LECTURE 1

WEEK 1 & 2

THE SCOPE AND MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT & INFORMATION

Objectives

At the end of this topic, the student should be able to;

 Define and describe the main concepts; information and development

 Describe the information hierarchy

 Data life cycle

 Information life cycle

 Information life cycle management

 Demonstrate clear understanding of archiving concept

 Describe characteristics of high quality information.

 Discuss the meaning of development within the Kenyan context

Definition of Concepts:

What is Information?

1.1 Information Hierarchy

Data Information Knowledge Wisdom

Data is the term for collections of facts and figures; hours worked, invoice values, part numbers, items

received, exams done etc. These basic facts are stored, analysed, compared, calculated and generally

worked on to produce messages in the form required by the user, which is then termed as information.

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Data can also be defined as streams of raw facts representing events occurring in organizations or the

physical environment before they have been organized and arranged into a form that people can

understand and use.

Information is Data that have been shaped into a form that is meaningful and useful to human beings.

Knowledge is the act of understanding the context in which the information is used. It can be based on

learning through information, experience or intuition. Based on the knowledge, the information can be

used in a particular context, for example, if a hotelier uses the information about Mary (a chef) to hire

her, he is using his knowledge. Hence, knowledge can also be referred to as a person’s capability and

wisdom and how much that person knows about a particular subject.

1.1.1 DATA LIFE CYCLE

Data Life Cycle Management is a process that helps organizations to manage the flow of data

throughout its lifecycle – from initial creation through to destruction. While there are many

interpretations as to the various phases of a typical data lifecycle, they can be summarized as follows:

1. Data Creation

The first phase of the data lifecycle is the creation/capture of data. This data can be in many forms e.g.

PDF, image, Word document, SQL database data. Data is typically created by an organization in one of

3 ways:

 Data Acquisition: acquiring already existing data which has been produced outside the

organization

 Data Entry: manual entry of new data by personnel within the organization

 Data Capture: capture of data generated by devices used in various processes in the organization.

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2. Storage

Once data has been created within the organization, it needs to be stored and protected, with the

appropriate level of security applied. A robust backup and recovery process should also be implemented

to ensure retention of data during the lifecycle.

3. Usage

During the usage phase of the data lifecycle, data is used to support activities in the organization. Data

can be viewed, processed, modified and saved. An audit trail should be maintained for all critical data to

ensure that all modifications to data are fully traceable. Data may also be made available to share with

others outside the organization.

4. Archival

Data Archival is the copying of data to an environment where it is stored in case it is needed again in an

active production environment, and the removal of this data from all active production environments.

A data archive is simply a place where data is stored, but where no maintenance or general usage

occurs. If necessary, the data can be restored to an environment where it can be used.

5. Destruction

The volume of archived data inevitably grows, and while you may want to save all your data forever,

that’s not feasible. Storage cost and compliance issues exert pressure to destroy data you no longer need.

Data destruction or purging is the removal of every copy of a data item from an organization. It is

typically done from an archive storage location. The challenge of this phase of the lifecycle is to ensure

that the data has been properly destroyed. It is important to ensure before destroying data that the data

items have exceeded their required regulatory retention period.

Having a clearly defined and documented data lifecycle management process is key to ensuring Data

Governance can be carried out effectively within your organization

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1.1.2 INFORMATION LIFE CYCLE

Information lifecycle is the stage through which every (Written or computerized) record goes through

from its creation to its final archiving or destruction. The stages through which information passes,

typically characterized as

 Create, capture and classify: Create, capture and classify information adequately.

 Store and secure: Store information appropriately and securely.

 Manage and maintain: Manage and maintain information in line with external and internal

policies and expectations.

 Share and reuse: Share and reuse information where appropriate.

 Retain and archive: Retain and archive information for a minimum period.

 Dispose or destroy: Dispose of, or destroy, information correctly.

Information lifecycle stages.

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1.1.3 ARCHIVING

Archiving is a vital records management process that businesses and their employees should be familiar

with. The consequences of not understanding your businesses archiving processes could pose serious

problems in the future.

What is Archiving?

Archiving is the process by which inactive information, in any format, is securely stored for long periods

of time. Such information may – or may not – be used again in the future, but nonetheless should be stored

until the end of its retention schedule. It should be emphasized that archived, inactive data can be made

active again, as the implication of not being able to access information again sometimes

dissuades businesses from archiving their records. Information should still be readily available if

required at short notice.

