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Chapter 07: Anatomy and Physiology of Pregnancy
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. A woman’s obstetric history indicates that she is pregnant for the fourth time and all of her
children from previous pregnancies are living. One was born at 39 weeks of gestation, twins
were born at 34 weeks of gestation, and another child was born at 35 weeks of gestation. What
is her gravidity and parity using the GTPAL system?
a. 3-1-1-1-3 c. 3-0-3-0-3
b. 4-1-2-0-4 d. 4-2-1-0-3
ANS: B
The correct calculation of this woman’s gravidity and parity is 4-1-2-0-4. The numbers reflect
the woman’s gravidity and parity information. Using the GPTAL system, her information is
calculated as:
G: The first number reflects the total number of times the woman has been pregnant; she is
pregnant for the fourth time.
T: This number indicates the number of pregnancies carried to term, not the number of
deliveries at term; only one of her pregnancies has resulted in a fetus at term.
P: This is the number of pregnancies that resulted in a preterm birth; the woman has had two
pregnancies in which she delivered preterm.
A: This number signifies whether the woman has had any abortions or miscarriages before the
period of viability; she has not.
L: This number signifies the number of children born that currently are living; the woman has
four children.
PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 169

OBJ: Nursing Process: Diagnosis MSC: Client Needs: Health Promotion and Maintenance
2. A woman at 10 weeks of gestation who is seen in the prenatal clinic with presumptive signs
and symptoms of pregnancy likely will have:
a. Amenorrhea. c. Chadwick’s sign.
b. Positive pregnancy test. d. Hegar’s sign.
ANS: A
Amenorrhea is a presumptive sign of pregnancy. Presumptive signs of pregnancy are felt by
the woman. A positive pregnancy test, the presence of Chadwick’s sign, and the presence of
Hegar’s sign all are probable signs of pregnancy.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Assessment MSC: Client Needs: Health Promotion and Maintenance
3. The nurse teaches a pregnant woman about the presumptive, probable, and positive signs of
pregnancy. The woman demonstrates understanding of the nurse’s instructions if she states
that a positive sign of pregnancy is:
a. A positive pregnancy test.
b. Fetal movement palpated by the nurse-midwife.
c. Braxton Hicks contractions.
d. Quickening.
ANS: B
Positive signs of pregnancy are attributed to the presence of a fetus, such as hearing the fetal
heartbeat or palpating fetal movement. A positive pregnancy test and Braxton Hicks
contractions are probable signs of pregnancy. Quickening is a presumptive sign of pregnancy.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Planning MSC: Client Needs: Health Promotion and Maintenance
4. A woman is at 14 weeks of gestation. The nurse would expect to palpate the fundus at which
level?
a. Not palpable above the symphysis at this time
b. Slightly above the symphysis pubis
c. At the level of the umbilicus
d. Slightly above the umbilicus
ANS: B
In normal pregnancies, the uterus grows at a predictable rate. It may be palpated above the
symphysis pubis sometime between the twelfth and fourteenth weeks of pregnancy. As the
uterus grows, it may be palpated above the symphysis pubis sometime between the twelfth
and fourteenth weeks of pregnancy. The uterus rises gradually to the level of the umbilicus at
22 to 24 weeks of gestation.

5. During a client’s physical examination the nurse notes that the lower uterine segment is soft
on palpation. The nurse would document this finding as:
a. Hegar’s sign c. Chadwick’s sign
b. McDonald’s sign d. Goodell’s sign
ANS: A
At approximately 6 weeks of gestation, softening and compressibility of the lower uterine
segment occur; this is called Hegar’s sign. McDonald’s sign indicates a fast food restaurant.
Chadwick’s sign is the blue-violet coloring of the cervix caused by increased vascularity; this
occurs around the fourth week of gestation. Softening of the cervical tip is called Goodell’s
sign, which may be observed around the sixth week of pregnancy.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Assessment, Implementation
MSC: Client Needs: Health Promotion and Maintenance
6. Cardiovascular system changes occur during pregnancy. Which finding would be considered
normal for a woman in her second trimester?
a. Less audible heart sounds (S1, S2)
b. Increased pulse rate
c. Increased blood pressure
d. Decreased red blood cell (RBC) production
ANS: B
Between 14 and 20 weeks of gestation, the pulse increases about 10 to 15 beats/min, which
persists to term. Splitting of S1 and S2 is more audible. In the first trimester, blood pressure
usually remains the same as at the prepregnancy level, but it gradually decreases up to about
20 weeks of gestation. During the second trimester, both the systolic and the diastolic
pressures decrease by about 5 to 10 mm Hg. Production of RBCs accelerates during
pregnancy.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Assessment MSC: Client Needs: Physiologic Integrity
7. Numerous changes in the integumentary system occur during pregnancy. Which change
persists after birth?
a. Epulis c. Telangiectasia
b. Chloasma d. Striae gravidarum
ANS: D
Striae gravidarum, or stretch marks, reflect separation within the underlying connective tissue
of the skin. They usually fade after birth, although they never disappear completely. An epulis
is a red, raised nodule on the gums that bleeds easily. Chloasma, or mask of pregnancy, is a
blotchy, brown hyperpigmentation of the skin over the cheeks, nose, and forehead, especially
in dark-complexioned pregnant women. Chloasma usually fades after the birth.
Telangiectasia, or vascular spiders, are tiny, star-shaped or branchlike, slightly raised,
pulsating end-arterioles usually found on the neck, thorax, face, and arms. They occur as a
result of elevated levels of circulating estrogen. These usually disappear after birth.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Planning MSC: Client Needs: Physiologic Integrity
8. The musculoskeletal system adapts to the changes that occur during pregnancy. A woman can
expect to experience what change?
a. Her center of gravity will shift backward.
b. She will have increased lordosis.
c. She will have increased abdominal muscle tone.
d. She will notice decreased mobility of her pelvic joints.
ANS: B
An increase in the normal lumbosacral curve (lordosis) develops, and a compensatory
curvature in the cervicodorsal region develops to help the woman maintain her balance. The
center of gravity shifts forward. She will have decreased muscle tone. She will notice
increased mobility of her pelvic joints.

