO2), the increased ignition
delay, and the poor flame propagation of the air-biogas mixture, which is closer to the lower
flammability limit in these conditions. To minimize the ignition delay in a biogas-powered diesel
engine[8]. it is possible to use a fuel with a high cetane index such as diethyl ether (DEE), which
is a renewable and relatively inexpensive option that can be produced from ethanol.

Diethyl ether (DEE) is considered a renewable fuel because it can be produced from ethanol
through the dehydration process. It is often used as an ignition improver in internal combustion
engines due to its low auto-ignition temperature and low boiling point. DEE has a higher energy
density than ethanol and is often used as a cold-start aid in compression ignition (CI) engines. It
can also be blended with diesel to improve performance and reduce emissions in CI engines[8].

The purpose of this thesis is to study the impact of using diethyl ether (DEE) on the performance
and emission parameters of a diesel engine running in dual fuel mode with biogas. To do this,
experiments were conducted by altering the flow rate of biogas and the DEE-diesel blend ratio at
different load conditions (ranging from 20% to 100%) and at a constant engine speed, with a
fixed compression ratio, injection pressure, and ignition timing. The research involved the design
and production of a venturi-type mixer to create a homogenous air-biogas mixture for the engine
cylinder. The experiments were conducted using a single-cylinder, manually started, computer-
controlled test bench compression ignition engine to examine the effect of DEE on the
performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines operating with diesel blends in dual
fuel mode with biogas, varying the engine load.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

One issue with using biogas in dual fuel diesel engine is that the presence of carbon dioxide in
biogas and low oxygen concentration in the fuel charge can lead to low combustion
temperatures, a narrow flammability range, low flame speed, and prolonged ignition delay. To
address this problem, highly oxygenated additives with a high cetane number, such as diethyl
ether (DEE), can be used. DEE is a liquid at room temperature and has a very low self-ignition
temperature, a high cetane number, and a wide flammability limit. It can be produced through the
dehydration of ethanol and can be mixed with diesel fuel as a cold-start aid or used as an ignition
improver for biogas in a biogas-diesel dual-fuel engine.

1.3 Research objective

1.3.1 Main Objective

The main objective of the study is to investigate the effect of diethyl ether on the performance
and emission characteristics of a diesel engine operated with diesel blends in dual fuel mode with
biogas.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives of this thesis work are:

Modeling and numerical analysis of the mixer device using Ansys Fluent software.
Fabricate a venturi-type gas mixer device.
Study the composition of biogas.

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 Conduct a baseline experiment on the performance and emission parameters using pure
diesel fuel by varying engine loads.
Conduct experiments on diesel engine performance and emission parameters in dual fuel
mode using various biogas flow rates with diesel fuel and compare with baseline data;
select an optimal biogas flow rate.
Conduct experiments on diesel engine performance and emission parameters in dual fuel
mode using biogas with various blends of diethyl ether - diesel fuel and compare with
baseline data; recommend the best fuel blend and biogas flow rate.

1.4 Significance of the study

Using biogas and diethyl ether as alternative fuels in diesel engines can provide numerous
benefits, including reducing reliance on petroleum-based fuels, improving waste management,
and the simplicity of converting existing diesel engines to dual fuel mode. These sustainable fuel
options can help meet the country's energy needs without compromising other human needs.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This research project involves the design, fluent analysis, and manufacturing of a venturi mixer.
The experimental portion of the work focuses on examining the effect of diethyl ether on the
performance and emissions of diesel engines using diethyl ether diesel fuel blends in dual fuel
mode with biogas, with the aid of a venturi air-biogas mixer at a constant engine speed and
various engine loads. The study aims to evaluate performance parameters such as BP, BTE, and
BSFC, as well as emission characteristics like CO, CO2, HC, and NOx for both diesel and dual
fuel modes. The results of dual fuel modes are compared to those of the baseline pure diesel fuel
mode.

1.6 Limitations

During the research, some challenges were encountered, such as the lack of purified and bottled
biogas, as well as a lack of a biogas compressor, which made it difficult to bottle the biogas
using an ordinary compressor. As a result, the biogas flow rate in the experimental test matrix
was limited to three flow rates.

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1.7 Organization of the Thesis

This report consists of five chapters. The first chapter introduces the background of the study, a
statement of the problem, objectives, significance, scope, and limitations. The second chapter
reviews the literature on the feedstocks, production process, composition, properties, and
applications of biogas and diethyl ether as alternative fuels for internal combustion engines. It
also includes a detailed review of different journals on the design of a biogas-air mixer device,
biogas flow rate, and the effects of additives on the performance and emission characteristics of a
biogas-diesel dual-fuel mode diesel engine. The third chapter focuses on the experimentation,
including the engine setup, measurement and instrumentation devices, fuel supply system, engine
conversion methodology, and experimental design methodology. It also covers the design of the
venturi mixer, fluent analysis, the manufacturing process of the mixer, experimental setup, and
test procedures. The fourth chapter discusses the results and discussion of the designed venturi
mixer, the performance and emission characteristics of the dual fuel mode diesel engine under
various biogas flow rates, and percentage ratios of diethyl ether at a constant speed and various
engine load conditions. Finally, the fifth chapter provides concluding remarks with the key
findings of the present investigation, recommendations, and suggestions for future research.

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 CHAPTER-TWO

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, a review of the relevant works of literature is presented. Feedstocks, production
process, composition, properties, and applications of biogas and diethyl ether as an alternative
fuel for internal combustion engines. It also includes detailed reviews of different journals
related to the design of biogas-air mixer devices, biogas flow rate, and the effects of additives on
the performance, and emission characteristics of biogas-diesel dual fuel mode diesel engines.

2.2 Feedstock and production of biogas

Several diverse sources of biomass have been utilized for the generation of biogas, including
agricultural waste, animal waste, food waste, non-edible seed cakes, sewage sludge, and
municipal waste[9]. Biomass can be found in ample amounts as agricultural waste and crop
residue, which can be employed as feedstock for anaerobic digestion. Animal waste such as cow
dung, pig waste, poultry manure, horse dung, camel dung, elephant dung, fishery waste, and
slaughterhouse waste is commonly used in feedstocks. Studies have shown that poultry waste, in
particular, has a high organic nitrogen content and low carbon content[10].

Biogas is a renewable energy source that is produced through the anaerobic digestion of organic
waste materials, such as manure, agricultural residues, and food waste. These materials are
broken down by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen to produce a mixture of gases,
primarily methane and carbon dioxide. The process of biogas production typically takes place in
an anaerobic digester, which is a sealed container designed to maintain the conditions needed for
the microorganisms to thrive. The feedstock is added to the digester through an inlet, and the
biogas produced is collected through a gas outlet. In some cases, inhibitors such as ammonium
sulfate may be used to increase the production of methane. When using pig manure as a
feedstock, it is typically mixed with water in a 3:1 ratio before being added to the digester. The
digester is typically set up in an open outdoor location to allow

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for exposure to sunlight. After several weeks, the pig manure is fully digested and biogas is
produced[9].

2.3 Composition of biogas

Biogas is a mixture of gases produced by microorganisms during the anaerobic digestion or

methane fermentation of organic materials. The primary components of biogas are methane
(CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), along with small amounts of other gases, including nitrogen
(N2), hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), water vapor (H2O), carbon monoxide
(CO), and hydrocarbons (HC)[11]. The concentration of methane in biogas can vary depending
on the method of production and can range from 35% to 75%. Additionally, there may be small
amounts of hydrogen present, typically around 1-5%. The other components of biogas, including
carbon dioxide and nitrogen, are non-combustible and serve as ballast. Biogas can also contain
trace amounts of other chemical compounds in small quantities. Biogas produced from organic
waste is a promising alternative to fossil fuels and can be used in internal combustion engines
due to its ability to mix well with air and its smooth burning characteristics[12]. Table 2.1
provides compositions of raw biogas obtained from different feedstocks[13].

Table 2-1 Composition of biogas, depending on its origin.

Component Composition
agricultural biogas treatment plant biogas landfill biogas
Methane CH4 45–75% 57–62% 37–67%
Carbon dioxide CO2 25–55% 33–38% 24–40%
Oxygen O2 0.01–2.0–2.1% 0–0.5% 1–5%
Nitrogen N2 0.01–5.0% 3.4–8.1% 10–25%
Hydrogen sulfide, H2S 10–30 000 ppm 24–8 000 ppm 15–427 ppm

Purifying raw biogas is recommended for having a high percentage of methane and thereby a
higher calorific value by removing impurities and separating CO2 from it for better performance
and lower emissions.

7|Page
 Complex organic material
hydrolysis

Hydrolysis

Soluble organic compounds

(amino acid, sugar etc.)

Fermentation

Intermediate products

(Fatty acid, alcohols, etc.)

Anaerobic oxidation

Acetic acid Hydrogen + carbon dioxide

Methane production

Biogas

(𝐶𝐻4 , 𝐶𝑂2,and others)

Figure 2-1 Production process of biogas in anaerobic digestion [14].

2.4 Properties of Biogas as a Fuel

Biogas is colorless, and before the removal of its hydrogen sulfide (H2S), it smells like a bad egg.
Its properties are described as follows, and Table 2.2 summarizes its physical properties[16].

Calorific Value: Methane is a high-quality gas fuel with a very high calorific value. In the
standard condition, 1 m3 of pure methane releases 35,822 kJ of heat through complete
combustion, with a maximum temperature of 1400 °C. As biogas is a mixture of other
ingredients, it has a lower calorific value of 20,000 to 29,000 kJ/m3, with a maximum
temperature of 1200 °C. The amount of CH4 present in the biogas mainly defines the quality and

8|Page
energy content of the gas. As the methane (CH4) concentration in biogas increases, its calorific
value also increases[15].

Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of methane is 0.55 and that of biogas is 0.94. In biogas
tanks, the methane is floating in the upper space, while the heavier carbon dioxide stays at the
bottom. Since biogas is lighter than air, it disperses quickly in the atmosphere four times as
quickly as air.

Combustibility: Methane is a high-quality gas fuel. One unit of methane requires two units of
oxygen to be completely combusted. As oxygen takes up about a fifth of the air and 60% to 70%
of the biogas is methane, the one-unit volume of biogas requires 6 to 7 units of air for full
combustion. These are important references for the development and application of biogas
devices[15].

Table 2-2 Physical properties of biogas.

Properties CH4 CO2

Molecular weight 16.04 g/mol 44.01 g/mol
Proportion 0.554 1.52
0
Boiling point 144 C 600C
Freezing point -1650C -390C

Technical parameters of biogas for engine performance are very important because of their effect
on the combustion process in an engine, those properties listed below and the thermodynamic
properties of methane are summarized in Table 2.3 below[17].

✓ The combustion velocity is a function of the volume percentage of the burnable

component, here CH4. The highest value of the combustion velocity of 0.38 is near the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, mostly at an excess air ratio of 0.8 to 0.9. It increases
drastically at higher temperatures and pressures.
✓ Methane number, which is a standard value to specify fuel's tendency to knock (uneven
combustion and pressure development between TDC and BDC). Methane and biogas are
very stable against knocking and therefore can be used in engines of higher compression
ratios than petrol engines.

9|Page
Table 2-3 Thermodynamic properties of CH4.

Properties Values
Specific heat (Cp) 2.165 kJ/kg-K
Molar mass (M) 16.04 kg/kmol
Density (ȿ) 0.72 kg/m³
Individual gas constant (R) 0.518 kJ/kg-K
Lower calorific (Hu) 50,000 kJ/kg
value
(Hu, n) 36,000 kJ/ m3n

2.5 Application of Biogas in diesel engine

Diesel engines have advantages over gasoline engines when using biogas as a fuel. However, the
high self-ignition temperature of methane, the main component of biogas, limits its use. To
overcome this, a dual-fuel system is required, which involves mixing biogas with diesel fuel to
ensure proper engine operation. This type of system is relatively simple in design and allows for
simultaneous operation in both single and dual-fuel modes[13].

2.6 Feedstock and Production of Diethyl ether (DEE)

Diethyl ether (DEE) is also being developed in a variety of ways, including as a byproduct of
ethanol synthesis and as a byproduct of ethanol dehydration. The dehydration of ethanol depends
on the type of catalyst used for the chemical reaction and the required reaction temperature. It is
also interesting to note that the acidic form of solid catalyst has shown a higher yield rate when
compared to other catalysts[18].

