Presented to you by:

Eyyad Mohammed, Fatma AbdAllah, Nour Ahmed

What’s the story?

There's a type of insect called the silverleaf whitefly that's like a small aphid.
Scientists

found that this insect has some plant DNA in its genes that helps it deal with
harmful substances in leaves.

Scientists were studying the silverleaf whitefly's genetic code (genome) and
found a gene called BtPMaT1. This gene is usually only found in plants, not
insects. In plants, this gene prevents the plant from getting affected by a toxin
it produces and allows the plant to store it safely. The toxin is used by the
plant to kill pests. Scientists think the whitefly might use this gene to avoid
getting poisoned when it eats the plant.

The transfer of this gene likely happened a long time ago, between 35 million
and 80 million years ago, when the silverleaf whitefly and other similar
insects split from a common ancestor.

Scientists think the gene might have been transferred from plants to the
whitefly through viruses that cause plant diseases and are carried by
whiteflies. The virus might have picked up some plant DNA, passed it to the
whiteflies, and then it became a part of their genes.

This discovery shows that when organisms face a tough survival challenge,
they can borrow useful genes from other organisms to help them survive
better.
Scientists proved that the BtPMaT1 gene is important for whiteflies by
messing with it using small pieces of RNA. When they stopped this gene from
working, the whiteflies became vulnerable to a certain substance known as
“phenolic glycosides” found in tomato plants, and they all died after feeding
on the genetically modified tomato plants.

This finding could help us engineer crops to fight off pests more effectively.
But there's a risk that pests might adapt and become resistant to our genetic
modifications over time. There is an evolutionary race between the plants and
pests where the continue to adapt and evolve to outcompete each other.
Topics To Study Per Paragraph in Article:
Paragraph 2: Microarrays (U5 Topic 8) + DNA sequencing and PCR (U4 Topic 6)

Paragraph 3: Adaptations (U2 Topic 4)

Paragraph 4: Speciation and Evolution (U4 Topic 5)

Paragraph 5: Viruses (U4 Topic 6)

Paragraph 6: Natural selection and evolution (U2 Topic 4)

Paragraph 7: Genetic Engineering (U5 Topic 8) + Gene expression (U2 TOPIC 3)

Paragraph 8: Mutations (U1 Topic 2)

1. One species of whitefly, an aphid-like insect, has incorporated1 a portion of plant DNA into its genome2
that protects it from leaf toxins. It seems to be the first known example of so-called horizontal gene
transfer between a plant and insect in which the transferred genetic material performs a useful function.

 Incorporated: integrate the new section of genetic material into the main one
 Genome: complete set of genetic information in an organism.

 From the context of the article, explain what Horizontal Gene transfer is.
It refers to the transfer of genetic material between different organisms that are not related. The
usual method of transferring genetic material is through reproduction, but horizontal gene transfer
uses other methods, depending on the organisms. It could occur between organisms of the same
species, or of different species. E.g., bacteria can share plasmids, while other organisms may need
vectors to carry the gene.

 How horizontal gene transfer occurred?

The genetic material (BtPMta1 gene) is transferred from the plant to the fly.

 Why it’s important?

Horizontal gene transfer plays a significant role in evolution and adaptation across diverse ecosystems,
where this genetic exchange allows organisms to obtain important traits or adaptations that enhance their
survival and reproductive success.

 How do plant toxins protect themselves from animals?

By producing and releasing toxins. These toxins may kill the animal so animals won’t feed on the plant. They
cause dissatisfaction in taste so the animals do not eat them again.
2. While sequencing the genome3 of the silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), Ted Turlings at the University
of Neuchâ tel in Switzerland and his colleagues discovered a gene4 known as BtPMaT1, which is found in
plants but never previously seen in insects.