9. A 31-year-old woman believes that she may be pregnant. She took an OTC pregnancy test 1
week ago after missing her period; the test was positive. During her assessment interview, the
nurse inquires about the woman’s last menstrual period and asks whether she is taking any
medications. The woman states that she takes medicine for epilepsy. She has been under
considerable stress lately at work and has not been sleeping well. She also has a history of
irregular periods. Her physical examination does not indicate that she is pregnant. She has an
ultrasound scan, which reveals that she is not pregnant. What is the most likely cause of the
false-positive pregnancy test result?
a. She took the pregnancy test too early.
b. She takes anticonvulsants.
c. She has a fibroid tumor.
d. She has been under considerable stress and has a hormone imbalance.
ANS: B
Anticonvulsants may cause false-positive pregnancy test results. OTC pregnancy tests use
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technology, which can yield positive results 4 days after
implantation. Implantation occurs 6 to 10 days after conception. If the woman were pregnant,
she would be into her third week at this point (having missed her period 1 week ago). Fibroid
tumors do not produce hormones and have no bearing on hCG pregnancy tests. Although
stress may interrupt normal hormone cycles (menstrual cycles), it does not affect human
chorionic gonadotropin levels or produce positive pregnancy test results.
PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: 170

10. A woman is in her seventh month of pregnancy. She has been complaining of nasal
congestion and occasional epistaxis. The nurse suspects that:
a. This is a normal respiratory change in pregnancy caused by elevated levels of
estrogen.
b. This is an abnormal cardiovascular change, and the nosebleeds are an ominous
sign.
c. The woman is a victim of domestic violence and is being hit in the face by her
partner.
d. The woman has been using cocaine intranasally.
ANS: A
Elevated levels of estrogen cause capillaries to become engorged in the respiratory tract. This
may result in edema in the nose, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. This congestion may cause
nasal stuffiness and epistaxis. Cardiovascular changes in pregnancy may cause edema in
lower extremities. Determining that the woman is a victim of domestic violence and was hit in
the face cannot be made on the basis of the sparse facts provided. If the woman had been hit
in the face, she most likely would have additional physical findings. Determination of the use
of cocaine by the woman cannot be made on the basis of the sparse facts provided.

11. The nurse caring for the pregnant client must understand that the hormone essential for
maintaining pregnancy is:
a. Estrogen.
b. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).
c. Oxytocin.
d. Progesterone.
ANS: D
Progesterone is essential for maintaining pregnancy; it does so by relaxing smooth muscles.
This reduces uterine activity and prevents miscarriage. Estrogen plays a vital role in
pregnancy, but it is not the primary hormone for maintaining pregnancy. hCG levels increase
at implantation but decline after 60 to 70 days. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions.

12. A patient at 24 weeks of gestation contacts the nurse at her obstetric provider’s office to
complain that she has cravings for dirt and gravel. The nurse is aware that this condition is
known as ________ and may indicate anemia.
a. Ptyalism c. Pica
b. Pyrosis d. Decreased peristalsis
ANS: C
Pica (a desire to eat nonfood substances) is an indication of iron deficiency and should be
evaluated. Ptyalism (excessive salivation), pyrosis (heartburn), and decreased peristalsis are
normal findings of gastrointestinal change during pregnancy. Food cravings during pregnancy
are normal.
PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: 183

13. Appendicitis may be difficult to diagnose in pregnancy because the appendix is:
a. Displaced upward and laterally, high and to the right.
b. Displaced upward and laterally, high and to the left.
c. Deep at McBurney point.
d. Displaced downward and laterally, low and to the right.
ANS: A
The appendix is displaced high and to the right, beyond McBurney point.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Diagnosis MSC: Client Needs: Physiologic Integrity
14. A woman who has completed one pregnancy with a fetus (or fetuses) reaching the stage of
fetal viability is called a:
a. Primipara. c. Multipara.
b. Primigravida. d. Nulligravida.
ANS: A
A primipara is a woman who has completed one pregnancy with a viable fetus. To remember
terms, keep in mind: gravida is a pregnant woman; para comes from parity, meaning a viable
fetus; primi means first; multi means many; and null means none. A primigravida is a woman
pregnant for the first time. A multipara is a woman who has completed two or more
pregnancies with a viable fetus. A nulligravida is a woman who has never been pregnant.

15. Which time-based description of a stage of development in pregnancy is accurate?

a. Viability—22 to 37 weeks since the last menstrual period (LMP) (assuming a fetal
weight >500 g)
b. Term—pregnancy from the beginning of week 38 of gestation to the end of week
42
c. Preterm—pregnancy from 20 to 28 weeks
d. Postdate—pregnancy that extends beyond 38 weeks
ANS: B
Term is 38 to 42 weeks of gestation. Viability is the ability of the fetus to live outside the
uterus before coming to term, or 22 to 24 weeks since LMP. Preterm is 20 to 37 weeks of
gestation. Postdate or postterm is a pregnancy that extends beyond 42 weeks or what is
considered the limit of full term.
PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Knowledge REF: 168

16. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is an important biochemical marker for pregnancy and
the basis for many tests. A maternity nurse should be aware that:
a. hCG can be detected 2.5 weeks after conception.
b. The hCG level increases gradually and uniformly throughout pregnancy.
c. Much lower than normal increases in the level of hCG may indicate a postdate
pregnancy.
d. A higher than normal level of hCG may indicate an ectopic pregnancy or Down
syndrome.
ANS: D
Higher levels also could be a sign of multiple gestation. hCG can be detected 7 to 8 days after
conception. The hCG level fluctuates during pregnancy: peaking, declining, stabilizing, and
increasing again. Abnormally slow increases may indicate impending miscarriage.

17. To reassure and educate pregnant clients about changes in the uterus, nurses should be aware
that:
a. Lightening occurs near the end of the second trimester as the uterus rises into a
different position.
b. The woman’s increased urinary frequency in the first trimester is the result of
exaggerated uterine antireflexion caused by softening.
c. Braxton Hicks contractions become more painful in the third trimester, particularly
if the woman tries to exercise.
d. The uterine souffle is the movement of the fetus.
ANS: B
The softening of the lower uterine segment is called Hegar’s sign. Lightening occurs in the
last 2 weeks of pregnancy, when the fetus descends. Braxton Hicks contractions become more
defined in the final trimester but are not painful. Walking or exercise usually causes them to
stop. The uterine souffle is the sound made by blood in the uterine arteries; it can be heard
with a fetal stethoscope.

18. To reassure and educate pregnant clients about changes in the cervix, vagina, and position of
the fetus, nurses should be aware that:
a. Because of a number of changes in the cervix, abnormal Papanicolaou (Pap) tests
are much easier to evaluate.
b. Quickening is a technique of palpating the fetus to engage it in passive movement.
c. The deepening color of the vaginal mucosa and cervix (Chadwick’s sign) usually
appears in the second trimester or later as the vagina prepares to stretch during
labor.
d. Increased vascularity of the vagina increases sensitivity and may lead to a high
degree of arousal, especially in the second trimester.
ANS: D
Increased sensitivity and an increased interest in sex sometimes go together. This frequently
occurs during the second trimester. Cervical changes make evaluation of abnormal Pap tests
more difficult. Quickening is the first recognition of fetal movements by the mother.
Ballottement is a technique used to palpate the fetus. Chadwick’s sign appears from the sixth
to eighth weeks.