The fresh feed to the unit, Stream 1, consists of 70 mol% ethanol in water. This stream is
pumped from storage and sent to an on-site feed vessel, V-1201, where it is mixed with recycled
ethanol to an on-site feed vessel, V-1201, where it is mixed with recycled ethanol (Stream 8).
Stream 2 exiting V-1201 reacted in the reactor, R-1201. The reactor contains a packed bed of
alumina catalyst. The main reaction is:

2C2 H 5OH → ( C2 H 5 )2 O + H 2O
(Eq. 2.1)
ethanol DEE

The only side reaction that occurs in R-1201 is the dehydration of DEE to form ethylene:

10 | P a g e
 ( C2 H 5 )2 O → H 2O + 2C2 H 4 (Eq. 2.2)
DEE ethylene

The reactor effluent, Stream 3, contains ethylene, unreacted ethanol, DEE, and water. Stream 3 is
fed to a flash vessel, where it may be assumed that all ethylene enters Stream 4, while all other
components enter Stream 5. The contents of Stream 4 have no value. Stream 5 is sent to a
distillation column, T-1201, where at least 99% of the DEE is recovered as a product in Stream 6
at 99.5% purity, and it may be assumed that all of the waters enter Stream 7. In T-1202, all of the
DEE enters the recycling stream, Stream 8, and the composition of Stream 8 is 95 wt% ethanol
in water if the DEE is ignored. The wastewater stream, Stream 9, may contain no more than 1
wt% ethanol[19].

V − 1201 R − 1201 V − 1202 T − 1201 T − 1202

feed drum R e actor Flash vessel DEE column Ethanol column

Figure 2-2 Production process of diethyl ether.

2.7 Properties of Diethyl ether as a Fuel for diesel engine

Diethyl ether (DEE) is obtained when ethanol is dehydrated. DEE has the potential to improve
the combustion and emission characteristics of diesel engines by supplementing the fuel with

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oxygen. It is a renewable energy source and is used as a cold-start aid. DEE has a higher cetane
number, high heat energy capacity, more oxygen, and a lower self-ignition temperature, making
it a suitable renewable fuel that can be blended with diesel fuel in any proportion[2]. Its
Properties listed below[20].

Table 2-4 Properties of Diethyl ether.

Properties Diethyl ether

Chemical formula C4 H10O
Boiling Point 34.4 ℃
Cetane number > 125
Auto ignition temperature 160 °C
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 11.1 wt/wt
Flammability limits (vol %) 9.5 to 36.0(rich), 1.9 (lean)
Heating value 33.897 MJ/kg
Viscosity 0.23 centipoise at 20 °C
Density 713 kg/𝑚3

2.8 Diethyl ether as alternative additive fuel for diesel engine

Diethyl ether (DEE) has potential as a fuel additive in diesel engines due to its high cetane
number, moderate energy density, high oxygen content, low self-ignition temperature, and good
miscibility with diesel. However, its low viscosity can increase wear on diesel injection systems,
making it more suitable as a limited addition to diesel fuel rather than a sole fuel source[21].

2.9 Factors Affecting the Performance and Emission characteristics of

Biogas-Diesel dual fuel diesel engine

The performance and emissions of a biogas-diesel dual-fuel engine can be impacted by factors
such as the type of additive fuel used, the flow rate of biogas, and the device used to mix biogas
and air. Additionally, engine operating parameters such as the compression ratio and fuel-air
equivalence ratio can also affect these characteristics. Previous research on this topic has also
been reviewed and is highlighted below.

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2.9.1 Mass Flow Rate of Biogas

The mass flow rate of biogas during dual fuel mode in a diesel engine affects its performance
and emission parameters. Some existing literature is reviewed below to highlight its effect.

Sivalingam and Barik (2013), an experimental study was developed to evaluate the performance
and emission characteristics of a biogas-fueled DI diesel engine at various flow rates of 0.15
kg/h, 0.3 kg/h, 0.45 kg/h, and 0.6 kg/h was carried out. At full load with a maximum mass flow
rate of 0.6 kg/h, brake thermal efficiency and volumetric efficiency drop by 30%, and the dual
fuel mode results in a higher BSEC. Higher BGES and 30% diesel fuel savings. In dual fuel
mode, increased CO and HC emissions by 16% and 21%, respectively, while NOx and smoke
emissions decreased by 35% and 41.3%, respectively. They conclude that a biogas mass flow
rate of 0.6 kg/h is the optimum flow rate[4].

Prajapati et al. (2014), In this study, a single-cylinder, four-stroke research diesel engine uses
biogas in dual-fuel mode. Test results show that NOx and CO2 emissions are lower in dual-fuel
operations than in single-fuel operations. From low to high load conditions, NOx emissions are
reduced from 27% to 57% and CO2 emissions from 4% to 18%. Dual fuel operation produces
more HC, CO, and O2 emissions than pure fuel operation. HC emissions are 200 ppm at low
load and 63 ppm at high load in pure fuel proportion. CO emissions are reduced to 0.17% at low
load and 0.05% at high load, which is almost the same as pure fuel. O2 emissions are also 0.19%
higher than diesel mode operations, and this difference increases with load, with O2 emissions up
to 1.08% [22].

Gnanamoorthi and Mohandoss (2018), an Experimental Study on Combustion, Performance, and

Emissions Analysis of a Dual Fuel Engine Using Tamarind Seed and Rice Bran. Biogas at
Different Flow Rates such as 0.25 kg/h, 0.50 kg/h, 0.75 kg/h, and 1.0 kg/h with load variation the
average biogas composition was 63% methane and 37% carbon dioxide. The result shows that as
biogas mass flow rate increases, cylinder pressure decreases, heat release rate slows, combustion
duration increases, BTE decreases, BSEC increases, and exhaust gas temperature decreases up to
80% load and a higher temperature above 80% load. On the other hand, smoke and NOx
emissions are reduced by 7.1% and 23.27%, respectively, but the remaining emissions are higher
compared to diesel mode [23].

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2.9.2 Biogas-air Mixer Device

Bora et al. (2013), studies the flow behavior of an existing gas mixer consisting of a channel
having a T-junction with a single fuel nozzle positioned at 45° and 90° was compared with that
of a new venturi gas mixer with convergence, divergence, nozzle angles and the beta ratio of 20°,
5°, 35°, and 0.46 for a dual-fuel diesel engine. They used ANSYS fluent software package to
analyze the flow behaviors. They concluded that a new venturi-type gas mixer with two gas inlet
holes appears to be able to mix biogas and air better than existing gas mixers. This results in a
greater pressure drop at the throat, better biogas suction, and ultimately better mixing[24].

Palaniswamy et al. (2016), experimental work and CFD analysis of a mixing device for a
supercharged CI engine introducing biogas and air into the intake manifold by varying the fuel
inlet angle, fuel inlet position, and fuel injection pressure at the mixer concluded that it both
improves and enhances performance. Emissions are reduced when compared to naturally
aspirated engines in which the gas injector is located further away from the cylinder's intake
manifold. Simulation results show that the gas injector angle is closer to the cylinder's intake
manifold and 45° to the engine's axis. The intake manifold is at its optimum angle at maximum
(i.e., 2 bar) biogas injection pressure and an engine speed of 750 rpm for better mixture
formation characteristics [25].

Romanczyk, et al. (2017), the effect of different gas inlet angles on the flow characteristics and
performance of the venturi mixer was investigated and analyzed. The gas inlet angle was varied
from 0° to 30° from the vertical joint of the venturi mixer on air-fuel ratio, pressure loss, and
mixing quality changes in the venturi mixer. The greater the slope of the gas inlet, the more fuel
(methane) was sucked into the mixer. This results in a richer air-gas mixture at the exit of the
mixer[26].

A gas mixer mixes the air and fuel gas and plays a very important role in the performance and
emissions of the dual-fuel diesel engine. It is seen that the venturi-type mixer is the most
recommended design for gaseous fuels in dual-fuel engines. Because the venturi-type mixer
satisfies the majority of the design criteria and operational phenomena, it provides optimal
conditions for pressure drop, velocity, and homogeneous mixing[27].

14 | P a g e
2.9.3 Fuel-Air Equivalence ratio, and compression ratio

The fuel-air equivalence ratio, injection timing, and compression ratio may influence the
performance and emission characteristics of a dual-fuel diesel engine under different load
conditions.

Aklouche et al. (2017), an experimental study on the analysis of dual fuel (DF) was performed.
Engine performance at constant energy replacement (60%) under high load with a synthetic
biogas fuel containing 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide versus biogas-diesel dual fuel
mode performance, ignition delay, and comparison of combustion characteristics of other
conventional modes at different equivalence ratios (ranging from 0.35 to 0.7). Longer ignition
delays in the DF mode resulted in higher peak values with longer heat release rates and improved
BTE, higher than the conventional mode at equivalence ratios of 0.7. On the other hand,
changing the range from 0.35 to 0.7 reduced the emission concentrations of HC, CO, CO2, and
NOx[28].

Verma et al. (2019), Performed an experimental investigation on diesel-biogas dual-fuel engines

with increasing CR of 16.5, 17.5, 18.5, and 19.5 in a stepwise manner. It was revealed that the
employment of higher CR improves pilot fuel substitution and energy efficiency. On the
emissions side, an increase in CR showed a significant decrease in HC, CO, and smoke
emissions, on the other hand, increased as CRs increased. They conclude that the higher CRs
were not only advantageous to the engine performance but also the exhaust emissions. A higher
CR improves pilot fuel substitution, energy efficiency, and NOx emissions in dual-fuel mode
diesel engine operation. Hence, higher CRs and the advancement of the injection timing of pilot
fuel improve the performance of a biogas engine running in a dual-fuel diesel engine. Therefore,
the advanced IT of Pilot fuel with a higher CR is preferable for the efficient practical utilization
of raw biogas. dual-fuel diesel engines[29].

2.9.4 Additives

Now a day, for vehicular fuels, there are numerous chemical additives used to improve the
quality of diesel fuel to accumulate the most wanted performance level. Different additives that
are used for diesel fuels in various forms to modify the properties of those fuels are being
isolated in terms of their application and drawbacks.

15 | P a g e
Cetane Number Improver Additives: delay period is one of the most important roles played in
diesel engines, in which the delay period varies with the chemical and physical properties of the
diesel or biodiesel fuels. To differ the delay period cetane number improvers are the main
important parameter. To minimize the ignition delay during the combustion, cetane number
improvers help to get better working in diesel engine ignition[30]. Generally, cetane additive is
used in the diesel engine for controlling NOx emissions. There are certain cetane additives used
widely, such as Ethyl hexyl nitrate, alkyl nitrate, peroxide compounds, and methyl oleate[31].

Oxygenated Additives: the most important additives for diesel engines are oxygenated
additives. The fuels that are containing oxygen and blending components contain at least one
oxygen atom by the molecules at the side of the hydrogen and carbon atoms. The oxygenated
additives are very useful to develop the combustion process and octane rating.

Modification of diesel fuel to reduce exhaust emission can be performed by increasing the cetane
number, reducing fuel Sulphur, reducing aromatic content, increasing fuel volatility, and
decreasing the fuel density to have the compromise between engine performance and engine-out
emissions, one such change has been the possibility of using diesel fuels with oxygenates. These
blends usually enhance combustion efficiency, burn rates, power output, and the ability to burn
more fuel, but first of all, these blends offer the reduction of exhaust emissions[32].

Feroskhan, M.et al, (2017), a conventional compression ignition (CI) engine is modified to
operate in dual fuel mode with biogas and diesel as the main and pilot fuels, respectively. The
effect of biogas flow rate on engine performance was studied. The viability of using cerium
oxide (CeO2) nanoparticles as a diesel additive was also investigated. In comparison to diesel-
only mode, dual fuel mode with biogas flow rates of up to 8 L/min improved brake thermal
efficiency at high loads. Increased biogas flow rates resulted in significant diesel substitution.
Biogas was observed to contribute up to 80% of the total energy release. Volumetric efficiency
deteriorated with an increase in biogas flow rate, while the overall equivalence ratio and exhaust
gas temperature increased. Various properties of modified diesel were measured and tabulated
after the addition of CeO2 nanoparticles. Performance tests revealed that modified diesel
containing 25 mg/L CeO2 marginally improves brake thermal efficiency. In general, the addition
of CeO2 increases the overall equivalence ratio and exhaust gas temperature. Tests were carried
out for all combinations of biogas flow rate and CeO2 concentrations. Dual-fuel operation with a

16 | P a g e
4 L/min biogas flow rate and 25 mg/L CeO2 concentration was found to provide the highest
brake thermal efficiency[33].