Archived data can be stored in a number of different formats, on a variety of devices. When businesses

archive data, they tend to archive entire collections of files. The word archive in itself suggests the

retention of multiple records. Data that is archived might need to be because of legal rulings or because

it is vital information that is likely to be used again in the future.

The Importance of Effective Archiving

Archiving is vitally important for information management and can give a business greater control over

their information processes. As a business grows it will create more data – data that needs to be

meticulously managed and monitored in order for it be utilized properly. Keeping tabs on this data can

prove problematic for businesses that never put an archiving system in place.
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Data that is not archived is harder to locate, secure and appropriately disseminate if stored in a local

environment – such as an employees’ laptop – and thus will be inaccessible to other users. This will

eventually have a negative effect on business functions and employee productivity.

Benefits of Archiving

i. Prevent Data Loss

Information that hasn’t been archived on a central, secure repository could be lost forever. The chances

of an employee accidentally deleting or misplacing a file is slim, but it does happen. In some cases, data

recovery experts might be able to retrieve this information, but this is likely to take some time, cost a lot

and is rarely 100% accurate.

Archived data allows employees to retrieve back up information independently without having to rely on

the expertise third parties.

ii. Legal Requirements

Archiving is important for legal reasons too. Many businesses accidentally dispose of documents that

they legally should be keeping.

An effective archiving system will ensure company-specific retention schedules are adhered to,

regardless of each employee’s knowledge of these schedules. Data protection authorities are enforcing

more severe penalties on businesses so employees should be made aware that ignoring these policies

could lead to hefty fines or even prison sentences in some cases.

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 iii. Increase Security

Archiving is also important for security reasons, especially at a time when cyber-attacks and data

breaches are becoming more frequent. By securely archiving documents businesses can keep track

information and increase protection from unauthorized third parties. Even the most cautious of businesses

are now targeted by very adept hackers.

Paper records in open circulation can easily be taken from crowded offices or stolen by bitter employees.

A reliable offsite archiving system will reduce this risk by warning senior staff when files are missing.

Archiving is vital for business continuity and ensuring the highest level of performance in a competitive

marketplace.

1.1.4 INFORMATION LIFE CYCLE MANAGEMENT

Information life cycle management (ILM) is a comprehensive approach to managing the flow of an

information system's data and associated metadata from creation and initial storage to the time when it

becomes obsolete and is deleted.

Unlike earlier approaches to data storage management, ILM involves all aspects of dealing with data,

starting with user practices, rather than just automating storage procedures, as for example, hierarchical

storage management (HSM) does. Also, in contrast to older systems, ILM enables more complex criteria

for storage management than data age and frequency of access.

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ILM products automate the processes involved, typically organizing data into separate tiers according to

specified policies, and automating data migration from one tier to another based on those criteria. As a

rule, newer data, and data that must be accessed more frequently, is stored on faster, but more expensive

storage media, while less critical data is stored on cheaper, but slower media. However, the ILM approach

recognizes that the importance of any data does not rely solely on its age or how often it's accessed. Users

can specify different policies for data that declines in value at different rates or that retains its value

throughout its life span. A path management application, either as a component of ILM software or

working in conjunction with it, makes it possible to retrieve any data stored by keeping track of where

everything is in the storage cycle.

ILM is often considered a more complex subset of data life cycle management. According to Karen

Dutch, vice-president of product management at Fujitsu Softek, DLM products deal with general

attributes of files, such as their type, size, and age; ILM products have more complex capabilities. For

example, a DLM product would allow you to search stored data for a certain file type of a certain age,

for example, while an ILM product would let you search various types of stored files for instances of a

specific piece of data, such as a customer number.

Data management has become increasingly important as businesses face compliance issues in the wake

of legislation. Data management experts stress that information life cycle management should be an

organization-wide enterprise, involving procedures and practices as well as applications.