19. The mucous plug that forms in the endocervical canal is called the:
a. Operculum. c. Funic souffle.
b. Leukorrhea. d. Ballottement.
ANS: A
The operculum protects against bacterial invasion. Leukorrhea is the mucus that forms the
endocervical plug (the operculum). The funic souffle is the sound of blood flowing through
the umbilical vessels. Ballottement is a technique for palpating the fetus.

20. To reassure and educate pregnant clients about changes in their breasts, nurses should be
aware that:
a. The visibility of blood vessels that form an intertwining blue network indicates full
function of Montgomery’s tubercles and possibly infection of the tubercles.
b. The mammary glands do not develop until 2 weeks before labor.
c. Lactation is inhibited until the estrogen level declines after birth.
d. Colostrum is the yellowish oily substance used to lubricate the nipples for
breastfeeding.
ANS: C
Lactation is inhibited until after birth. The visible blue network of blood vessels is a normal
outgrowth of a richer blood supply. The mammary glands are functionally complete by
midpregnancy. Colostrum is a creamy, white-to-yellow premilk fluid that can be expressed
from the nipples before birth.

21. To reassure and educate pregnant clients about changes in their cardiovascular system,
maternity nurses should be aware that:
a. A pregnant woman experiencing disturbed cardiac rhythm, such as sinus
arrhythmia requires close medical and obstetric observation, no matter how healthy
she otherwise may appear.
b. Changes in heart size and position and increases in blood volume create auditory
changes from 20 weeks to term.
c. Palpitations are twice as likely to occur in twin gestations.
d. All of the above changes likely will occur.
ANS: B
Auscultatory changes should be discernible after 20 weeks of gestation. A healthy woman
with no underlying heart disease does not need any therapy. The maternal heart rate increases
in the third trimester, but palpitations may not occur. Auditory changes are discernible at 20
weeks.

22. To reassure and educate their pregnant clients about changes in their blood pressure, maternity
nurses should be aware that:
a. A blood pressure cuff that is too small produces a reading that is too low; a cuff
that is too large produces a reading that is too high.
b. Shifting the client’s position and changing from arm to arm for different
measurements produces the most accurate composite blood pressure reading at
each visit.
c. The systolic blood pressure increases slightly as pregnancy advances; the diastolic
pressure remains constant.
d. Compression of the iliac veins and inferior vena cava by the uterus contributes to
hemorrhoids in the later stage of term pregnancy.
ANS: D
Compression of the iliac veins and inferior vena cava also leads to varicose veins in the legs
and vulva. The tightness of a cuff that is too small produces a reading that is too high;
similarly the looseness of a cuff that is too large results in a reading that is too low. Because
maternal positioning affects readings, blood pressure measurements should be obtained in the
same arm and with the woman in the same position. The systolic blood pressure generally
remains constant but may decline slightly as pregnancy advances. The diastolic blood pressure
first decreases and then gradually increases.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Planning, Implementation
MSC: Client Needs: Physiologic Integrity
23. Some pregnant clients may complain of changes in their voice and impaired hearing. The
nurse can tell these clients that these are common reactions to:
a. A decreased estrogen level.
b. Displacement of the diaphragm, resulting in thoracic breathing.
c. Congestion and swelling, which occur because the upper respiratory tract has
become more vascular.
d. Increased blood volume.
ANS: C
Estrogen levels increase, causing the upper respiratory tract to become more vascular
producing swelling and congestion in the nose and ears leading to voice changes and impaired
hearing. The diaphragm is displaced, and the volume of blood is increased. However, the
main concern is increased estrogen levels.

24. To reassure and educate pregnant clients about the functioning of their kidneys in eliminating
waste products, maternity nurses should be aware that:
a. Increased urinary output makes pregnant women less susceptible to urinary
infection.
b. Increased bladder sensitivity and then compression of the bladder by the enlarging
uterus results in the urge to urinate even if the bladder is almost empty.
c. Renal (kidney) function is more efficient when the woman assumes a supine
position.
d. Using diuretics during pregnancy can help keep kidney function regular.
ANS: B
First bladder sensitivity and then compression of the bladder by the uterus result in the urge to
urinate more often. Numerous anatomic changes make a pregnant woman more susceptible to
urinary tract infection. Renal function is more efficient when the woman lies in the lateral
recumbent position and less efficient when she is supine. Diuretic use during pregnancy can
overstress the system and cause problems.

25. Which statement about a condition of pregnancy is accurate?

a. Insufficient salivation (ptyalism) is caused by increases in estrogen.
b. Acid indigestion (pyrosis) begins early but declines throughout pregnancy.
c. Hyperthyroidism often develops (temporarily) because hormone production
increases.
d. Nausea and vomiting rarely have harmful effects on the fetus and may be
beneficial.
ANS: D
Normal nausea and vomiting rarely produce harmful effects, and nausea and vomiting periods
may be less likely to result in miscarriage or preterm labor. Ptyalism is excessive salivation,
which may be caused by a decrease in unconscious swallowing or stimulation of the salivary
glands. Pyrosis begins in the first trimester and intensifies through the third trimester.
Increased hormone production does not lead to hyperthyroidism in pregnant women.

26. A first-time mother at 18 weeks of gestation comes for her regularly scheduled prenatal visit.
The client tells the nurse that she is afraid that she is going into premature labor because she is
beginning to have regular contractions. The nurse explains that this is the Braxton Hicks sign
and teaches the client that this type of contraction:
a. Is painless. c. Causes cervical dilation.
b. Increases with walking. d. Impedes oxygen flow to the fetus.
ANS: A
Uterine contractions can be felt through the abdominal wall soon after the fourth month of
gestation. Braxton Hicks contractions are regular and painless and continue throughout the
pregnancy. Although they are not painful, some women complain that they are annoying.
Braxton Hicks contractions usually cease with walking or exercise. They can be mistaken for
true labor; however, they do not increase in intensity or frequency or cause cervical dilation.
In addition, they facilitate uterine blood flow through the intervillous spaces of the placenta
and promote oxygen delivery to the fetus.

27. Which finding in the urine analysis of a pregnant woman is considered a variation of normal?
a. Proteinuria c. Bacteria in the urine.
b. Glycosuria d. Ketones in the urine.
ANS: B
Small amounts of glucose may indicate “physiologic spilling.” The presence of protein could
indicate kidney disease or preeclampsia. Urinary tract infections are associated with bacteria
in the urine. An increase in ketones indicates that the patient is exercising too strenuously or
has an inadequate fluid and food intake.

28. The maternity nurse understands that vascular volume increases 40% to 60% during
pregnancy to:
a. Compensate for decreased renal plasma flow.
b. Provide adequate perfusion of the placenta.
c. Eliminate metabolic wastes of the mother.
d. Prevent maternal and fetal dehydration.
ANS: B
The primary function of increased vascular volume is to transport oxygen and nutrients to the
fetus via the placenta. Renal plasma flow increases during pregnancy. Assisting with pulling
metabolic wastes from the fetus for maternal excretion is one purpose of the increased
vascular volume.