Singh, Amanpreet (2021), The effects of DEE (diethyl ether) on biodiesel blends of diesel and
rice bran and the effects of biogas induction on the performance and emissions of dual-fuel
diesel engines were studied. Two fuel blends called D80-B10-DEE10 (80% diesel, 10%
biodiesel, and 10% diethyl ether) and D60-B20-DEE20 (60% diesel, 20% biodiesel and 20%
diethyl ether) were used. The transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel from rice
bran oil. As pilot fuels, a mixture of diesel, biodiesel from rice bran, and DEE was used to run
the engine, and biogas was used as the primary (gaseous) fuel. Biogas was supplied to the engine
through the intake manifold at a flow rate of 0.9 kg/h. The results show that the D80-B10-DEE10
blend provided a 2.61% increase in BTE and a 5.23% increase in BSFC at full load compared to
the D60-B20-DEE20 blend. A reduction in CO emissions of approximately 9.4% and 12.3%,
respectively, was observed at full load for the D80-B10-DEE10 and D60-B20-DEE20 mixtures
compared to diesel. HC emissions for D80-B10-DEE10 and D60-B20-DEE20 were also reduced
by 7.1% and 10.8% respectively at full load compared to diesel. This result shows that DEE has
a healthy effect on the engine when utilizing biogas.[2].

Kishorre et al. (2021), A conventional single-cylinder CI engine is used in biogas dual-fuel

mode, in which biogas is the primary fuel and biodiesel (palm oil) with different DEE blending
ratios (5%, 10%, and 15%) is used as a secondary fuel. For each DEE blend, biogas flow rate and
loads are varied, and their effects on brake thermal efficiency, pilot fuel energy ratio, CO, NOx,
and HC emissions are estimated. Exhaust gas emissions were recorded using an AVL 5-gas
emission analyzer. The calorific value and density of each sample are calculated. It is evident
from the experiments that 5% DEE used with a lower biogas flow rate resulted in a high brake
thermal efficiency of 31.83%. Also, an increase in DEE was found to increase NOx emissions,
while an increase in biogas flow rate resulted in a reduction in NOx emissions. The addition of
biogas has been experimentally observed to have the potential to reduce pilot fuel
consumption.[34].

17 | P a g e
2.10 Summary of the Literature

Generally, from the reviewed literature above, a dual-fuel supply system will be required to
use biogas as a fuel for diesel engines. While the performance, combustion, and emission
characteristics of diesel-biogas dual-fuel diesel engines are primarily determined by four factors:
seen from the literature above. These are the mixing device employed, biogas flow rate, types of
additives used, and the engine operating parameters. As a venturi mixer provides a homogeneous
charge into the engine cylinder, complete combustion will take place, i.e., there is no chance for
heterogeneous combustion. The performance and emission characteristics of a biogas-diesel dual
diesel engine are not only influenced by the quality of mixture homogeneity, even if
homogeneous air-biogas mixtures charge into the engine cylinder, but also by several of the
engine's operating parameters, like load conditions, engine speed, compression ratio, and
equivalence ratio, as seen in the literature. However, for employing a venturi mixer in a diesel-
biogas dual-fuel engine, several design parameters should be considered, which determine the
mixing quality as observed from the literature above.

As noticed from the literature The negative effects of biogas at part load and high substitution
levels on dual fuel engine performance are a result of the increased ignition delay and poor flame
propagation of the air–gaseous fuel mixture. Because they influence burning rate inhibition, also
the presence of inert gases such as CO2 and N2 in the primary fuel increases the negative effects
of the part-load operation. Higher cetane ratings of DEE and oxygen content are also
advantageous for obtaining lower smoke emissions. And also, DEE is an ignition improver for
the biogas-diesel dual-fuel engine.

The main area understudied in this regard is the effect of DEE on diesel engine performance and
emission characteristics operated with diesel blends in dual fuel mode with biogas at constant
engine speed with various engine loads.

18 | P a g e
2.11 Research Gaps

The facts referenced in relevant published papers have been extensively examined, and the
following key elements have been discovered to be missing:

In most studies, the authors concentrate on some efficient techniques to improve biogas dual-fuel
diesel engine performance and emission parameters. Lower pilot fuel substitution at part loads,
advancement of injection timing, blending of oxygenated fuel, injection of gaseous fuel inside
the engine's cylinder-controlled, exhaust gas recirculation, and use of highly flammable gaseous
fuels were among the techniques used. The effect of diethyl ether on diesel engine performance
and emission characteristics operated with diesel blends in dual fuel mode with biogas at
constant engine speed with various engine loads has not been studied exhaustively.

Different design parameters are considered in most studies when designing a gas mixer device,
but a mixer with a different gas inlet angle with two biogas inlet holes and a beta ratio is also
very limited.

These are the main reasons behind our selection of this title.

19 | P a g e
 CHAPTER-THREE

3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

This chapter comprises the computational and experimental analyses to study the effects of
diethyl ether percentage ratios on diesel engine performance and emission parameters operated
with diesel blends in dual fuel mode with biogas under certain operating conditions by
employing a gas mixing device. The numerical analysis for designing a gas mixer was used for
the computational methods that are described with the necessary illustrations. The simulation
results were considered for the final fabrication of the suitable venturi gas mixer device. The
experimental investigation, on the other hand, was carried out using a single-cylinder, direct-
injection, four-stroke diesel engine equipped with a hydro dynamometer for engine loading. The
detailed research methodologies and required materials are explained below in the next sections.

3.1 Materials

This section describes the equipment used in this study and provides details of its characteristics
and measurement capabilities. Also includes the experimental setup, procedures, equations, and
measurements used to obtain the performance and emission. In experimental research,
instruments play an important role in providing the data required for analysis. The materials and
equipment used to fabricate the venturi mixer device are shown in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3-1: Materials, tools, and machines used for mixer manufacturing.

Item Quantity
Steel rod 50mm diameter with 250mm length
Drilling tool 18mm, 8mm and 4.5mm diameter
cutting tool 02
Glass paper 04
Lathe machine 01
Drilling machine 01

Before starting an experimental investigation, it is essential to have a basic understanding of the

equipment required for the experiment and a detailed understanding of how it works, its range,

20 | P a g e
and its accuracy. In this dissertation, an air biogas mixer device was manufactured and used
experimentally in a modified diesel engine setup. In this regard, Table 3.2 shows the materials
and equipment used to perform the experimental tests.

Table 3-2 List of materials and equipment used for experimental test.

No Item Quantity
1 Diesel fuel 5 Liter
2 Biogas 8 bar compressed cylinder
3 Diethyl ether 2 Liter
4 Biogas Flow control valve 02
5 Rotameter (flow meter) 01
6 Pressure gauge 01
7 Diesel engine 01
8 Dynamometer 01
9 Exhaust gas analyzer 01
10 Computer (desktop) 01
11 Biogas-air mixer device 01

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3.2 Methodology

To address the general and specific objectives of this work, a well-designed methodology was
followed. There were combinations of procedures that were used to accomplish this study. These
involved the design, fluent analysis, and then manufacturing of the biogas-air mixer device,
preparing fuels (collecting biogas from digester outlets, purchasing Diethyl ether and diesel fuel),
and also preparing the experimental engine setup of the test engine for experimentation and
analysis of experimental results. This thesis work was conducted based on the following
procedures, summarized as shown in Figure 3.1 below:

Design and fluent analysis of

biogas-air mixer device

Manufacturing of biogas-air mixer device

Determining composition of biogas

preparing the experimental engine

setup and conducting the experiment

Performance test (BP, BTE and BSFC) Emission test (CO,𝐶𝑂2,HC and 𝑁𝑂𝑋 )

Comparing results with baseline

diesel fuel

Conclusion and recommendation

Figure 3-1: Block diagram of the procedure of this thesis work.

22 | P a g e
3.3 Design of biogas-air mixer device

The biogas-air mixing device is designed according to the carburetion principle. For designing
the air-biogas mixer device, the parameters (which affect the proper mixing of the mixture and
thereby influence the performance and emission characteristics of the engine) that should be
considered are mixer sizes (i.e., diameter at the inlet and throat of the mixer, angle of the
converging and diverging section of the mixer) and biogas fuel inlet holes (i.e., number of holes,
the diameter of holes and angle of biogas inlet holes to the air inlet).

3.3.1 Design calculation of the venturi mixer

The design calculations, which were considered for designing the venturi mixer, are based on
manual start, stationary, single-cylinder test bench engine R180 start, and technical specification
as shown in Table 3.6 which is found in the Defence University College of Engineering,
Bishoftu, Ethiopia.

For this calculation, the flow is considered incompressible, with velocity, pressure, and diameter
at both the inlet and outlet of the mixer being assumed to be constant. The temperature and
pressure of the air at the inlet of the mixer are taken as atmospheric, the following assumption is
considered in this study. The air is composed of only oxygen and nitrogen with 23% and 77%
by volume respectively and its molecular mass is 28.97 g/mole. At STP T=250C and P=101325
Pa, ⍴𝑎 =1.184 kg/m3 and speed of sound=343 m/s, the universal gas constant(R) is 8.314 J/mol.K
and biogas is composed of 60% methane (CH4) and 40% CO2 only.

Typical maximum values of volumetric efficiency (𝜂𝑣 ) for naturally aspirated engines are
in the range between 80% and 90%, and it is for diesel engines somewhat higher than SI
engines[35]. Therefore, it is assumed as 90% in the present work.

3.3.1.1 Design calculation in diesel fuel mode

Then the required mass airflow rate of a four-stroke engine has been determined by the equation.
• •
ma = Q a  a (Eq. 3.1)

•
Where; m a = mass flow rate of air in ( kg s )

23 | P a g e
 ( )
•
3
Q a = required airflow rate m s

 a = density of air ( kg m ) 3

The required airflow rate for the engine operation must be determined. It can be found by
solving the equation below: [36].
• v  Vd  N
Qa = (Eq. 3.2)
n  60

Where; v =volumetric efficiency assumed to be 90%

Vd =Displacement volume (𝑚3 )
𝑁 = maximum engine speed (rpm)
n=2 (crank revolution of the four-stroke engine)
The displacement volume (𝑉𝑑) for the testing engine is obtained by the formula [33].
  b2
Vd =  s  Nc (Eq. 3.3)
4

Where; b = cylinder bore diameter(m)

Nc = Number of cylinders (i.e., equal to 1)
S= Cylinder stroke(m)
  ( 0.08m )
2

Vd =  0.08m 1 = 4.02 10−4 m3

4
Then, the required airflow rate enters into the testing engine cylinder at maximum power output
in diesel-only mode is:
•0.9  4.02 10−4 m3  2600
Qa = = 0.00784 m3 s
2  60
Therefore, the mass airflow rate to the engine cylinder at maximum power output in diesel-only
mode becomes:
•
m a = 0.00784 m3 s  1.184 kg m 3 = 0.00928 kg s = 33.408 kg hr

Since the inlet air velocity to the mixer is based on maximum engine speed, where maximum
power output is obtained when the throttle is wide open[37].
•
Q a = Vi  Ai (Eq. 3.4)

Where; Va =Inlet air velocity to the mixer (m s)

24 | P a g e
 Ai =inlet area of the mixer ( m2 )
To determine the inlet velocity, first, the inlet area (Ai) of the mixer should be calculated [37].
 ( Di )
2

Ai = (Eq. 3.5)
4

Where; Di= inlet diameter of the mixer which is equal to the inlet manifold hose diameter of the
indicated testing engine (i.e., 43 mm). Then the inlet area of the mixer is;
 ( 0.043m )
2

Ai = = 0.001452 m 2
4
Therefore, air velocity at the inlet of the mixer in diesel-only mode is:
•
Qa 0.00784 m3 s
Vi = = = 5.4 m s
Ai 0.001452m 2
During designing a venturi mixer device, the throat-to-pipe diameter ratio (beta, 𝛽, ratio) will be
in the range of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standard which is from
0.25 to 0.75[38]. For this design, the beta ratio is taken as 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6.

Hence the throat diameter is equal to the product of the beta and air inlet diameter of the mixer.
That is:

Dt =   Di (Eq. 3.6)

Where; Dt=throat diameter (m)

 = throat to pipe diameter ratio (beta ratio).
Thus at  = 0.4
Dt = 0.4  0.043m = 0.0172m = 17.2 mm
Then the throat area (𝐴𝑡 ) becomes;
  ( Dt )
2

At =
4

  ( 0.0172m )
2

At = = 0.000232m 2
4
From the continuity equation volume flow rate at the inlet is equal to the volume flow rate at the
throat and that at the outlet of the venture.