 Sequencing the genome: method that is used to determine the entire genetic makeup of a specific organism
or cell type
 Gene: part of the DNA that codes for a specific protein
3. This gene may have an important function in plants. The plants generate toxins to defend themselves
from attack by animals. The team suspects that the BtPMaT1 gene may help plants store these toxins in a
harmless form so the plants don’t poison themselves. Similarly, the gene may help the whitefly avoid
being poisoned when it eats the plant.

 Discuss how could HGT help a species survive, with reference to BtPMaT1 and whiteflies.
After the HGT of BtPMaT1 to the whiteflies, they can safely eat the plants without being poisoned.
This gave them the advantage of more food source with less competition so they could thrive and
reproduce more. HGT helps organisms overcome difficulties like competition on food, getting rid of
toxins, advantage over predators, or abilities to survive harsh ecological conditions.

 Discuss the disadvantages of Horizontal Gene Transfer to the organisms.

Bacteria share plasmids, which can include antibiotic resistance to broad spectrum antibiotics,
making them evolve into superbugs. Also, the gene that is being transferred could be harmful, it could
affect an existing advantage making it useless, or introducing genetic diseases.

 Describe the function of BtPMaT1 in plants and whiteflies.

In whiteflies, their bodies can get rid of the toxin without it harming them, by allowing their gut cells
to alter the structure of the toxin and render it harmless. It can then be excreted out of the body
In plants:
1. Toxin Binding or Modification: The protein encoded by the BtPMaT1 gene may have the ability to bind
to the toxins or modify them, chemically altering the structure of the toxins, rendering them harmless to
the plant.
2. Storage in Vacuoles: Once the toxins are bound or modified, they are stored in vacuoles where they are
in a safe and isolated manner. Moreover, storing them in vacuoles prevents self-poisoning.
Similarly, it may help whiteflies avoid being poisoned when consuming plants containing toxins.

 How plant toxins are produced?

They produce toxins as a defense mechanism against herbivores. Where the BtPMaT1 gene may encode
for enzymes or proteins involved in the biosynthesis of these toxins. This is done by transcription and
translation of the BtPMaT1 gene.

 Steps of protein synthesis of the BtPMaT1 gene.

1. Transcription: The gene unwinds and unzips using helicase enzyme where it breaks hydrogen bonds
between bases. Then RNA nucleotides align to the template strand using complementary bas pairing rule
where phosphodiester bonds form between the nucleotides by RNA polymerase enzyme. Then mRNA
detaches and leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores going to the ribosome in the cytoplasm.
2. Translation: mRNA attaches to the ribosome where tRNA bring a specific amino acid and temporary
hydrogen bonds form between its anticodon and the codon the mRNA. This is continued until a stop
codon is reached which doesn’t code for amino acids and stops translation.
3. Structure of the protein: Primary structure determines the number, type and sequence of amino acids
in a polypeptide chain, this determines the arrangement and bonds between R groups. These bonds include
hydrogen, ionic and disulfide bridges leading to bending and folding into tertiary structure.
4. Turlings says the gene transfer event occurred between 35 million and 80 million years ago, when the
silverleaf whitefly and other whitefly species5 that lack the gene split from a common ancestor6.

 Species: group of organisms that can reproduce with one another in nature and produce fertile offspring
 Split from a common ancestor: phenomenon where two or more organisms develop from a single species, due
to extreme gene mutations or speciation that prevents them from producing fertile offspring

 Explain how Speciation could have occurred between the different species of whiteflies.
Since the silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), acquired the gene, it could’ve moved to areas where the
plants that produced phenolic glycosides thrived more, so that they have less competition and more
food abundance, making it an allopatric speciation example, depending on the location of the plants.
Another theory is that the nonresistant species died off and only the ones that were resistant
reproduced, allowing gene mutations to occur, such that the gametes were no longer attracted to each
other (gamete isolation) or a physical obstruction that doesn’t allow fertilization (mechanical
isolation).
5. The gene transfer event may have involved viruses that cause disease in plants and are transmitted via
the whiteflies. Some DNA from a plant may have been taken up by a virus, transmitted to the whiteflies
and then subsequently assimilated7 into the insects’ genomes.