29. Physiologic anemia often occurs during pregnancy as a result of:

a. Inadequate intake of iron.
b. Dilution of hemoglobin concentration.
c. The fetus establishing iron stores.
d. Decreased production of erythrocytes.
ANS: B
When blood volume expansion is more pronounced and occurs earlier than the increase in red
blood cells, the woman has physiologic anemia, which is the result of dilution of hemoglobin
concentration rather than inadequate hemoglobin. Inadequate intake of iron may lead to true
anemia. There is an increased production of erythrocytes during pregnancy.

30. A patient in her first trimester complains of nausea and vomiting. She asks, “Why does this
happen?” The nurse’s best response is:
a. “It is due to an increase in gastric motility.”
b. “It may be due to changes in hormones.”
c. “It is related to an increase in glucose levels.”
d. “It is caused by a decrease in gastric secretions.”
ANS: B
Nausea and vomiting are believed to be caused by increased levels of hormones, decreased
gastric motility, and hypoglycemia. Gastric motility decreases during pregnancy. Glucose
levels decrease in the first trimester. Although gastric secretions decrease, this is not the main
cause of nausea and vomiting.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Implementation MSC: Client Needs: Physiologic Integrity
MULTIPLE RESPONSE
31. The diagnosis of pregnancy is based on which positive signs of pregnancy (Select all that
apply)?
a. Identification of fetal heartbeat
b. Palpation of fetal outline
c. Visualization of the fetus
d. Verification of fetal movement
e. Positive hCG test
ANS: A, C, D
Identification of fetal heartbeat, visualization of the fetus, and verification of fetal movement
all are positive, objective signs of pregnancy. Palpation of fetal outline and a positive hCG test
are probable signs of pregnancy. A tumor also can be palpated. Medication and tumors may
lead to false-positive results on pregnancy tests.

OBJ: Nursing Process: Assessment, Diagnosis
MSC: Client Needs: Health Promotion and Maintenance
32. A woman is in for a routine prenatal checkup. You are assessing her urine for proteinuria.
Which findings are considered normal (Select all that apply)?
a. Dipstick assessment of trace to +1 c. Dipstick assessment of +2
b. <300 mg/24 hours d. >300 mg/24 hours
ANS: A, B
Small amounts of protein in the urine are acceptable during pregnancy. The presence of
protein in greater amounts may indicate renal problems. A dipstick assessment of +2 and >300
mg/24 hours are excessive amounts of protein in the urine and should be evaluated further.

33. During pregnancy, many changes occur as a direct result of the presence of the fetus. Which
of these adaptations meet this criteria?
a. Leukorrhea
b. Development of the operculum
c. Quickening
d. Ballottement
e. Lightening
ANS: C, D, E
Leukorrhea is a white or slightly gray vaginal discharge that develops in response to cervical
stimulation by estrogen and progesterone. Quickening is the first recognition of fetal
movements or “feeling life.” Quickening is often described as a flutter and is felt earlier in
multiparous women than in primiparas. Lightening occurs when the fetus begins to descend
into the pelvis. This occurs 2 weeks before labor in the nullipara and at the start of labor in the
multipara. Mucus fills the cervical canal creating a plug otherwise known as the operculum.
The operculum acts as a barrier against bacterial invasion during the pregnancy. Passive
movement of the unengaged fetus is referred to as ballottement.

COMPLETION
34. A woman is 6 weeks pregnant. She has had a previous spontaneous abortion at 14 weeks of
gestation and a pregnancy that ended at 38 weeks with the birth of a stillborn girl. What is her
gravidity and parity using the GTPAL system?
___________________
ANS:
3-1-0-1-0
The correct calculation of this woman’s gravidity and parity is 3-1-0-1-0. Using the GPTAL
system, this client’s gravidity and parity information is calculated as follows:
G: Total number of times the woman has been pregnant (she is pregnant for the third time)
T: Number of pregnancies carried to term (she has had only one pregnancy that resulted in a
fetus at term)
P: Number of pregnancies that resulted in a preterm birth (none)
A: Abortions or miscarriages before the period of viability (she has had one)
L: Number of children born who are currently living (she has no living children)

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from a tree or roof, and down you come to the earth, pulled by the
force or attraction of gravitation.
This force or attraction, exerted by the great strong sun over our
earth and all other planets, keeps them travelling in nearly round
paths about the sun. This attraction, exerted by the earth over the
moon, keeps the moon travelling in a nearly circular path about the
earth. And does not the moon then attract the earth? Oh, yes, all
bodies attract each other; but the moon is of much less weight or
mass than the earth, and her pull is weak in comparison; she cannot
pull the earth out of her orbit. She does pull something however, and
what do you suppose she pulls? She pulls the water that is on the
earth, heaping it up in the tides! The tide is simply the ocean obeying
the attraction of the moon.
It seems a pity that in a few simple lessons on the solar system, we
should use any terms that are hard to be understood. But some few
such terms we have been obliged to use. “Attraction of gravitation” is
one of these which we have tried to make a little plainer. “Inclination
of plane to orbit” is another. What does that mean? Can we make it
clear?
Let us set a lamp on the table, and call it the sun. Now take an
orange and call it the world. Call the stem-place, and the spot
opposite, the poles of this world. Next run a knitting-needle through
the orange, from pole to pole, to represent the axis on which the
earth turns. As we spin our earth-orange around on its axis, let us
move our needle around the lamp, in a lemon-shaped path. This
shape is called an ellipse. Thus we represent the earth turning
around on its axis, or over and over, and at the same time travelling
around the sun.
Now it is clear that we can hold our knitting-needle straight out,
horizontally, or we can hold it straight up and down, perpendicularly,
as it moves around the sun-lamp. But neither of these straight
positions would represent the direction of the axis of the earth; we
must tip the needle a little, so as to hold it in a slanting position. Now
if we held the needle exactly up and down, or exactly straight out,
the sun-lamp would shine on just half of the orange, as divided from
pole to pole. But when we tip the needle you see we bring our
orange-world in such a position that, as it passes around the sun-
lamp, the light falls now more around one pole, now more around the
other; this tipped position is “inclination to the plane of orbit.”
LESSON VIII.
PLAN AND PROGRESSION.
“They rise in joy, the starry myriads burning—