25 | P a g e
 • • •
Qi = Qt = Qo (Eq. 3.7)

Where; Q i =air flow rate at the inlet of the venturi ( m3 s )

•

( )
•
3
Qt =air flow rate at the throat of the venturi m s

( )
•
3
Qo = Air flow rate at the outlet of the venturi m s

Thus;
•
Qt = Vt  At (Eq. 3.8)

Where; Vt =the velocity of air at the venturi throat (𝑚⁄𝑠)

Therefore, the throat velocity becomes;
•
Qi 0.007839 m3 s
Vt = = = 33.79 m s
At 0.000232 m 2
The throat of the venturi causes to raise in the air velocity as a linear function of the change in
cross-sectional area and the Mach number (M) at the point where the flow velocity is maximum
(at the throat) should be less than 0.3 for considering a flow is an incompressible flow [39]. The
venturi area is calculated as an equation

The velocity at the throat of the venturi is calculated by:

V = M C (Eq. 3.9)

Where; V =maximum velocity observed through the venturi (m s)

M=Mach number
C=speed of sound (m s)
From the above equation;
V 33.79 m s
M= = = 0.098
C 343 m s
Therefore, the flow is considered an incompressible flow. In the flows of gases at low Mach
number, the density of a fluid can be considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations
in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can be considered to be incompressible and these flows are

26 | P a g e
called incompressible flows. A common form of Bernoulli's equation, valid at any arbitrary point
along a streamline is[36].

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ gZ1 + = + gZ 2 + (Eq. 3.10)
a 2 a 2

Where: p1 and p2 = Pressure at the inlet and throat respectively (N m2 )

Z1 and Z 2 = The elevations of the point above a reference plane (𝑚)

V1 and V2 = Velocities at the inlet and throat respectively (m s)

g = acceleration due to gravity in ( m s 2 )

Assuming height different Z1=Z2 and p1 = patm

Where; p1 = 101325 Pa and density of air,  a = 1.184 ( kg m3 )

Then the vacuum created at the throat is:
V22 − V12
P =  a
2
33.792 − 5.3982
P = 1.184 = 658.67 pa
2
3.3.1.2 Design calculation in dual fuel mode

The biogas flow control valve is to be opened after the engine startup in diesel fuel mode.
As the biogas flow control valve starts to open then the vacuum created at the throat in
diesel-only mode sucks biogas from its source to the mixer. Hence the amount of airflow
rate to the engine cylinder decreases and is substituted by biogas. Frequently the engine starts
to operate in dual fuel mode. Thus, the total mass flow rate of air in diesel fuel mode is
equal to the sum of the mass flow rate of air and biogas in dual fuel mode due to the fixed
the volume of the engine cylinder.

•
• •
( m a ) Diesel mode = (ma + mbg ) Dual fuel mode
•
Where; m bg = mass flow rate of biogas in dual fuel mode (kg/s)
• • • •
(ma + mbg ) = (Q a   a + Qbg bg ) (Eq. 3.11)

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 • • • •
(ma + mbg ) = (Q a   a + Q bg bg ) = 0.00928 kg s

Where;  bg = density of biogas (kg m )

3

a = 1.184 kg m3
The density of biogas is also calculated by the following formula[40].
p
bg = (Eq. 3.12)
 +T

Where; P = ambient pressure (Pa)

T = ambient temperature (K)
𝛾 = universal biogas gas constant ( kJ kg.K )
The universal biogas gas constant is calculated[40].
R
=
M bg

Where; R= universal gas constant (8.314 J mol.K )

M bg =molecular mass of biogas ( g mol )

Therefore, the density of biogas (  bg ) is equal to 1.12 kg m

3

The volumetric air flow rate becomes;

• •
(Q a   a + Qbg bg ) = 0.00928 kg s
• •
(1.184 Q a + 1.12 Q bg ) = 0.00928 kg s
• •
Q a = 0.00784 − 0.9459 Qbg (Eq. 3.13)

Since biogas contains more components but only methane is combusted. So, for stoichiometric
combustion of methane, one mole of methane is completely burnt by two moles of air as shown
below.

CH 4 + 2 ( O2 + 3.76 N 2 ) → CO2 + 2H 2O + 7.5N 2

From the above reaction, the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is 17.2. Thus it becomes[37].

28 | P a g e
 • •
ma Q a  a
•
= •
= 17.2 (Eq. 3.14)
mf Q CH 4  CH 4

•
Where; m f = Mass flow rate of methane ( kg s )
•
3
Q CH 4 = Volume flow rate of methane ( m s )

CH 4 =Density of methane ( 0.656 kg m3 )

Where the density of methane and universal methane gas constant is;
P R
CH = and  =
4
 T M CH 4

Where; M CH 4 =molecular mass of methane (g/mol)

Then the volume flow rate of methane is:

• •
Q CH 4 = 0.6 Q bg (Eq. 3.15)

When substituting (Eq. 15) in (Eq. 14) the volume airflow rate becomes:
• •
Q a = 5.7178 Qbg (Eq. 3.16)

Also, substitute (Eq. 16) to (Eq. 13) the volume airflow rate becomes:
• •
Q a = 6.5372 Q bg (Eq. 3.17)

•
•
From equations (13) & (15) Solve for Q a and Q bg
•
•
Q bg = 0.0011765 m3 s and Q a = 0.006726 m3 s

3 3
Therefore; m a = Q a   = 0.006726 m s 1.184 kg m = 0.007963 kg s
a

= 28.67 kg hr
• •
mbg = Qbg  bg = 0.0011765 m3 s 1.12 kg m3 = 0.0013176 kg s

= 4.743kg hr

29 | P a g e
 •
Since Q a = Vi  Ai ; then the air inlet velocity in dual fuel mode is;
•
Q 0.006726 m3 s
Vi = a = = 4.6315 m s
Ai 0.0014522 m2
Initially, the biogas is sucked by the vacuum created at the throat in diesel fuel mode and the
velocity inside the biogas cylinder is zero. Hence, the velocity of the biogas flow is
obtained by using Bernoulli’s equation[36]

2 P
Vbg = (Eq. 3.18)
bg

Where; Vbg = biogas flow velocity (m/s)

Then the velocity of biogas flow at the exit of the fuel tube is: Vbg =34.295 m/s
•
Since Q bg = Vbg  Abg ; then the fuel inlet area is:
•
Q bg 0.0011765 m3 s
Abg = = = 0.34305 cm 2
Vbg 34.295 m s

The diameter of the biogas inlet depends on the number of biogas inlet holes and is given
below[41].
 d bg2
Abg = n (Eq. 3.19)
4

Where; dbg = diameter of biogas inlet (m)

n = the number of biogas inlet holes which are taken as 2.

Therefore, the diameter of each hole is;

2 Abg 4  34.305 mm 2
dbg = = = 4.67 mm
2 2

30 | P a g e
Table 3-3 Different parameters of a venturi mixer at a different beta ratio.

Parameters  = 0.4  = 0.5  = 0.6

Throat area At ( cm2 ) 2.32 3.63 5.228

Velocity at the throat Vt ( m s ) 33.79 21.592 15

Biogas inlet velocity Vbg ( m s ) 34.295 21.5 14.4

Biogas inlet area Abg ( cm2 ) 0.34305 0.547 0.817

Diameter of biogas inlet holes dbg ( mm ) 4.67 5.9 7.2

Mach number (M) 0.098 0.0629 0.043

Vacuum the throat P ( Pa ) 658.67 258.748 115.95

According to different research works and the American Society for test mechanical engineers,
the following dimensioning should consider getting better design and results.

The inlet part length of the mixer recommends as:

L1  D1 L1  0.043 m ( or ) L1  43 mm

For conical convergent recommend as

1 = 210  10 = 200 ,210 ,220
Take 1 = 21

(D − d ) 2 (D − d )
tan 1 = ( or ) L =
L 2  tan 1

Where; D = Di =inlet diameter of the mixer (mm)

d = Dt =throat diameter (mm)

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 (43 − 17.2)
For β= 0.4 length become L= = 33.6 mm
2  tan 1
(43 − 21.5)
For β= 0.5 length become L= = 28 mm
2  tan 1
(43 − 25.8)
For β= 0.6 length become L= = 22.4 mm
2  tan 1
For the throat; L = d  0.03d
For  = 0.4 L = 17.2  0.03 17.2 = 17.716 or 16.684 = 17.5 mm
For  = 0.5 L = 21.5  0.03  21.5 = 22.145 or 20.855 = 21 mm
For  = 0.6 L = 25.8  0.03  25.8 = 26.574 or 25.02 = 25.5 mm
For conical divergent

 2 = between70 to 150; but the recommended one is between 70 and 80 by taking an angle 80.
(43 − 17.2)
For β= 0.4 length become L= = 91.78 mm
2  tan  2
(43 − 21.5)
For β= 0.5 length become L= = 76.5 mm
2  tan  2
(43 − 25.8)
For β= 0.6 length become L= = 61.2 mm
2  tan  2

32 | P a g e
Table 3-4: Geometrical dimensions of venturi mixer for Ansys numerical simulation.

β γbg Ө1 LC Dbg Lt Dt Ld Ө2 Li &Lo Di &Do

(0) (0) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (0) (mm) (mm)
0.4 90 21 33.6 4.67 17.5 17.2 91.78 8 35 43
0.4 60 21 33.6 4.67 17.5 17.2 91.78 8 35 43
0.4 45 21 33.6 4.67 17.5 17.2 91.78 8 35 43
0.5 90 21 28 6 21 21.5 76.5 8 35 43
0.5 60 21 28 6 21 21.5 76.5 8 35 43
0.5 45 21 28 6 21 21.5 76.5 8 35 43
0.6 90 21 22.4 7.2 25.4 25.8 61.2 8 35 43
0.6 60 21 22.4 7.2 25.4 25.8 61.2 8 35 43
0.6 45 21 22.4 7.2 25.4 25.8 61.2 8 35 43

γbg – gas inlet angle, Ө1-convergent angle, Lc-convergent length, Dbg-gas inlet diameter, Lt-
throat length, Dt-throat diameter, Ld-divergent length, Ө2- divergent angle, Li &Lo -inlet
&outlet length, Di &Do- inlet &outlet diameter

3.4 Modeling and mesh Generation

In this work, ANSYS Workbench 21.2 was used to generate new mixer models. The new mixer
models were meshes using the tetrahedron's approach, patch conforming, inflation, and
curvature. The mixer was separated into tetrahedral pieces using the tetrahedron approach. Solid
work was utilized to draw the mixer models without the movable mechanical mechanism, as
shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3-2 Model and Mesh of the biogas-air mixer device

33 | P a g e
Since the inlet and outlet diameter of the venturi has to be prefixed based on an engine air intake
manifold. That is:

Inlet manifold diameter = Inlet venturi diameter = Outlet venturi diameter = 43 mm.

To provide homogeneous mixtures of a gas fuel with air (biogas-air) inside the modeled mixer,
three gas inlet angles (900, 600, and 450), divergent angles (80), and beta ratios of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6
Analyzing the whole mixing process in a Venturi gas mixer, it is very important to know, how
the concentrations of methane mass fraction and air changes through the whole mixer section for
enhancing homogeneous mixture at maximum velocity and moderate pressure drop at the throat.

3.5 Boundary condition

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is based on the numerical solution of the three
fundamental fluid dynamics equations: continuity, momentum, and energy. In the current study,
tetrahedral meshes are used in all simulations. Below are the inputs made in the simulation.

Turbulence flow: This involves the use of a turbulence model, which generally requires the
solution of additional transport equations. In this case, the standard k-ε model is used.

Mixing flow without reaction: This requires the solution of additional equations for mixture
fractions of species mass fractions. In this simulation, it is assumed that there is no reaction
between air and biogas.

Air inlet boundary: The condition needed to be specified in inlet boundaries is the fixed
velocity condition. For the fixed velocity condition, the flow solver determines the mass flow
rate applied to each face of the boundary using the velocity specification, the pressure, the
temperature, and the fluid property density.

Biogas inlet boundary: A fixed static pressure inlet boundary condition was used at the fuel
inlets. By using this boundary condition type, the mass of the fuel inducted into the venturi will
be part of the solution.

Outlet boundaries: The fixed-pressure outlet boundary conditions serve to anchor the system
pressure and allow both inflow and outflow to satisfy continuity in the domain.

34 | P a g e
Table 3-5: Boundary conditions.

Boundary Type Pressure Velocity Temperature Species

(pa) (m/s) (k)
Fuel tube Stationary wall ZNG No -slip ZNG -
Air inlet In flow ZNG 4.6315 300 Air :1, CH4:0
β ratio
0.4 In flow // 34.295 // Air :0, CH4:1

Fuel inlet 0.5 In flow // 21.5 // Air :0, CH4:1

0.6 In flow // 14.4 // Air :0, CH4:1
Mixture outlet Outflow // ZNG - -

ZNG - Zero Normal Gradient

3.6 Venturi Gas Mixer Manufacturing Process

The designed air-biogas venturi mixer device is manufactured from steel rod material by using a
lathe and a drilling machine. Operations that were implemented during the manufacturing of the
mixer are:

Turning process: Using a cutting tool on the lathe machine, a turning operation is performed to
reduce the diameter of steel rods from 50 mm to 43 mm and to finish the surface.