 Assimilated: taken up and integrated into the main genetic material

 Explain how the viruses could infect plants, extract the gene from the plant and act as vectors to the
whiteflies.
Viruses are specific to cells, via specific receptors to molecules on host cells. As the virus integrates its
own genome into the plant cell, it could’ve picked the BtPMaT1 gene and formed its capsid/protein
coat around it. As it moves in the xylem and phloem, it is then up taken by the whitefly feeding, and
could either have its protein capsid digested and its genetic material integrated in the gut cells or
could have entered a cell and integrated its own genetic material into the cell’s DNA.

 Describe the processes by which scientists can locate and check for the presence of the BtPMaT1 gene.
After extracting the mRNA from the cells, reverse transcriptase converts it to cDNA. Then each sample
is given a fluorescent light along with a known gene sequence to compare the unknown sample with.
They are then applied to a microarray slide, where they bind to DNA probes for the gene. A
microscope is used to see which gene is expressed and which color is present, which identifies the
presence of the gene.

 Which type of viruses can lead to gene transfer?

Lysogenic viruses, where the virus binds to a specific receptor on the host cell and injects its core.

 Explain the mechanism of gene transfer.

A virus infected the plant cells by injecting its core and incorporating it viral genome into the host cell.
When the virus was activated, it produced new viral particles. However, while forming the new viral
genome, the gene was inserted into the viral DNA (virus act as a vector). When the virus entered the
Whitefly and infected its cell when it incorporates its DNA into the host cell DNA, this led to the
BtPMaT1 gene being incorporated into the whitefly cells.
6. “[Some] viruses basically incorporate their own genome into the cells of their hosts,” says Turlings. The
research suggests that the extent to which horizontal gene transfer occurs in nature is probably
underestimated, says Caitlin Byrt at the Australian National University in Canberra. “What this shows is
that where there’s a really strong pressure for survival8 on an organism, it can actually borrow genetic
information that helps it do that from other organisms,” says Byrt.

 Survival pressure: the driving force that pushes organisms to adapt to meet new environmental
conditions or genes to mutate to code for better and more useful phenotypes to ensure survival

 Explain how natural selection and selective pressure can cause these whiteflies with the gene to evolve
and adapt.
The whiteflies are now immune to the plant toxin, so they are feeding with no competition. In case the
other food sources decreased, the whiteflies can still feed and reproduce. The advantage they have
allows them to reproduce more than the other species, since now they eat the plants that are toxic
and the plants that aren’t, posing a bigger competition over food for the other species.
7. The researchers demonstrated the function of BtPMaT1 in whiteflies by selectively interfering with the
gene using small molecules of RNA. Disrupting the gene’s function made the whiteflies susceptible to
compounds known as phenolic glycosides9 that are present in tomato plants. After feeding on tomato
plants that had been genetically modified10 to produce the RNA molecules, all whiteflies subsequently
died.

 Phenolic Glycosides: toxins produced for defense purposes

 Genetic Modification: Changing an organism’s genome such that its genotype is affected to
produce desired phenotype

 Describe how can the scientists interfere with the gene using small RNA molecules.
small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) that are complementary to the mRNA
produced by the BtPMaT1 gene are used. They are introduced into the cell, where they specifically
bind to the target mRNA. They can cause the target RNA to breakdown by using enzymes to split it
apart or silence the gene, so it stops being transcribed. This makes the whiteflies become susceptible to
the toxin again.

 Discuss the genetic engineering of crops, in frame of advantages, disadvantages, and safety issues.
Crops can be altered to produce better and more yield by inserting pest or herbicide resistance genes,
or genes that can delay fruit ripening or quicken growth. However, these genes can undergo horizontal
gene transfer and spread to other species or even the pests and weeds themselves, so they produce a
resistance of their own. This also can cause new allergens to form, which is a safety risk, along with
the risk of HGT of the resistant genes to our gut cells, which can cause unknown side effects.