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1.1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGH-QUALITY INFORMATION

Consumers of information do not just use any information. The information they require must meet some

criteria and these are:

i. Accurate. The information that is input into a data base is presumed to be perfect as well as

accurate. The information that is accessed is deemed reliable. Flaws do arise with database

design but do not let something in your control, accurate and reliable data, be one of them. A

database design that is accurate and reliable will help achieve the development of new business

ideas as well as promoting the organizational goals.

ii. Completeness is another attribute of high-quality information. Partial information may as well

be incomplete information because it is only a small part of the picture. Completeness is as

necessary as accuracy when inputting data into a database.

iii. Consistency is key when entering information into a database. For example, with a column for a

phone number entry 10 digits is the expected length of the field. Once the fields have been set in

the database, a number more or less than 10 digits will not be accepted. The same applies for any

field, whether it is an entry that requires a number, a series of numbers, an address, or a name,

etc. If the fields are not set to a specific limit for information, then consistency is even more

important.

iv. Unique. In order to add value to any organization, information must be unique and

distinctive. Information is a very essential part of any organization and if used properly can make

a company competitive or can keep a company competitive.

v. A fifth important aspect of information is timeliness. New and current data is more valuable

to organizations than old outdated information. Especially now, in this era of high technological

advances, out-of-date information can keep a company from achieving their goals or from
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 surviving in a competitive arena. The information does not necessarily need to be out of date to

have effect, it just needs to not be the most current. Real-time information is an element of

timeliness.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT

Development: An economic concept that has positive connotations; it involves the application of certain

economic and technical measures to utilize available resources to instigate economic growth and improve

people’s quality of life.

In the 1950s and 1960s, development was largely referred to as economic growth, which meant a

quantitative rather than qualitative change in economic performance. Consequently, development

theories were designed to activate and accelerate the process of economic growth and move developing

nations along the path charted by the industrial ones of the West, from relying primarily on agricultural

activity to relying primarily on industrial production and trade.

Approaches to development:

i. The economic development” concept was misconceived from the beginning since no plan or

amount of money can develop an economy if it leaves out culture, which governs the attitudes

and the ways of thinking of the people who would be managing the proposed development

strategies and programs.

 Development: It is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of

physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components.

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  Purpose of development: To ensure a rise in the: level and quality of life of the population,

and the creation or expansion of local regional income and employment opportunities, without

damaging the resources of the environment.

 Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately, and includes an aspect of

quality change and the creation of conditions for a continuation of that change.

ii. Capability Approach: Amartya Sen, developed the “capability approach,” which defined

development as a tool enabling people to reach the highest level of their ability, through granting

freedom of action, i.e., freedom of economic, social and family actions, etc. This approach

became a basis for the measurement of development by the HDI (Human Development Index),

which was developed by the UN Development Program (UNDP) in 1990. Martha Nussbaum

developed the abilities approach in the field of gender and emphasized the empowerment of

women as a development tool (Society for International Development, 2021).

iii. Jeffrey Sachs and Paul Collier Professionals: Focused on mechanisms that prevent or oppress

development in various countries, and cause them to linger in abject poverty for dozens of years.

These are the various poverty traps, including civil wars, natural resources and poverty itself. The

identification of these traps enables relating to political – economic – social conditions in a

country in an attempt to advance development. One of the emphases in the work of Jeffrey Sacks

is the promotion of sustainable development, which believes in growth and development in order

to raise the standard of living for citizens of the world today, through relating to the needs of

environmental resources and the coming generations of the citizens of the world (Society for

International Development, 2021)

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 iv. Development as a vision: Here, the term is used to describe how desirable a society or a region

is, possibly with regard to what it can become.

v. Development as a historical process: This refers to social change that occurs over extended

periods of time due to inevitable processes. For instance, it is widely believed that both

communism and capitalism are an inevitable outcome of progress.

vi. Development as action: This refers to deliberate action to change things for the better, as with

providing aid to alleviate hunger.

To measure the level of development of a nation, markers to use

i. HDI - Human Development Index: This is the most used index to measure economic

development. It takes the following three factors into account:

 Health. The HDI measures the average life expectancy in a specific country and compares

it to the global average.

 Education. The HDI measures the mean years of schooling and expected years of

schooling in a country.

 Standard of living. The HDI measures the gross national income (GNI) per head, using

the principle of purchasing power parity, PPP.

ii. HPI - Human Poverty Index: The Human Poverty Index complements the HDI as it is an

indication of the standard of living in an economy. It considers the level of poverty and

deprivation of a community in a country. The HPI uses two indices:

 The HPI-1 is used to measure developing countries.