Drilling process: After dividing the circumference of the throat into two equal places and
scratching with a scratcher, the steel rod is drilled longitudinally at the center entirely with an
18mm diameter drilling tool, and biogas inlet holes are drilled at 450 with a diameter of 7 mm at
the throat.

Tapering process: The cutting tool is positioned at 210 on the compound head for tapering the
convergent portion, and then the air inlet section is tapered. Secondly, the cutting tool is again set
at 80 on the compound head for tapering the divergent (mixture outlet) section. Follow the same
tapering procedure for the outer surface of the mixer.

Welding process: We used a welding process to allow the biogas to be injected into two
pipelines. Finally, glass paper was used to complete the surface of the tapered and turned surface.

35 | P a g e
 Figure 3-3 Produced biogas-air mixer device.

3.7 Compositions and Storage Mechanism of Biogas

3.7.1 Compositions of Biogas

The composition of raw biogas was measured using a Geotechnical instrument (Geotech CV31
3JR, England) biogas analyzer from Addis Ababa University and the average test results are
tabulated in Table 3.6 below. biogas composition measuring instrument and raw biogas Sample
stored in glucose bag are given in Figure 3.4 below.

Table 3-6 Composition of biogas.

Components Percentage (% by Vol.)

Methane, CH4 (% by Vol.) 62.5
Carbon dioxide, CO2 (% by Vol.) 23.9
Oxygen, O2 ((% by Vol.) 4
Traces gases (H2S, H2, N2, etc.) 9.6

Figure 3-4 Gas composition measuring instrument and raw biogas Sample.

36 | P a g e
3.7.2 Storage of Biogas

Raw biogas in the digester is stored in a 16-bar air compressor, as shown in Figure 3.5 below.
Initially, the inlet of the air compressor was connected by a hose to the outlet pipe of the biogas
digester. Before starting the compressor, connect it to a power source and fully close the
compressor's outlet one-way valve. A push button then starts the compressor, which compresses
the biogas from a 10 m3 biogas digester at a rated pressure of 8 bars on the compressor cylinder
pressure gauge. Finally, the compressed biogas stored in the compressor cylinder itself was
transported to the experimental workshop.

Figure 3-5 Compressed biogas

3.8 Experimental setup and procedure

The Experimental test ring was conducted in a single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled,

constant speed, stationary, direct injection diesel engine developing with a rated power output of
5.67 kW @ 2,600 rpm. A hydro- dynamometer is coupled with the engine as the loading unit. The
technical specifications of the engine are shown below in Table 3.7. The experimental
investigation was conducted in two combustion modes under a steady state condition with
different engine loads. In the single-fuel combustion mode, a neat diesel pilot fuel was
respectively fueled without any additives, and then the performance and exhaust emission of the
engine was tested and the values were recorded. In the case of dual-fuel combustion, the engine
37 | P a g e
was dual-fueled with biogas–diesel and biogas–diesel with Diethyl ether blend, using Diesel and
DEE as pilot fuel, whereas biogas was the primary fuel respectively. The schematic
representation of the experimental setup is illustrated below in Figure 3.6 respectively.

Figure 3-6 Schematic representation of experimental setup of the test engine

The existing diesel engine is modified for dual fuel mode (DFM) by connecting a venturi gas
mixer in the inlet manifold. The venturi gas mixer is fabricated based on the simulation results.
The biogas used for this investigation is procured from a fixed dome-type biogas digester, which
uses pig manure as feedstock. The setup enables the evaluation of performance parameters and
emission constituents of the diesel engine. The engine performance parameters include PB (kW),
BSFC (kg/kWh), and BTE (%). The engine exhaust emissions levels are measured using an
FGA-4100 exhaust gas analyzer. The CO, and CO2, emissions were measured in percentage
volume (%Vol). Whereas HC, and NOX were measured in ppm during each run of the engine.
The experimental investigation was done on three different DEE percentage blend ratios with
diesel fuel and three biogas flow rates. Besides, all the tests are carried out at a constant speed of
1500 rpm, and the engine standard CR=21:1 and IT=230 bTDC. The photograph representation of
the experimental setup is illustrated below in Figure 3.7, respectively.

38 | P a g e
 Rotameter Engine speed display Engine load display

Compressed biogas
Emission analyzer

Fuel flow meter

air flow meter

Dynamometer
Gas mixer

Figure 3-7 Photograph of the experimental setup.

Initially, the engine was started with conventional diesel fuel at zero engine loads. All the
tests were taken after the engine reached its operating temperature and at a constant engine
speed of 1500 RPM, which is set fixed on the engine governors. The diesel engine is tested
initially with diesel fuel for baseline data for each load condition according to the baseline
a test matrix is shown in Table 3.11. The load was ranging from 20 to 100% in a step-up of
20% and as the load varies consequently the brake torque varied and is displayed on the data
acquisition computer. The biogas flow control valve is to be opened after the engine startup in
diesel fuel mode. As the biogas flow control valve starts to open then the vacuum created at the
throat in diesel-only mode sucks biogas from its source to the mixer. The flow rate was adjusted
and regulated by Rotameter. The flow rate of biogas in dual fuel mode was demonstrated with
2L/min, 4L/min, and 6L/min. Then the performance and emissions of the engine were tested and
the values were recorded with diesel (D) fuel, D + BG@2L/min flow rate, D + BG@4L/min
flow rate, and D + BG@6L/min flow rate for each load conditions at a constant engine speed of
1500 rpm. In each experiment, the various emissions concentration such as CO, HC, CO2, and
NOx emissions were measured using an exhaust gas analyzer, and the fuel flow rate was also
39 | P a g e
recorded using the fuel burette as shown in appendix Figure B-1 The performance parameters of
BTE and BSFC were calculated by using equation (3.23 - 3.28)

Table 3-7 Technical specifications for diesel engine.

Name Details
Make mode R180
Engine type 4-stroke, water-cooled, single-cylinder,
Loading device Hydro-dynamometer
Rated power 5.67 kW at 2600 rpm
Cylinder bore and stroke 80 mm x 80 mm
Compression ratio 21:1
Injection timing 23 0 Btdc

After various experiments have been carried out for baseline and dual fuel mode data at ambient
intake air temperature and pressure. Then experiments were also executed again once three
different percentage ratios of DEE blend with diesel fuel by running the engine with biogas in
dual fuel mode. The diesel fuel was replaced with the diesel-DEE blends with biogas dual fuel
mode and the test was conducted by a varying load on the engine. The volumetric proportions of
diesel and DEE blend in Biogas dual fuel mode were demonstrated with D95DEE5, D90DEE10,
and D85DEE15 as the blending test matrix is shown in Table 3.11. Following the same
procedure of baseline and biogas-diesel dual fuel mode data recording, performance analysis,
load variation, etc. as explained above. Finally, the engine performance and emission parameters
were recorded, calculated, and plotted against varying engine loads.

3.9 Fuel properties

In this thesis study, three test fuels (diethyl ether, biogas, and diesel) were used. Diesel and DEE
are used as pilot fuels, with a different blend ratio of DEE and diesel directly injected into the
combustion chamber using a mechanical diesel injector. The DEE used in these tests was
purchased from Merry Sanitation Chemicals Manufacturer (MSCM) company in Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia. Fuel properties that are important from engine performance and emission point of view
such as density, viscosity, lower heating value, flash point, cetane index, etc., were shown in
Table 3.8[20]. The cetane number refers to the number with which the fuel ignites easily at a

40 | P a g e
relatively low temperature. A high cetane number confirms good cold starting ability, long
engine life, and low noise. The cetane numbers of blended fuel are based on the amount and
properties of fuel and additives used in the blends. However, diethyl ether contributes to
improving combustion quality for the blend, such as higher Cetane number and high oxygen
content, which deteriorated as a result of the biogas introduction. In all cases, biogas is used as
primary fuel (provides major energy share) under dual fuel mode (DFM) with minimal
modification on the engine intake manifold.

Table 3-8 Properties of the base fuel.

Properties Diesel DEE

Chemical Structure C12 H 26 C2 H 5 − O − C2 H 5
Density (kg/m3) 830 713
Viscosity (C.P.) mm2/s(200C) 2.7 0.23
Auto ignition point (℃) 200-420 160
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 42.5 33.9
Oxygen content (%Wt) 0-3 21
Stoichiometric A/F Ratio 14.6 11.1
Cetane number 50 >125
Latent Heat of Vaporization (kJ/kg - 356

Figure 3-8 diesel and diethyl ether fuel ready for experimentation

41 | P a g e
Table 3-9 Properties of biogas[42].

Properties Biogas

Density (kg/m3) 1.12*

Auto ignition temperature (0C) 650
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 20.460*
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 17
Octane number 130
Laminar burning velocity (m/s) 0.2

* Calculated value (see section 3.3.1 and 3.12).

Density and Calorific values of D95DEE5, D90DEE10, and D85DEE15 are determined using
equation 3.20 and equation 3.21. Table 3.10 presents the composition and calculated property
values of blended fuels.

Table 3-10 The composition and properties of tested fuels.

Fuels (% by Vol.) Properties

Density at 20℃ (kg/m3) Lower heating value (MJ/kg)
Diesel (D100) 830 42.5
Diethyl ether (DEE100) 713 33.9
D95DEE5 824.15 42.127
D90DEE10 818.3 41.753
D85DEE15 812.45 41.367

The equations used to predict the density of diesel-diethyl ether blends were based on Kay’s
mixing rule, in which the density of the blends was determined using the individual
characteristics of the components of the blends[43].

blend =  D  vD +  DEE  vDEE (Eq. 3.20)

where blend is the predictable density of the blend,  DEE and  D are the density of the diesel and

Diethyl ether, respectively. vD and vDEE refer to the volume fractions of diesel and Diethyl ether
respectively.

42 | P a g e
The LHV was predicted based on the volumetric fractions, density, and energy fractions of each
blend component. The impact of Diethyl ether additions on the lower heating value (LHV) of
diesel was predicted for different diesel- Diethyl ether blends using the following formula[44].

LHVblend = ( vD  LHVD   D + vDEE  LHVDEE  DEE ) blend (Eq. 3.21)

Where LHVD and LHVDEE refer to the heating values (MJ/Kg) of diesel and Diethyl ether
respectively: and vD and vDEE refer to the volume fractions of diesel and Diethyl ether

respectively. ρD, ρDEE, and ρblend refer to the densities of diesel, Diethyl ether, and their blend,
respectively.

43 | P a g e
3.10 Experimental test matrix

An experimental test matrix is the number of tests that are being executed and guidance for
experimental work. Baseline and dual fuel mode experimental test matrixes are listed below.

Table 3-11 Experimental test matrixes

Mode of Engine operating parameters Evaluating engine

operation CR, IP, and IT Load (%) Test fuels parameters
Diesel fuel
mode D
(a)Performance parameters:
D+BG@2L/min i. Brake power (Pb)
D+BG@4L/min ii. BSFC
Set fixed as
20%-100% in D+BG@6L//min iii. BTE
factories
a step of 20% Select an optimal (b) Emission parameters:
recommended
Dual fuel biogas flow rate i. CO Emission
mode D95DEE5 +BG ii. CO2 Emission
D90DEE10+BG iii. HC Emission
D85DEE15+BG iv. NOx Emission
(BG- optimal
biogas flow rate)
CR- compression ratio, IP- injection pressure, IT – injection timing, D- diesel fuel,
D+BG@2L/min – diesel plus biogas at 2L/min, D95DEE5 +BG – 95% diesel fuel, 5% diethyl
ether with an optimum biogas flow rate

3.11 Performance Parameter Analysis

The recorded data in PC are used to calculate the different dependent engine parameters, which
are essential to perform the engine performance analysis such as brake power, brake specific fuel
consumption, and brake thermal efficiency was evaluated by fueling the engine; diesel (D) fuel,
D + BG@2L/min, D + BG@4L/min, D + BG@6L/min, and also D95DEE5, D90DEE10, and
D85DEE15 (with optimal biogas flow rate) by varying engine load conditions.

3.11.1 Brake power (Pb)

One of the most important matrixes for engine performance is output power. Brake power is the
actual engine power output at the output shaft of the engine in kW. This power is related to the
torque applied to the crankshaft during the engine runs, and its value changes as the engine loads
change.

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 2  N  T
Pb = (Eq. 3.22)
60, 000

Where T and N refer to engine torque in (N-m) and engine speed in (rpm) respectively.

3.11.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)

Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of output brake power to the energy supplied by the
fuel. For pure diesel mode, it is calculated as [45].