The shepherd greets them from his mountains free;
And from the silvery sea
To them the sailor’s wakeful eye is turning—
Unchanged they rise—”
—Hemans.
We have now found that our earth is one among several planets
revolving around a great central star which we name the sun. The
sun and his attendant planets and their satellites form what is called
the solar system. We have also found that the heavens are filled with
such systems, and that these are gathered together in nebulæ or
clusters. Prominent among these clusters is the Milky Way, near the
centre of which our system is placed.
The bodies which in our system revolve about the sun, are called
planets. With respect to the sun and other great stars the planets are
small, but considered in themselves they are enormous bodies. They
are all dark spheres,[17] having no light in themselves. Is it true that
the moon with her silvery radiance and Venus and Mars with their
steadfast beams, are dull and dark as burnt-out cinders? This is
indeed true; the planets receive their light and heat from the sun, and
it is as they reflect back this light that they shine so brilliantly. As an
example of such reflection take a new tin plate; it has no light in
itself; shut it in a dark room, it gives out no light; but hold it where a
broad ray of sunshine strikes it, and at once the light is reflected
back from the tin with such burning splendor that the eyes can
scarcely look upon it. So we have observed windows struck by the
light of the setting sun, and at once blazing forth like fires.
The planet nearest to the sun is named Mercury. It is distant from the
sun about thirty-five millions of miles,[18] and is the smallest of the
eight major planets. Mercury is so close to the sun that it is nearly
always lost in the sun’s light, and can be seen by the naked eye only
occasionally, immediately after a clear sunset, or before a clear
sunrise. The telescope shows us that Mercury has phases as the
moon has; possesses, as far as known, no satellites, and its path is
not so nearly in a circle as that of other planets. To the naked eye it
appears as a small star, with a white light faintly tinted with red. Lying
so near to the sun it receives much more light and heat than we do.
Its day is twenty-four hours long; its year has but eighty-eight days,
and each of its seasons is but twenty-two days long. The shortness
of the year and of the seasons is the result of the nearness of the
planet to the sun, which so shortens its path that it can be traversed
in less than three of our months.
The next planet in order of distance from the sun is Venus, the most
beautiful of what we popularly call stars. But Venus is a planet, not a
star. Venus is visible nearly all the year, and is often the first star to
shine forth in the evening or the last one to fade away in the
morning. It has even been seen shining at noon-day. This dazzling
light of Venus is supposed to be caused by a dense layer of cloud,
which wraps the planet about, and proves an admirable reflector of
the sun’s rays. The day of Venus is about half an hour shorter than
our own;[19] its year is two hundred and twenty-four days. The
French astronomer, Flammarion, tells us that mountains, much
higher than any on our earth, have been measured on the planet
Venus. The changes of temperature on Venus are much more
sudden than on our earth; but it has no ice at the poles, for its winter
does not last long enough for ice to accumulate as it does at the
earth’s poles.
As the orbit of Venus is between the earth and the sun, it happens
that at certain times Venus lies between the sun and the earth, and
so shows us its dark side. Again, when it is to the right or left of the
sun, we see only a crescent formed by its quarter,[20] and it is at this
phase that its mountains have been measured.
Venus is sixty-six millions of miles from the sun, and when nearest
us about twenty-six million miles from the earth, being, with the
exception of the moon, our nearest neighbor in the skies.
The third planet from the sun is our earth, ninety-two million miles
from the source of its light and heat. Circling around the earth, and
moving with it in its orbit, goes the moon. The earth rotates on its
axis once in about twenty-four hours, giving us day and night in that
period of time, according as, during its revolution, a part of the
surface is turned to or from the sun. As the earth rolls over upon
itself, it also rolls along its orbit, or sky-path. The path of the earth
about the sun is travelled over in three hundred and sixty-five and a
quarter days, giving us our change of seasons by the inclination of
the earth’s axis to the plane of its orbit.
Next removed beyond the earth from the sun, is the splendid planet
Mars, which is easily distinguishable by its red light. It is in some
parts of its path only seven millions of miles further from the earth
than Venus. Mars has a day of about the same length as ours, and
its seasons are of nearly the same intensity; but while a season is
three months long with us, on Mars it is very nearly six months, for
Mars takes almost two of our years to travel round the sun. Mars has
a snow or ice-cap at each pole; it has also an atmosphere, as with a
telescope we can observe clouds drifting across its sky, the clouds
being formed as clouds here, by the evaporation of water from the
surface of the globe, which moisture, being carried up in invisible
vapor, is condensed by colder currents of air and forms clouds.
The red light of Mars is supposed to be produced by the color of its
surface, and by some it is considered that the vegetation on Mars
may be red, as ours is green, and that to an observer on Mars, our
planet would shine with a green light, as to us Mars shines in red.
The poles of Mars are always white. Next after the moon Mars is the
planet best known to us, because sometimes, as our globe and Mars
pursue their paths through space, they come upon the same side of
their path at the same time, which shortens the distance between
them, and enables close observations to be taken.
Between Mars and the next planet Jupiter there is a very great
space, so great that astronomers considered that it could not be
empty, but must have in it planets too small for easy observation.
They therefore resolved to search that part of the sky constantly and
carefully with telescopes. On the first day of this century a small
planet was seen in this space, and was named Ceres. This was the
first-found asteroid. From their small size these planets are called
asteroids or starlets. Others were found, slowly at first, and then