 Deduce the function of phenolic glycosides.

They are compounds that are toxic to herbivores and insects, that produce a warning threat to the
feeders to not eat the plant and to stay away. They can cause serious illness or even death.

 How did the insects die when they ate the tomatoes?
RNA molecule disrupts the gene’s function. Where RNA bonds to the mRNA produced preventing it from
being translated into a protein. This inhibits expression of the gene as its mRNA is not translated.
Maybe the RNA molecules bind to the antisense strand of DNA preventing transcription from occurring.
8. “This demonstrates a mechanism that we could use in engineering crops to basically target plant pests,
and target the resistance of crops to plant pests,” says Byrt, although she points out that horizontal gene
transfer may then allow the pests to evolve resistance11 to our genetic engineering12.

 Evolve Resistance: Develop a resistance so that the danger is no longer harmful, and the organism’s
systems can remain unaffected
 Genetic engineering: the methods used to genetically modify organisms to have desired traits

 Explain the adaptation of tomato plants to become pest resistant.

Tomato plants produce phenolic glycosides, which helps deter the feeding of the insect feeding on it,
ensuring that the tomato ripens and matures, and the seed remain intact and viable for the
upcoming tomato plants to germinate. It is a physiological adaptation.

 How can plants become pest resistant?

They can develop harder skins or thorns to make it harder for the feeder to eat them. Moreover, they
can produce toxins and harmful substances to kill of predators and warn the other species that it’s
dangerous. The attack can trigger protein synthesis of some proteins or enzymes, that can attack the
herbivore, or to repair the damage.

 Role of enzymes in genetic engineering.

1. Reverse transcriptase: Uses RNA as a template to form DNA, where it is produced by retrovirus.
2. Transcription enzyme: Cut double stranded DNA at a specific recognition site leaving sticky ends.
3. DNA ligase: It link the sugar phosphate back bone and plasmid producing a recombinant DNA (ligase
joins the gene to plasmid).
Keypoints
Microarrays:-
➢ Know how microarrays could be used to identify the active gene (BtPMaT1). ➢ Know and
understand the steps of using a microarray.

PCR:-
➢Understand how DNA sequencing can be used to analyze certain genes ➢Know and understand
how PCR can help in identifying the BtPMaT1 gene in the

silverleaf whitefly

Adaptations:-
➢ Understand and Identify the niche of the Plant and the silverleaf whitefly.
➢ Understand the different types of adaptations and recognize the adaptations and
their types in both the plant and the silverleaf whitefly.

Speciation and Evolution:-

➢ Understand what is meant by speciation.
➢ Understand the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation.

Viruses:-
➢ Learn the characteristics of viruses.
➢ Understand the classification of viruses.
➢ Know and understand the reproductive pathway of viruses.
➢ Understand how viruses are specific and how they only infect certain cells.

Natural selection and Evolution:-

➢Know and understand how natural selection occurs.
➢ Understand how the BtPMaT1 gene acts as a selection pressure.
➢ Know how the allele for the gene BtPMaT1 was added to the gene pool of the silverleaf whitefly.
Genetic Engineering:-
➢ Understand how recombinant DNA is formed and incorporated into other cells.
➢ Know the steps of genetic engineering.
➢ Understand the use of viruses in genetic engineering.
➢ Identify the advantages and disadvantages of genetically engineering a plant to
contain the gene that disrupts the BtPMaT1 gene’s function.

Gene Expression:-
➢ Understand the different ways a gene can be switched on or off.
➢ Understand how changes in gene expression could result in the disruption of the
BtPMaT1 gene.

Mutations:-
➢ Understand how errors in DNA replication can give rise to mutations.
➢ Know and understand how a mutation affects the function of a protein.