3, 600  Pb
bth ( % ) =  100 (Eq. 3.23)
M d  LHVd

Where,  bth = Brake thermal efficiency (%)

•
M d =mass flow rate of diesel in pure diesel mode in (𝑘𝑔⁄ℎ𝑟)

LHVd = Lower 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 diesel 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (kJ/𝑘𝑔)

In biogas-diesel dual-fuel mode, brake thermal efficiency is given by the following formula
[42].

3, 600  Pb
bth ( % ) = 100 (Eq. 3.24)
M dd  LHVd + M bg  LHVbg

•
Where, M dd = mass flow rate of diesel in a dual fuel mode in (kg/hr)
•
M bg = mass flow rate of biogas in (kg/hr)

LHVbg = lower 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 biogas in (kJ/𝑘𝑔)

While in the case of a diesel-Diethyl ether fuel blend in biogas dual fuel mode, brake thermal
efficiency is given by the following formula:

3,600  Pb
bth ( % ) = 100 (Eq. 3.25)
M blend  LHVblend + M bg  LHVbg

•
Where M blend = mass flow rate of the fuel blend in (kg/hr)
LHVblend = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 the 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 blend (kJ/𝑘𝑔)

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3.11.3 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)

Specific fuel consumption is the measure of the engine’s ability to produce power by
utilizing the energy content of the fuel. The specific fuel consumption of an engine should
be minimized for the desired power output to optimize engine performance[46]. Brake-specific
fuel consumption is the ratio of the mass flow rate of fuel consumed by the engine to the brake
power in which the engine is produced. In a dual-fuel engine, engine power is obtained from the
combustion of two fuels. Diesel and Diethyl ether a pilot fuels, while Biogas is a primary fuel.
When the testing engine run in diesel fuel mode, BSFC is calculated as[47]:
•
Md
BSFC = (Eq. 3.26)
Pb

Where BSFC= Brake Specific Fuel Consumption in (kg/kWh)

In the case of a diesel engine operated in dual fuel mode, BSFC is given by the following
formula[47].
• •
M dd + M bg
BSFC = (Eq. 3.27)
Pb

While in the case of diesel engines operated in dual fuel mode, with different percentages of
DEE additive. BSFC is given by the following formula.
• •
M blend + M bg
BSFC = (Eq. 3.28)
Pb

The heating value of biogas is calculated by the following formula[48]:

VCH 4
LHVbg =  CH 4 act  LHVCH 4 (Eq. 3.29)
Vtot

Where; LHVbg = lower heating value of a given biogas in (kJ/kg)

VCH 4 =percentage volume of methane in biogas (0.62)

Vtot =Total percentage volume which is taken as 1

CH 4 act =Actual density of methane (kg/m3)

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 LHVCH4 = lower heating value of methane (50,000 kJ/kg)
Since the actual density of methane is calculated as follows[48]:
Pact Tstd
CH act = CH 4 std   (Eq. 3.30)
4
Pstd Tact

Were, CH 4 std =Density of methane at standard condition (0.72 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 )

Pact =Actual or ambient pressure

Pstd =Pressure at standard condition (101325 pa)
Tstd = Temperature at standard condition (273 k)
Tact =Actual or room temperature (298 k)
For calculation, the pressure ratio is taken as 1. Then the actual density of methane is:
𝜌𝐶𝐻4 𝑎𝑐𝑡 =0.66 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
Therefore, the lower heating value of the given biogas becomes: LHVCH = 20, 460 kJ kg
4

3.12 Emission Parameters and Measuring Procedure

The emission parameters of diesel engines such as CO, CO2, HC, and NOx were measured by
using an exhaust gas analyzer when the engine operates in pure diesel mode, diesel dual fuel
mode, and diesel-Diethyl ether blended with biogas dual fuel mode at various load conditions.
During the experiments, exhaust gases were measured using Automobile Exhaust Gas Analyzer
FGA-4100(4G). The photographic view of the FGA-4100(4G) exhaust gas analyzer is shown in
Figure 3.9. The measuring range and errors for the gas analyzer are given in Table 3.12 below.

Table 3-12 Typical Measurement range of FGA-4100(4G) exhaust gas analyzer.

Species Measurement range Allowed error Relative error

CO (0~10) ×10-2vol ±0.06 ×10-2vol ±5%
CO2 (0~20) ×10-2vol ±0.5 ×10-2vol ±5%

HC (0~9,999) ×10-6vol ±12 ×10-6vol. ±5%

NOx 0-5,000 ×10-6vol ±25 ×10-6vol ±4%

O2 (0~25) ×10-2vol ±0.1 ×10-2vol ±5%

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 Figure 3-9 Photographic view of FGA-4100(4G) exhaust gas analyzer

3.13 Measuring Procedure

Initially connect (plugin) the exhaust gas analyzer from the power source and turn it ON. The
engine exhaust emission measurements without catalytic treatment were done with a gas
analyzer and the long tailpipe with heat insulation is added on the exhaust side. Exhaust gas
sampling points are provided for emission measurements. which was used to measure the
unburnt hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and nitric oxide (NO)
emissions of the engine exhaust.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter study’s the numerical simulations of the venturi mixer by varying design parameters
and experimental work analysis on the performance and emission characteristics of a dual-fuel
diesel engine. The effect of biogas flow rate, various diesel-DEE blends with biogas dual fuel
mode diesel engine performance, and emission characteristics are also explained in this chapter.

4.2 Numerical Analysis of Mixer design

In the discipline of engineering, modeling and simulation are critical tools for designing
processes. Because it saves money, time, and other issues that can arise during the design and
testing process. To demonstrate the uniformity of the biogas and air combination, the mixing unit
was simulated. The simulation was done using ANSYS ®-FLUENT 2021 R2 version and the
results of the Venturi Gas Mixer are shown below:

4.3 Venturi gas mixer simulation results

The higher velocity at the mixer throat increases the mixing of biogas with air and decreases the
pressure drop across the venture mixer. From the simulation results, the 45-degree gas inlet angle
and a beta ratio of 0.6 is the optimum configuration for the venture mixer. The air and methane
mass fraction produced at the outlet is the selection criteria. The pressure drop at the throat
influences the throat velocity of a mixer. This consequently affects the turbulence and mixing of
species downstream of the mixer. The homogeneous mixing of the air-biogas species at the
molecular level would enhance the combustion process[27]. The pressure variation in the throat
portion is primarily responsible for the biogas inflow. For superior combustion, the mixing of
biogas and air should be homogeneous and uniform.

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 Figure 4-1: Distribution of methane mass fraction contour at 21 degrees.

From the simulation result, compared the three venturi by varying the number of beta ratios and
gas inlet angles, while keeping the other parameters constant, From the above simulation that
beta ratio of 0.6 shows that in the mixer at the throat, two distinct streams of biogas slowly
disappear in the diverging section, and the distribution of biogas turns out to be more uniform
and better mixture homogeneity.

Each numerical modeling analysis should be validated in the form of experimental data or
mathematical calculations, using book definitions. For this reason, in the paper mathematical
calculations, according to the book definition, were made to verify the correctness of these
numerical calculations. The Air-Fuel Ratio (AFR) was calculated for a lean air-gas combustion
mixture for which the most common industrial gas engines operate, with an air excess coefficient
ratio of → λ=1.6, where the stoichiometric (i.e., λ=1.0) Air-Fuel Ratio AFRstoich for methane CH4
m3air
equals 9.52 [49]. the mathematical calculation was presented below:
m3CH 4

m3air
AFRstoich= 9.52
m3CH 4

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where the air excess coefficient ratio of λ=1.6:

AFR AFR m3air

= ; for λ=1.6, 1. 6 = ↔ AFR = 15.232
AFRstoich 9 .5 2 m3CH 4

m3air 0.9384 mair [−]

For AFR = 15.232 3 ⇒
m CH 4 0.0616 mCH 4 [ −]

For an air excess coefficient ratio of λ = 1.6, in which the most common industrial gas engines
operate, the concentration of methane equals CH4 ⇒ 0.0616 CH4 while the concentration of air
⇒ 0.9384 mair. In the next step, a detailed analysis between different gas inlet angles was made,
with average numerical data, to show if numerical results match the mathematical calculations.

Table 4-1: Comparison between mathematical and numerical calculations with specified
Approximation error at the outlet of the Venturi mixer.

Gas inlet Concentration Concentration Air excess Approx. error

angle coefficient
of air Of CH4
(λ)
Unit [0] [-] [-] [-] [%]
Math. 900 0.93840 0.06160 1.6000 0.00
calculation
900 0.93753 0.06247 1.57643 1.49
Numerical 600 0.92423 0.07577 1.27859 9.47
calculation
450 0.87994 0.12006 0.76987 17.8

From the above table describing the concentrations of air and methane mass fraction through the
Venturi mixer, the results calculated with theoretical mathematical formulas show full
compatibility with the numerical calculations performed using Ansys fluent software. The
approximation error for 90° of gas inlet angle is only 1.49 [%], so it can be concluded that the
numerical calculations were performed correctly for these analyzed cases.

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 Figure 4-2: The concentration of methane mass fraction CH4 through the Venturi mixer for
different gas inlet angles.

Figure 4-3: The concentration of air through the Venturi mixer for different gas inlet angles.

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The greater the gas inlet angle, the higher the approximation error, because more methane is
sucked into the Venturi mixer which causes a richer mixture proportion at the outlet of the
Venturi mixer as evidenced by a smaller air excess coefficient ratio, from λ = 1.6 up to λ ≈ 0.77.
Figure 4.2 presented the concentrations of methane mass fraction changing through the Venturi
mixers for different gas inlet angles at convergent, divergent, and beta ratios of 210,80, and 0.4.

Figure 4.3 while analyzing the concentration of air through the Venturi mixer, because in the
total flow volume, there is always 100 [%] air-gas mixture. Thus, the distribution of air
concentration is the mirror image of the distribution of methane concentration. As was shown
previously, the result of numerical calculations matches very well with the theoretical
mathematical calculations. By analyzing the concentration changes of methane CH4 and air
along the flow, it can be observed that the greater the gas inlet angle, the more methane is sucked
into the Venturi mixer which causes a richer mixture proportion at the outlet of the Venturi
mixer.

4.4 Engine performance and exhaust emission of Biogas-diesel dual fuel

diesel engine

The performance characteristics such as (BP, BTE, and BSFC) and exhaust emissions (CO, CO2,
HC, and NOx were measured by using Automobile Exhaust Gas Analyzer FGA-4100) operated
with pure diesel fuel and biogas-diesel dual fuel modes with different biogas flow rate by
varying engine loads at constant engine speed (rpm) and the results are discussed in the
following sections below.

4.4.1 Brake Power (BP)

The engine's power output, known as brake power, is provided by the crankshaft. As shown in
Figure 4.4, the brake power decreases slightly as the biogas flow rate increases in dual fuel
mode. This is due to the lower energy content of biogas and the decrease in available oxygen in
the combustion chamber. The reduction in the air entering the engine also leads to a rich air-to-
fuel ratio, increasing the chance of incomplete combustion. Additionally, the longer ignition
delay and higher ignition temperature of biogas result in a decrease in pressure and temperature
during combustion, leading to a slight decrease in brake power compared to using diesel fuel
alone. On average, a 2.82%, 5.87%, and 8.39% drop in brake power is observed with biogas flow

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rates of 2 L/min, 4 L/min, and 6 L/min respectively, compared to using diesel fuel alone.

Figure 4-4: Variation of brake power versus engine load.

4.4.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)

BTE is a parameter used to determine an engine's performance in converting heat energy into
mechanical energy[50]. Figure 4.5 shows how to brake thermal efficiency (BTE) changes as
engine load increases for diesel fuel and diesel with biogas dual fuel mode. BTE is lower in dual-
fuel mode than in pure diesel mode because biogas, which has high resistance to auto-ignition
and high auto-ignition temperature, acts as a heat sink and lowers the combustion temperature,
reducing energy conversion efficiency. As the biogas flow rate increases in dual-fuel mode, BTE
decreases further, due to the slower flame propagation speed. On average, BTE drops by 8.49%,
12.27%, and 14.12% with biogas flow rates of 2 L/min, 4 L/min, and 6 L/min, respectively,
compared to diesel fuel mode

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 Figure 4-5: Variation of brake thermal efficiency versus engine load.