more and more; in April, 1891, the 309th was discovered by Dr.
Palisa.
Ceres, the first-found asteroid, is so small that one hundred and
twenty-five thousand little worlds of its size could be made out of our
own world. Fifty little globes like Ceres, set side by side, would form
a line as long as the diameter of our world. As the mass of Ceres is
so much less than that of our world, the attraction of gravity is less—
anything is fifty times as heavy on our world as it would be on Ceres.
So if a boy could live on Ceres, and have as much muscular force as
he has here, he could play easily with a ball that here weighs a
quarter of a ton. A baby on Ceres could tumble about a cannon-ball
as easily as a baby here plays with a rubber ball. If a house fell over
on a man, he could set it up as easily as here he could set up a
fallen peach-basket. Of course it is only a play of fancy that there are
men, boys, or babies on Ceres. Perhaps there is no living thing
there. If there are living creatures, all their habits and ways of life
must be very different from ours. But if people from our earth could
go to Ceres, why would they find such wonderful differences there in
weights, and in the effect of an output of strength? We have seen
that Ceres is very much smaller than our earth; its mass is greatly
less, and just in proportion to the smallness of its mass is the force of
the pull it exerts over objects, or the attraction of gravitation; this
attraction is dependent upon the mass of the body exercising it, and
upon the distance of the body attracted. When the distance between
two bodies is great the attraction is weaker, and when a body is
small its attracting power is less in proportion. Ceres is such a small
planet that its pull over objects is small. Similarly, we might say of the
planet Mars that its mass is so small, as compared with that of the
earth, that a body which on the earth would weigh one hundred
pounds would weigh much less on Mars; and where you could jump
up five feet here, you could rise many feet there.
The best athlete who can make a jump here, can rise only a few feet
into the air; then down he comes, pulled by the force of gravity, the
attraction of the earth. But on Ceres attraction is so small an affair
that a man could jump over a dome as high as St. Peter’s or St.
Paul’s without creating any excitement. In fact, on Ceres a man
would weigh only one-fiftieth part what he weighs here, and the
same output of muscular activity as is used here would have a fifty-
fold value. Much the same conditions exist on the other asteroids.
When first discovered it was supposed that the asteroids were
fragments of some very large planet which had gone to pieces. That
theory has been disproved, and now the nebular hypothesis of
Laplace is generally admitted to account satisfactorily for these little
planets.
After passing the asteroids in our system, we come to Jupiter, the
largest of the planets. Jupiter often shines more brightly than Venus.
It is more than one thousand times larger than the earth, and is seen
during most of the year. The year of Jupiter; that is, the time which is
required for its journey around the sun, is almost twelve of our years.
Day and night are equal, and of about five hours each, and there is
probably no change of seasons. But Jupiter seems to be to-day a
still highly heated body, as our earth was very many ages ago, and
its surface is disturbed by terrific storms.
Jupiter is accompanied by four moons, and its globe is surrounded
by several dark belts, which seem variable in number, but apparently
belong to its surface. The belts somewhat resemble sun-spots, and
indeed the whole planet is considered by astronomers to be much
more like the sun than like our earth. The reason that Jupiter does
not have changes of season is that the inclination of the planet to its
orbit is very slight. When we consider that Jupiter turns on its axis in
less than half the time that our earth requires for a rotation, and is
also so very much greater in diameter than our earth, we will realize
how marvellously rapid its daily motion must be.
Next to Jupiter in place, and next also in size, is Saturn, the sixth
planet from the sun. Ancient astronomers supposed that with Saturn
our solar system ended. Saturn has eight moons placed at different
distances, and is further distinguished by a very beautiful triple ring
surrounding the entire planet on its equatorial line. Within this
glowing triple ring the planet turns, and the rings themselves are
carried round the planet in a circular movement of still greater
swiftness. These rings are not always visible, as they, like their
planet, shine by the reflection of sunlight, and so are seen only when
the sun and earth are both on the same side of the planet.
In 1781 Sir William Herschel, the English astronomer, who had made
for himself a very fine telescope, discovered another planet. At first
he supposed this was not a planet but a comet. Finally it was
received into the family of the planets and named Uranus. Uranus is
much smaller than Saturn, but many times larger than the earth. A
year on Uranus is eighty-four of our years; that is, it takes Uranus
eighty-four years to make its circuit of the sun.
With the discovery of Uranus astronomers began to hope that yet
other bodies belonged to our solar system. They saw that the motion
of Uranus was often disturbed, as if some other planet near it
exercised over it some attracting force. Searching carefully, a planet
was finally found, about one hundred times larger than the earth, and
so far from the sun that to an observer placed upon it the sun must
appear like a large star; even the planet’s day would be no brighter
than twilight. This new-found planet was named Neptune, and is thus
far the last known planet of our sun system. Its place was
determined in 1846. Neptune is the only great planet that has been
discovered by a set search in the heavens for it, based on reasoning
that such a planet ought to exist. A Frenchman and an Englishman
discovered Neptune almost simultaneously. The planet has one
moon. Uranus and Neptune are so exceedingly distant from our
earth, and from the sun, that the study of them has afforded very
little of interest.
FOOTNOTES:
[17] Professor Newcomb considers Jupiter partly self-luminous.
[18] Sir B. Ball says 36 millions; others 35 millions; Newcomb
makes mean distance 40 millions.
[19] Sir R. S. Ball. Story of the Heavens, p. 161.
[20] These phases can be observed only through a telescope.
LESSON IX.
THE KING OF THE DAY.
“In them hath he set a Tabernacle for the sun,