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  The HPI-2 is used for developed countries that are part of the Organization for Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD).

The HPI has limited utility as it combines the average deprivation levels of each dimension and

it can’t be linked to any particular group of people.

iii. Multidimensional Poverty Index: is a poverty measure that reflects the multiple deprivations

that poor people face in the areas of education, health, and living standards.

iv. GPI - Genuine Progress Indicator: The Genuine Progress Indicator builds off GDP as an

economic indicator by including measures of the impact of economic growth on the environment

as well as various social factors. The GPI takes GDP into consideration while also measuring the

negative impacts of growth.

Development, must be conceived of as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social

structures, popular attitudes and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the

reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty.

World Bank, in its 1991 World Development Report opined that the challenge of development is to

improve the quality of life which translates to higher incomes in poor countries but in reality involves

quite a lot. It encompasses as ends in themselves better education, higher standard of health and nutrition,

less poverty, a cleaner environment, more equality of opportunity, greater individual freedom, and a

richer cultural life.

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Related terms.

i. Economic Growth: There are variables or inputs that correlate or affect economic growth the

most: elementary, secondary, or higher education, government policy stability, tariffs and

subsidies, fair court systems, available infrastructure, availability of medical care, prenatal care

and clean water, ease of entry and exit into trade, and equality of income distribution (for example,

as indicated by the Gini coefficient), and how to advise governments about macroeconomic

policies, which include all policies that affect the economy.

According to Todaro and Smith (2003), “Development, in its essence, must represent the whole

range of change by which an entire social system, tuned to the diverse basic needs and desires of

individuals and social groups, within that system, moves away from a condition of life widely

perceived as unsatisfactory toward a situation or condition of life regarded as materially and

spiritually better.” In other words, they imply that “Development is the sustained elevation of an

entire society and social system toward a ‘better’ or ‘more humane’ life”.

Irrespective of the specific components of better life, Todaro and Smith (2003) yet hold the view

that development in all societies must have at least the following three objectives:

 To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life-sustaining goods such as

food, shelter, health, and protection.

 To raise levels of living, in addition to higher incomes, the provision of more jobs, better

education, and greater attention to cultural and human values, which will serve not only to

enhance material well-being but also to generate greater individual and national self-esteem.

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  To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations by

freeing them from servitude and dependence not only in relation to other people and nation-

states but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery.

ii. Economic development: As distinguished from economic growth, results from an assessment of

the economic development objectives with the available resources, core competencies, and the

infusion of greater productivity, technology and innovation, as well as improvement in human

capital, resources, and access to large markets. Economic development transforms a traditional

dual-system society into a productive framework in which everyone contributes and from which

each one receives benefits accordingly.

Economic development occurs when all segments of the society benefit from the fruits of

economic growth through economic efficiency and equity. Economic efficiency will be present

with minimum negative externalities to the society, including agency, transaction, secondary, and

opportunity costs.

iii. Social Development: Social development is a process which results in the transformation of

social structures in a manner which improves the capacity of the society to fulfil its aspirations.

Society develops by consciousness and social consciousness develops by organization. The

process that is subconscious in the society emerges as conscious knowledge in pioneering

individuals. Development is a process, not a programme. Its power issues more from its subtle

aspects than from material objects.

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iv. Community Development: This is a broad term applied to the practices and academic disciplines

of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens and professionals to improve various aspects of local

communities. Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people by

providing these groups with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities. These

skills are often concentrated around building political power through the formation of large social

groups working for a common agenda. Community developers must understand both how to work

with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social

institutions.

v. Global/international Development: This is a concept that lacks a universally accepted

definition, but it is most used in a holistic and multi-disciplinary context of human development

– the development of greater quality of life for humans, (i.e. developed healthcare means longer

life which is greater quality of life). It therefore encompasses foreign aid, governance, healthcare,

education, gender equality, disaster preparedness, infrastructure, economics, human rights,

environment and issues associated with these.

vi. Information Led Development: Information-led development (ILD) most commonly refers to

a development strategy whereby a developing country makes as a primary economic policy focus

the creation and development of a national information technology (IT) sector with the express

aim of relying on this sector as an engine of growth. Notable examples of such countries are India

and the Philippines.

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