4.4.3 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)

Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is used as an indicator to evaluate the engine's ability to
transform the amount of consumed fuel into mechanical energy produced[51]. Figure 4.6 shows
brake-specific fuel consumption versus engine load for diesel fuel and all the biogas mixtures.
Brake-specific fuel consumption for both modes was found to be high at a low load of the
engine. This is due to lower output power at a lower load. However, it was found to increase at
high engine load for both modes of operations because of an increase in combustion rate due to
the high air-fuel ratio and high combustion temperature. As the biogas flow rate increased, BSFC
also increased throughout the load spectrum. This is due to the low energy density and slow-
burning of biogas causing higher BSFC in dual fuel mode operation[47]. Moreover, raw biogas
contains more percentage of non-combustible components which reduces its fuel quality. In dual
fuel operation, the average increments in BSFC of 11.26%, 18.18%, and 24.7% are observed

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with biogas flow rates of 2 L/min, 4 L/min, and 6 L/min respectively, then that of diesel fuel
mode.

Figure 4-6: Variation of brake-specific fuel consumption versus engine load.

4.4.4 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Monoxide (% Vol.)

Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion due to an insufficient amount of air in

the air-fuel mixture or insufficient time in the cycle for completion of combustion. Another
reason for higher CO emissions could be the poor mixture formation of gaseous and liquid fuel.
Figure 4.7 depicts the variation of CO emissions with the load. Under all test conditions, the CO
emissions from the biogas-diesel dual fuel mode are significantly higher than those from the
single fuel mode. This is due to the biogas being inducted through the inlet manifold; the oxygen
availability in the intake mixture was lower; which results in improper combustion, and also
because biogas replaces some fresh air, resulting in higher CO emission. It also increases with an
increase in the biogas flow rate. This is due to the high biogas flow rate, which further increases
CO2 concentration and decreases the availability of O2 in the combustion chamber. In dual fuel

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operation, average increments in CO emission of 7.58%, 13.96%, and 18.58% are observed with
biogas flow rates of 2 L/min, 4 L/min, and 6 L/min, respectively, compared to that of diesel fuel
mode.

Figure 4-7: Variation of CO emissions versus engine load.

4.4.5 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Dioxide (%Vol.)

The CO2 emission is an indication of the complete combustion of fuel in the combustion
chamber in the presence of excess oxygen. Figure 4.8 depicts the variation of CO2 emissions
with the load. The CO2 emission increases with increases in load for both modes because of an
increase in combustion rate due to high combustion temperatures as compared to low loads. It
may also be due to high cylinder temperatures; at higher engine loads, some carbon monoxide
converts to CO2 and causes an increase in CO2 emissions. It also increases with an increase in the
biogas flow rate. This is due to the presence of CO2 in raw biogas, which further increases the
CO2 concentration. In dual fuel operation, average increments in CO2 emission of 24.54%,
46.86%, and 52.58% are observed with biogas flow rates of 2 L/min, 4 L/min, and 6 L/min,
respectively, compared to that of the diesel fuel mode.

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 Figure 4-8: Variation of CO2 emissions versus engine load.

4.4.6 Exhaust Emissions of Hydrocarbons (ppm Vol.)

Figure 4.9 depicts the variation of HC emissions versus engine load. The concentration of HC
emissions in dual fuel operation is considerably higher than that of diesel, under all the test
conditions. In dual fuel mode, the presence of biogas increases the ignition delay because of its
higher auto-ignition temperature and reduces the volume of inducted air; hence, combustion
takes place with less oxygen, resulting in higher HC emissions. Furthermore, unburnt HC
increases as the biogas flow rate increases. This is because as the biogas flow rate increases, the
amount of air entering the combustion chamber decreases, which results in a richer mixture as
compared to a low biogas flow rate and causes incomplete combustion inside the cylinder. A
similar trend was reported by[9]. In dual fuel operation, average increments in HC emission of
12.81%, 26.02%, and 37.94% are observed with biogas flow rates of 2L/min, 4L/min, and
6L/min, respectively, compared to that of diesel fuel mode.

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 Figure 4-9: Variation of HC emissions versus engine load.

4.4.7 Exhaust Emissions Nitrogen Oxide (ppm Vol.)

The formation of NO is highly dependent on the combustion temperature, oxygen availability,

compression ratio, and retention time for the reaction. Lower NO emissions are found in the dual
fuel operation compared to that of diesel throughout the load spectrum as shown in figure 4.10
below. This is due to the presence of CO2 in biogas, which further increases the specific heat
capacity of the working fluid and lowers the oxygen concentration of the charge, which thereby
causes the slowing of flame propagation and the lowering of the combustion temperature during
the combustion process[4]. In dual fuel operation, an average reduction in NOx emissions of
17.3%, 28.7%, and 38.36% is observed with biogas flow rates of 2L/min, 4L/min, and 6L/min,
respectively, compared to that of diesel fuel mode.

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 Figure 4-10: Variation of NOx emissions versus engine load.

4.5 Engine performance and exhaust emission of diesel engine operated with
DEE-diesel blends in dual fuel with biogas

The engine performance (BP, BTE, BSFC) and exhaust emission (CO, CO2, HC, NOx) were
determined using different diethyl ether fuels with diesel (D95DEE5, D90DEE10, and
D85DEE15) in dual fuel with biogas at a 2 l/min biogas flow rate by varying engine load at
constant engine speed (rpm), and the results are discussed in the following sections below.

4.5.1 Brake power (Pb)

Fig. 4.11 shows the variation of brake power versus engine load. As engine load increases, brake
power also increases for both modes of operation, but it is slightly lower in dual fuel mode due to
the lower energy density of the gaseous fuel. The addition of fuel additives helps to increase fuel
combustion, but a higher percentage of DEE reduces the overall energy content of the fuel blend.
Despite this, the brake power is still lower in dual fuel operation, resulting in improved

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combustion efficiency. On average, a drop in brake power of 2.82%, 2.19%, 6.572%, and
10.79% is observed when using D, DEE5, DEE10, and DEE15, respectively, with a constant
biogas flow rate of 2 L/min, compared to diesel fuel mode.

Figure 4-11: Variation of brake power versus engine load.

4.5.2 Brake thermal efficiency (BTE)

The BTE is increased under higher loads due to greater brake power and decreased fuel
consumption. The amount of heat energy obtained from the fuel is maximized due to the
decrease in fuel consumption and the efficient burning of HC in the fuel. Fig. 4.12 shows the
variation of brake thermal efficiency with engine load. In pure dual-fuel mode, CO2 acts as an
inert gas, so the presence of CO2 in the biogas increases the specific heat of the intake charge,
increasing the local gas temperature by absorbing thermal energy from combustion. lower it.
Adding 5% DEE to the diesel fuel improved the BTE over the load range. This increase may be
due to DEE's higher cetane number and lower boiling point, which causes it to evaporate more
quickly. Using 10% and 15% blends lowers BTE due to power loss due to the lower calorific
value of the blends compared to DEE5.

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The oxygen content in DEE helped improve the combustion efficiency and burn the fuel more
completely. The higher operating air-to-fuel ratio and the lower stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio of
the DEE caused the engine to operate with a leaner fuel-air mixture. A similar trend was reported
by[52]. In dual fuel operation, an average drop in BTE of 8.49%, 5.46%, and 10.64% is observed
with D, DEE10, and DEE15, whereas an average increment in BTE of 2.63% is observed with
DEE5 at a constant biogas flow rate of 2 L/min, respectively, compared to that of diesel fuel
mode.

Figure 4-12: Variation of brake thermal efficiency versus engine load.

4.5.3 Brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC)

BSFC is the ratio between the rate of fuel consumption and the brake power output. BSFC is
reduced for all the fuel blends as the load on the engine increases, as shown in Figure 4.13
below. This may be because the degree of atomization of fuel and combustion efficiency
increase as the engine load increases. BSFC is lower for a 5% DEE blend. This is due to the
better combustion of diesel fuel, which results in higher heat release. This increase in cylinder

62 | P a g e
pressure results in higher power output. Hence, there is a considerable saving in fuel. When the
DEE composition is further increased, due to a decrease in the calorific value of the fuel and the
low energy density and slow-burning of biogas, that causes a higher BSFC in dual fuel mode
operation. A similar trend was reported by[53]. In dual fuel operation, average increments in
BSFC of 11.26%, 7.15%, and 19.1% are observed with D, DEE10, and DEE15, whereas an
average drop of 4.6% is observed with DEE5 at a biogas flow rate of 2 L/min, respectively,
compared to that of diesel fuel mode.

Figure 4-13: Variation of brake-specific fuel consumption versus engine load.

4.5.4 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Monoxide (% Vol.)

The variation of CO with load for pure diesel and different percentages of DEE blends in dual
fuel mode with biogas was given in Figure 4.14 below. In pure diesel dual fuel mode operation,
higher CO is observed than diesel. This is because of the reduction of oxygen contents in the air
caused by the induction of biogas. The oxygen molecules in DEE blends helped to improve
complete combustion and oxidized the already formed CO to CO2. Addition of 5% DEE in the

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blend, the CO emission level is decreased. Higher levels of DEE could further reduce the energy
content of the fuel blend and the high latent heat of vaporization of DEE which leads to
temperature reduction. A similar trend was reported by[54]. CO concentration is lower at the low
load and it is slightly increased at high load because of increased premixed combustion due to
longer ignition delay[31]. In dual fuel operation, average increments in CO emission of 7.58%,
5.68%, and 16.6% are observed with D, DEE10, and DEE15, whereas an average reduction in
CO emission of 2.75% with DEE5 with a constant biogas flow rate of 2 L/min respectively, then
that of diesel fuel mode.

Figure 4-14: Variation of CO emissions versus engine load.

4.5.5 Exhaust Emissions of Carbon Dioxide (%Vol.)

The CO2 emission indicated the potential for complete combustion. The variation of CO2
emissions with engine load is shown in Figure 4.15. The CO2 emission increases with increases
in load for both modes of operation because of an increase in combustion rate due to high
combustion temperatures as compared to low loads. In dual fuel mode, due to the existence of

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CO2 in biogas, CO2 emissions are higher as compared to diesel mode[9]. Additionally, fuel
blends with DEE have higher CO2 emissions. The main reason behind the increased CO2
emissions is the existence of oxygen particles in the DEE blends. These oxygen particles are
mixed properly with the fuel particles in the blend. This proper mixing of oxygen particles with
diesel blends helps in the complete combustion process. As the amount of oxygenated additive
DEE increases in the fuel blend, more amounts of CO2 are released. Therefore, the increment of
DEE in the fuel blends helps in the combustion process which released more amounts of CO2
particles. In dual fuel operation, average increments in CO2 emission of 24.54%, 28.84%, 35.3%,
and 42.2% are observed with D, DEE5, DEE10, and DEE15 with a constant biogas flow rate of 2
L/min respectively, then that of diesel fuel mode.

Figure 4-15: Variation of CO2 emissions versus engine load.

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4.5.6 Exhaust Emissions of Hydrocarbons (ppm Vol.)

In pure diesel dual fuel mode, the biogas induces through the intake manifold into the engine
cylinder, which reduces the volume of induced air that is responsible for the combustion with
less oxygen, which further results in higher HC emissions. But with DEE blends in diesel fuel
with different percentage volumes, the fuel gives off a lesser amount of HC emissions. The
predominant argument behind the lower HC emissions in DEE blends is the presence of oxygen
content and cetane number, which lead to the complete combustion of fuel. From figure 4.16
below, as increase DEE blending ratio, HC emission also increases. DEE10 and DEE15 exhibit
higher HC during high engine load, in comparison with DEE5. This is because the high
percentage of DEE in the blend increases spray duration, and reduces the viscosity of the blend,
causing unwanted fuel impingement on the combustion chamber walls and thus flame quenching
and cushioning in the ring land areas. In dual fuel operation, average increments in HC emission
of 12.81%, 6.25%, and 11.4% are observed with D, DEE10, and DEE15, whereas an average
reduction in HC emission of 3.96% with DEE5 with a constant biogas flow rate of 2 L/min
respectively, then that of diesel fuel mode.

Figure 4-16: Variation of HC emissions with engine load.

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4.5.7 Nitrogen Oxide Exhaust Emissions (ppm Vol.)

NOx emissions increase as the load increases for both modes of operation. From figure 4.17
below, it is observed that NOx emissions are lower in the dual fuel mode of operation compared
to that of diesel for all loads. Besides, the presence of CO2 in the biogas reduces the peak
cylinder temperature since CO2 possesses a higher specific heat. Due to the high cetane number
and oxygen content of DEE, its addition to dual fuel results in easier ignition and improved
combustion quality. The addition of higher proportions of DEE to diesel could further reduce
NOx levels. This may be attributed to the fact that higher quantities of DEE were associated with
a lower calorific value and a higher heat of evaporation, which resulted in a lower in-cylinder
temperature. In dual fuel operation, an average drop in NOx emissions of 17.3%, 4.6%, 12.98%,
and 20.48% is observed with D, DEE5, DEE10, and DEE15 with a constant biogas flow rate of 2
L/min, respectively, compared to that of diesel fuel mode.