Which is as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber,
And rejoiceth as a strong man to run a race,
There is nothing hid from the heat thereof.”
—Psalm XIX.
If it should happen that the sun were blotted out, our earth would at
once cease to be habitable. Within forty-eight hours the globe would
be covered with a deluge of rain, and buried in piles of snow, owing
to the condensation of all the moisture in our suddenly chilled
atmosphere, while more than Arctic cold would freeze the oceans to
their depths. In this reign of cold and darkness all animal and
vegetable life would perish. All the planets of our system would
share the same fate, and as the light with which they shine is
reflected from the sun, they would become invisible, rolling on
through space in total darkness.
How far from us is this sun, so important to us as the centre of light,
heat, and attraction? Ninety-two millions of miles. But how far is
that? An engine running thirty miles an hour, without once slacking
speed, could go around our globe in thirty-five days. Start it off for a
trip to the moon, and with the same speed it would reach there in
eleven months. And then send it from the earth to the sun, at an
equal rate of travel: year after year it must rush on, until three
hundred and fifty-one years were passed before it could reach the
sun. But so much faster does light travel than a railroad train, that
light comes to us from the sun in eight minutes and nineteen
seconds!
The sun is the centre of our planetary system,
and holds all the planets in their proper orbits
by the force of his attraction. We have seen in
our glance at the asteroid Ceres, that the
attraction of gravity depends upon the
distance and the weight or mass of the body
exercising it. If our earth should suddenly grow
lighter it could not hold the moon in its present
orbit; if its attractive power over the moon
ceased, the moon would go tumbling off into
space. The sun exercises immense attractive
force by virtue of its enormous mass. If all the
planets were put into one pan of a pair of
scales, the sun in the other would outweigh
them seven hundred times over. Three
hundred and fifty thousand such globes as we
live upon would be needed to balance the sun.
This gives us some idea of the mass or weight
of the sun. What is its size? Our world is
nearly eight thousand miles in diameter at the
equator; over two hundred and forty thousand “THE LIGHT AND
miles distant from the earth the moon revolves THE NIGHT.”
around it; but if a circle as large as the sun
could be drawn, the earth might be placed in
the centre, the moon rolled in her proper path around it, and beyond
this orbit to the line representing the circumference of the sun would
be a distance of nearly two hundred thousand miles more.
This vast orb shines with no borrowed ray. It is a great fountain of
burning light which shines now as it shone long before the building of
our world began. No light is so powerful and intense as sunlight. A
flash of lightning is scarcely seen across a sunny sky; the light of
lamps is not visible in strong sunshine; no invented light can
approach sunshine in brilliancy. Twenty millions of the brightest stars
would not shed upon the earth the radiance poured out by the sun.
According to the nebular hypothesis of Laplace, the sun not only
provides the planets with light and heat, but is the source and parent
from which they sprung into space. Thus the most distant planets, as
Neptune and Uranus, were the ones first thrown off, and the earth,
as only in the third remove from its source, is one of the latest of the
sun children.
We know that in the far-off ages, when the earth was being built into
a habitable globe, the sun shone just as it does to-day. We know this
from the eyes of fossil animals, which show that they were formed to
receive sunlight just as eyes do to-day. Also the petrified rain-marks,
of which we spoke in a former chapter, tell the same story; for
without the sun there would have been no rain, nor would imprints
have dried or baked so rapidly.
The heat and light of the sun are indispensable to the production and
growth of all vegetation. Age after age the genial rays of the sun
nourished on this earth an improving and enlarging vegetable
growth, which on its decay left added soil for generations of plants to
come. Thus the sun was not only the parent but the cherishing nurse
of our little globe. We have seen that in the coal period of earth-
building, the atmosphere of the world was heavily charged with
carbonic acid gas, but under the stimulating effects of sunshine,
vegetation continually increased, used up most of the carbonic acid
gas, and the atmosphere became constantly richer in oxygen,[21]
and more and more fitted for the use of animals. Thus we see the
sun, as a prudent householder, storing up in the world supplies of
coal, and purifying at the same time the air. Meanwhile, by the action
of sun rays on the salt, shallow seas, vast salt beds were produced
and buried, providing a mineral especially needful to man.
Our dependence upon the sun awakens a desire to know something
about the orb itself; but how can a body so intensely bright be
studied? Smoked and colored glass plates are used, through which
the sun can be observed with comfort, and there are certain
occasions when the study of this vast, glowing, and distant body can
be favorably pursued. These especial occasions favorable to sun-
study are during an eclipse, and when the planets Mercury and
Venus cross the sun’s disk. Such a crossing is called a transit.
It was once supposed that the sun was no larger than the moon is,
and as near to the earth as that planet is; both sun and moon were
believed to be much smaller than the earth, and very near to it, and
revolving in an orbit about it. To us the sun appears to rise above the
horizon, move across the heavens, and sink beneath the horizon,
and return after a few hours’ absence to pursue the same path.
Meanwhile, the earth does not appear to us to move. This is not the
only case in which our eyes deceive us until we call reason to their
aid.
When we are on a swiftly moving train of cars, it seems to us that
trees, posts, telegraph-poles, go rushing by us, while we remain at
rest. Although no one now questions that the earth moves, and that
with regard to the earth the sun remains fixed in one place, we still
use the language that fits appearances rather than facts, and we
say, “the sun rises, the sun sets,” when in truth the earth is merely
turning over and over, and so constantly bringing a different part of
its surface under the sun’s rays.
As the various planets move about the sun, in paths which we may
call concentric circles, or rings set one inside the other, it is evident
that there may be occasions when the different planets will come
between the sun and some planet with an orbit beyond their own.
For instance, Mercury is a planet travelling in a circle around the sun,
but a circle smaller than that in which the earth travels. Mercury may
then sometimes pass across the face of the sun at a time when the
earth is on the same side of the sun, and in that case we can
observe Mercury moving like a little black ball across the glowing
front of the King of the Day. To see such an occurrence we must use
smoked or darkened glasses, else Mercury would simply be lost in
the unshaded splendor of the sunlight. Why is not such a transit of
Mercury seen every year? Every year Mercury must cross the disk of
the sun, and the reason we do not see a transit yearly is that the
orbits of Mercury and the earth differ in plane, and long periods will
elapse between the occasions when the sun, Mercury, and the earth
come into line thus:
As Venus overtakes the earth in its journey around the sun once
every nineteen months, shall we have the benefit of a transit at each
time of passing? No; because Venus is usually either above or below
the line of the earth’s orbit. But when at long intervals such an event
as a transit of Venus does occur, no astronomical incident can be
more valuable, because it gives us the best means of measuring the
distance between the earth and the sun.
A grand opportunity for studying the sun is afforded by an eclipse.
An eclipse of the sun is occasioned by the moon’s passing between
the earth and the sun. Children are frequently warned that it is
discourteous to pass between a person and the fire or light; our
child, the moon, happily for us, often passes between us and our fire,
the sun, and on the fortunate occasions when this can be observed
out come the glasses for sun-study. As the moon revolves about the
earth, she sometimes stands between the sun and the earth. When
the moon passes between us and the sun on a clear day, between
sunrise and sunset, the day grows dark, a twilight comes over the
world, and continues until the moon has crossed the disk of the sun.
How can so small a body as the moon obscure so great a body as
the sun, and how can the moon pass in seven minutes across a disk
nearly a million of miles in extent? All this can be explained by the
nearness of the moon to our globe, and consequently the moon’s
great distance from the sun. Any one of us can hide the sun from us
by a dinner-plate, or even a dime, if we hold it close enough to our
eyes. So we can move a dinner-plate across the disk of the sun, by
one sweep of the arm. All depends upon the nearness to ourselves
of the screen used. Now as the moon is so near us in time of eclipse,
she hides the sun from us; the eclipse may last for an hour, but will
be total only for a few moments.
Every year there must be more than one eclipse of the sun. The
greatest number possible in a year is five, the least two; but these
will not all be visible from the same part of the globe.
Astronomers call an eclipse partial when the moon passes over one
or the other side of the sun’s disk. An annular or ring eclipse is one
where the moon is at such a distance from the earth, that she hides
only the central part of the sun’s disk, while around the dark shadow
thus cast appears a ring of splendid light. A total eclipse of the sun is
where the moon is so near us that she hides the entire face of the
sun. This can happen only at long intervals for any given locality.
Thus, when there is a total eclipse of the sun visible from New York
City, it may be hundreds of years before such an eclipse is again
seen from there.
When the sun is in total eclipse a glorious halo of clear light called a
corona, or crown, rays out on all sides behind the black body of the
moon. Horns, cones, and streamers of violet, scarlet, orange, and
pink light rise up from this crown, and seem to toss and whirl like
clouds in a storm.
In the careful study of the sun with telescopes, it has been found that
there are spots on its surface, which look as if the outer portion of
the sun were torn. Now by watching these spots a very wonderful
fact has been discovered. What do you think that is? Why, that the
sun turns over on its axis, as the earth does. But while the earth
rotates once in twenty-four hours, it takes the huge sun about
twenty-five days to turn around once.
Not only is the sun turning over on its axis, but it has a great path
along which it travels in space, and as it goes on it draws with it all
the planets and satellites of our system, each held in its proper path
by the great force of the sun’s attraction. Thus we have learned that
from the sun these great globes, the planets, were thrown off into
space, by tangental force, and lest they should go too far away they
are held in their paths by his strong attractive force.
FOOTNOTES:
[21] Nature Reader, No. 3, pp. 40-42.
LESSON X.
THE QUEEN OF THE NIGHT.
“That orbèd maiden, with white fire laden,