Figure 4-17: Variation of NOx emissions versus engine load.

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4.6 Summary

The main objective of this work was to investigate the effect of diethyl ether (DEE) on the
performance and emission characteristics of diesel engines operated with DEE-diesel blends in
dual fuel with biogas. The simulation results were selected based on the air and methane mass
fractions at the mixer outlet. So, lower throat pressure and medium-high velocity result in similar
methane distribution on the downstream portion of the venturi at a short distance from the throat.
Experiments were conducted on a diesel engine using first diesel fuel for baseline data, then
biogas-diesel dual fuel to examine the effect of biogas flow rate on performance and emission
parameters as compared to diesel fuel mode, and finally diethyl ether-diesel fuel blends in dual
fuel with biogas to examine the effect of the DEE blend ratio on performance and emission
parameters as compared to diesel and biogas-diesel dual fuel mode.

In the case of biogas-diesel dual fuel mode, the experiment was investigated for three different
biogas flow rates: 2 L/min, 4 L/min, and 6 L/min, with an increasing load from 20% to 100%.
Based on the experimental work, as engine load increases, brake power and brake thermal
efficiency in dual-fuel mode show a slight reduction, and an increase in brake-specific fuel
consumption is noticed as compared to the baseline diesel fuel mode. While CO, CO2, and HC
emissions increased, NOx emissions decreased when compared to baseline data. Generally, a
biogas flow rate of 2 L/min yields relatively the same performance and allows extremely low
levels of NOx as compared to diesel fuel operation.

For DEE-diesel blends in dual fuel with biogas, brake power and brake thermal efficiency
slightly increase at a lower percentage of DEE, then slightly reduce as blend percentage
increases, and brake-specific fuel consumption decreases at a lower percentage ratio of DEE,
then slightly increases as blend percentage increases throughout the load spectrum. Whereas
emissions of CO slightly increase as the percentage ratio of DEE increases, HC slightly
decreases as the percentage ratio of DEE decreases, CO2 is reduced at a lower percentage ratio
of DEE, then slightly increases as the blend percentage increases, and NOx decreases as the DEE
blend percentage ratio increases as compared with diesel fuel mode.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

In this work, a CI engine with a rated power of 5.67 kW at 2600 rpm has been tested in diethyl
ether-diesel blends in dual fuel mode with biogas without any significant modification. Using
these fuels, a number of tests were carried out by varying engine load at a constant engine speed
of 1500 rpm, and thereby, from the results obtained, the following conclusions are drawn:

In dual fuel operation, an average drop in brake power of 2.82%, 2.19%, 6.572%, and
10.79% and a drop in BTE of 8.49%, 5.46%, and 10.64% are observed with D, DEE5,
DEE10, and DEE15, whereas an average increment in BTE of 2.63% is observed with DEE5
at a biogas flow rate of 2 L/min, respectively, compared to that of diesel fuel mode.
In dual fuel operation, average increments in BSFC of 11.26%, 7.15%, and 19.1% are
observed with D, DEE10, and DEE15, whereas an average drop of 4.6% is observed with
DEE5 at a biogas flow rate of 2 L/min, respectively, compared to that of diesel fuel mode.
In dual fuel operation, average increments in CO emission of 7.58%, 5.68%, and 16.6%, and
HC emission of 12.81%, 6.25%, and 11.4% are observed with D, DEE10, and DEE15,
whereas average reductions in CO emission of 2.75% and HC emission of 3.96% are
observed with DEE5 at a biogas flow rate of 2 L/min, respectively, compared to that of diesel
fuel mode.
In dual fuel operation, average increments in CO2 emission of 24.54%, 28.84%, 35.3%, and
42.2%, an average drop in NOx emission of 17.3%, 4.6%, 12.98%, and 20.48% is observed
with D, DEE5, DEE10, and DEE15 with a biogas flow rate of 2 L/min, respectively,
compared to that of diesel fuel mode.

Generally, among different DEE blends with diesel in dual fuel mode operations, a DEE blend of
5% (D95DEE5) yields relatively high performance and lower emission characteristics as
compared to diesel fuel mode and other dual fuel mode operations.

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5.2 Recommendation

The following recommendations, which are based on the thesis outcome, are:

It is recommended to use a venturi mixer in the biogas-diesel dual-mode diesel engine to

have a better mix of air and biogas.
The biogas used in this work was raw biogas, for better performance and lower emissions, it
is recommended to purify it or use purified biogas.
Dual-fuel mode operation with a 2L/min raw biogas flow rate has relatively similar
performance and lower NOx emissions as compared with diesel fuel mode, so it is
recommended to use raw biogas up to a 2L/min flow rate.
When 5% DEE and 95% diesel are blended and used in a dual fuel configuration with biogas
at a 2 L/min flow rate, it has been found to have better performance and lower emissions
compared to using diesel fuel alone or diesel in a dual fuel mode with biogas at a 2 L/min
flow rate. Therefore, it is suggested to use diethyl ether blended with diesel in a dual fuel
mode with biogas for optimal performance and emission outcomes.

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5.3 Future Work

Renewable alternative fuels such as biogas and diethyl ether for IC engines have several
advantages. From this point of view, several things can be made and improved in the future that
this study couldn’t address. So, the following areas need further improvement for future studies:

To effectively use biogas as a fuel for internal combustion engines, it must first be purified.
This is because only methane is combustible among the various components of biogas, and
raw biogas contains a low amount of methane and a high proportion of non-combustible
gases such as carbon dioxide. This leads to decreased in-cylinder temperature and incomplete
combustion. On the other hand, purified biogas with more than 90% methane content results
in improved performance and reduced emissions when used in a CI engine, compared to
conventional diesel fuel.
Experimental investigation of the effects of fumigating Diethyl Ether (DEE) and blending it
with diesel fuel, both in conjunction with biogas, on the performance and emissions of a DI
diesel engine In the fumigating mode, DEE was added at various flow rates to the intake
manifold with air after passing through a biogas-air mixer. In the blending mode, different
ratios of DEE and diesel were used in a dual-fuel configuration with biogas.

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 APPENDICES

Appendix A: Drawings

Figure A- 1: air-biogas venturi mixer device.

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Appendix B: Measuring Instrumentation and Principles

i. Rotameter
It is a device that measures the volumetric flow rates of a fluid (gas) in a closed tube. It belongs
to a class of meters called "variable area meters," which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-
sectional area the fluid or (gas) travels through to vary, causing a measurable effect. The
measuring range of the employed rotameter is from 0 to 50 L/min.

ii. Fuel flow rate and airflow rate measurement method

An airflow meter of the integrating type is used to measure the rate of flow of combustion air.
The airflow is measured by timing a known volume through the meter. The inlet of the airflow
meter is fitted with an air filter. In the engine tests, fuel consumption is measured as a mass flow
per unit of time. The more useful parameter of fuel flow measurement is specific fuel
consumption. The engine's fuel consumption was calculated by measuring the decrease in fuel
level in a measurement container over a given time.

a. Rotameter. b. Fuel flow and Airflow meters.

Figure B- 1: flow meters.

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Appendix C: Experimental Uncertainties

An uncertainty or error analysis is necessary to establish the bounds of the accuracy of the
estimated parameters. Evaluations of some unknown uncertainties from known physical
quantities were obtained using the following general equation:
1

U Y  n  1 Y  
2 2

=   U xi  
Y  i =1  y xi  

In the equation cited, Y is the physical parameter that is dependent on the parameters, xi. The
symbol UY denotes uncertainty in Y.

Uncertainties in Rotameter

Uncertainty in Rotameter is obtained by computing its Resolution/Range.

Rotameter uncertainties = (0.1L / min) / (50 L / min) 100 = 0.2

For each emission parameter, the uncertainties measurements error is established.

Uncertainty in emission constituents is obtained by computing their Resolution/Range.

CO / CO = (Re solution / range)CO 100

CO2 / CO2 = (Re solution / range)CO2 100
HC / HC = (Re solution / range) HC 100
NOX / NOX (Re solution / range) NOX 100

Table C- 1: Rotameter measurement range.

Device Measuring ranges Resolution Accuracy Relative errors (%)

Rotameter 0 – 50L/min  0.1L/min  5L/min 1
Table C- 2: Overall measurement uncertainty for emission parameters.

Emission parameters Diesel mode uncertainty (%) Dual fuel mode uncertainty (%)
CO emission  0.1  0.1
CO2 emission  0.5  0.5
HC emission  0.1  0.1
NOx emission  0.125  0.125

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Appendix D: Pictures

Figure D- 1: During compressed biogas in an ordinary compressor.

Figure D- 2: During the engine running in dual fuel mode.

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Appendix E: Experimental observation data for pure diesel and dual fuel
engine

Table E- 1: Brake power for all tests.

Load Brake Power (kW)

(%) Diesel D+BG D+BG D+BG D95DEE85 D90DEE10 D85DEE15
@2l/min @4l/min @6l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min
20 0.672 0.64 0.6 0.57 0.653 0.635 0.591
40 0.8005 0.792 0.77 0.76 0.798 0.73 0.6988
60 1.05 1.01 1 0.95 1.029 0.973 0.9
80 1.27 1.23 1.2 1.19 1.237 1.208 1.172
100 1.52 1.5 1.45 1.43 1.57 1.423 1.41

Table E- 2: Brake thermal efficiency for all tests.

Load Brake thermal efficiency (%)

(%) Diesel D+BG D+BG D+BG D95DEE5 D90DEE10 D85DEE15
@2l/min @4l/min @6l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min
20 12 10.8 10.1 10 12.8 11.29 10.5
40 18.8 17.04 16.31 15.7 19.37 17.71 16.3
60 24.7 22.58 21.93 21.14 24.92 23.2 22.1
80 27.5 25.3 24.61 23.97 28.02 25.89 24.9
100 29.12 27.21 26.03 26.11 29.34 28.04 26.95

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Table E- 3: Brake-specific fuel consumption for all tests.

Load Brake-specific fuel consumption (kg/kWh)

(%) Diesel D+BG D+BG D+BG D95DEE5 D90DEE10 D85DEE15
@2l/min @4l/min @6l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min
20 0.53 0.57 0.6 0.64 0.5106 0.55 0.59
40 0.35 0.392 0.42 0.47 0.346 0.379 0.4
60 0.23 0.26 0.291 0.3 0.214 0.247 0.29
80 0.2 0.23 0.24 0.253 0.19 0.217 0.256
100 0.25 0.272 0.278 0.28 0.234 0.27 0.29

Table E- 4: Carbon monoxide exhausts emissions for all tests.

Load Carbon monoxide emissions (CO) in % Vol.

(%) Diesel D+BG D+BG D+BG D95DEE5 D90DEE10 D85DEE15
@2l/min @4l/min @6l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min
20 0.185 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.19 0.207 0.22
40 0.18 0.195 0.205 0.21 0.178 0.19 0.215
60 0.2 0.216 0.23 0.24 0.192 0.21 0.23
80 0.241 0.26 0.28 0.29 0.23 0.24 0.29
100 0.35 0.37 0.39 0.41 0.345 0.37 0.384

Table E- 5: Carbon dioxide exhausts emissions for all tests.

Load Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) in % Vol.

(%) Diesel D+BG D+BG D+BG D95DEE5 D90DEE10 D85DEE15
@2l/min @4l/min @6l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min
20 1.2 1.9 2.44 3 1.95 2.1 2.21
40 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.3 2.5 2.6 2.85
60 2.65 3.1 3.5 4.4 3.3 3.5 3.65
80 3.7 4.1 4.65 5.2 4.23 4.41 4.6
100 4.8 5.3 5.8 6.4 5.35 5.5 5.59

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Table E- 6: unburnt hydrocarbon exhaust emissions for all tests.

Load HC emissions in ppm

(%) Diesel D+BG D+BG D+BG D95DEE5 D90DEE10 D85DEE15
@2l/min @4l/min @6l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min
20 22 25 28 33 20 24 26
40 27 33 39 42 26 29 31
60 38 44 48 53 36 40 42
80 46 51 56 60 46 48 50
100 57 58 63 66 56 60 60

Table E- 7: NOx exhaust emissions for all tests.

Load NOx emissions in % ppm

(%)
Diesel D+BG D+BG D+BG D95DEE5 D90DEE10 D85DEE15
@2l/min @4l/min @6l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min +BG@2l/min
20 81 67 58 45 83 71 64
40 115 94 78 62 112 98 90
60 160 138 119 110 155 145 129
80 230 194 168 152 220 205 175
100 342 267 236 218 306 281 251

84 | P a g e