Whom mortals call the moon,
Glides glimmering o’er my fleece-like flow,
By the midnight breezes strewn.”
—Shelley, The Cloud.

No orb in the sky has attracted more attention than the moon.
Beautiful names have been given to this lesser light that rules the
night, and poets have sung some of their sweetest songs, and artists
have painted some of their finest pictures, to depict the wonderful
charm of moonlight. The moon is in our minds associated with
peace, silence, rest; the silver radiance causes no pain to the eyes,
and like charity, while revealing objects, it adds to their beauty, and
subdues defects. Much that by the light of day seems harsh and ugly
appears picturesque and fascinating in the delicate splendor of the
moonlight. Of moonlight rather than sunset might the poet sing:—
“The splendor falls on castle walls

And snowy summits old in story,
The long light shakes across the lakes,
And the wild cataract leaps in glory.”
Those nations who have worshipped the sun as god of the day, have
paid similar worship to the moon as goddess of the night. The
ancient myths spoke of the moon as a pure and lonely maiden, fond
of silence, hunting, and the forest shades. Increasing knowledge has
shown us the moon as neither goddess nor maiden, but as a satellite
of the earth, from which many ages ago it was cast off into space,
and by the attraction of which it is held as by invisible and
unbreakable chains.
Being so much nearer to us than any other heavenly body, the moon
was one of the earliest and best understood, and to it, about two
hundred and fifty years ago, the first telescopes were turned with
eager expectations of wonderful discoveries. The moon, at the
nearest point in its orbit, is distant from us about two hundred and
twenty-five thousand miles, only about twenty-eight times the
diameter of the earth. Those travellers, who have again and again
made the circuit of the earth, have in the aggregate passed over a
greater distance than lies between us and the moon. Steam could
take us there in less than a year; but if the man in the moon should
begin to pelt stones at the earth, they would hit their mark in a little
less than three days and two hours.
Shining large and fair in the heavens, the moon seems, as a queen,
to lead forth the hosts of the stars, but if we watch its course each of
the twenty-seven days which it requires for its journey around the
earth, we shall see that it continually falls behind the progress of the
shining hosts, and possesses a motion entirely independent of them.
The moon, like the earth, shines by the reflected light of the sun, and
this causes the lunar or moon phases. Thus sometimes we see the
full moon; then by slowly lessening degrees, which we call waning,
we see the half, and the quarter, and the little crescent, or octant.
Then we lose sight of the moon, and again it becomes visible as a
slim crescent, the hornèd moon it is called, and so waxes to the full.
In the circle which the moon describes about our earth, the moon
passes between us and the sun once in about thirty days, and so
presents us a dark side, which is called the new moon. In fifteen
days more it is on the opposite side of the earth from the sun, and
shows us its entire disk illuminated, which we call full moon; passing
still about us, in fifteen days after full moon, having changed from full
to gibbous, and to the third quarter, half, and second quarter, once
more we are presented with the slim octant of the hornèd moon.
Generally the moon in its orbit passes a little above or below the disk
of the sun, but sometimes it moves exactly across the face of the
sun, and so occasions an eclipse of the sun. Again, sometimes the
moon, as it passes behind the earth, comes within the cone of
shadow cast by the earth, and so an eclipse of the moon, either total
or partial, is caused.
There are many nights when we say “there is no moon.” We should
not understand by this that the moon is not in the sky; the simple fact
is that in the progression of its rising, the moon has come to a time
when she moves during the day through the part of the heavens that
is visible to us. So sometimes toward sunset, we see the moon high
in the sky, and during part of the day, when the nights are moonless,
we see the moon when not obscured by the greater light of the sun.
In all these various changes of its life, if we study the moon with
telescopes, we shall find it to be a globe, opaque, lit up by the sun,
having mountains and valleys on its surface. Those dark lines and
spots which with the naked eye we see on the full moon, are ranges
of volcanic mountains. The surface of the moon has been mapped
out by astronomers, who have given names to the various
eminences and depressions, and from a study of the moon much
has been learned of planets in general. For, while the moon is so
small a body and has its orbit around the earth, which is its centre of
attraction, it is not to be considered as a mere satellite, but is to be
respectfully ranked among the planets.
There have been many foolish myths about the moon: its ray has
been considered poisonous to sleepers; the full moon has been
regarded as a source of disease and madness, and has been
supposed to affect the growth of plants, the medicinal properties of
herbs, and the fortunes of human lives. The moon owes all these
slanders to its nearness to us.
In size the moon is about one-fourth the diameter of the earth, and
its volume is but one-fiftieth that of our planet. The days and nights
of the moon are not twelve hours long, but three hundred and sixty
hours, equal, therefore, to fifteen of our twenty-four hour days. Only
a little more than one side, or face, of the moon is ever seen by us.
There have been many romantic fancies about what may be on the
other side of the moon, but probably the side we do not see is very
similar to the side which we do see.
What is the past history of the moon? The first condition of any
planet is that of burning vapor or gas, which must slowly cool and
form a nucleus of solid or half-fluid matter. It is evident that the
smaller the planet the more rapidly it will cool and become solid, and
the greater the planet the longer it will remain in a partly fluid state.
Thus Jupiter and Saturn will require much longer time to cool than
Mercury or Venus. The sun, being by far the largest body in our
system, will be gaseous or semi-fluid long after all the planets which
he cast into space have cooled and hardened; while the moon, being
one of the smallest planets, hardened long before the great planets,
and before the earth. Thus the sun is still in the early stages of its
existence, and the moon has run the course of its changes and is a
burnt-out and aged world.
No doubt the stages of moon-building were very like those of earth-
building, with variations due to the much smaller size of the sphere.
The nucleus would partially solidify, there would be a hardened crust
which at intervals would crush in from the withdrawal of interior
molten matter, or would be suddenly torn and flung up by the
pressure of boiling lava from within. The condensing atmosphere no
doubt sent down water upon the moon, but by long degrees the
heated volcanic surface has parted with its seas, and we find the
map of the moon now presenting us not with oceans, but empty sea-
beds, volcano craters, and strange and arid depressions.
The moon has no atmosphere; no rain falls on her barren surface; no
clouds move above her; no tempests howl in her caverns; no snows
crown her volcanic peaks; no sunsets shine in gorgeous colors;
there are no violet and crimson skies at dawn. The moon is the
kingdom of eternal calm, and sleep, and stillness. If any blow
disturbs the lunar surface, it is from the fall of meteors rained upon it
through space. It is to our atmosphere we owe the glories of the
clouds, the beneficence of waters, the magic of frost changes, the
rush of storms, the balmy breezes, the sky.
As it has no seas and no air, it follows that the moon has no sky. The
lovely blue we see above us, is merely caused by many miles of air,
but from the moon one would merely look away into immensity; and
day, and night, sun, moon, stars, comets, and meteors could not be
seen, while instead of the lovely blue dome above us, where stars
innumerable shine and tremble, space, as seen from the moon, is a
perpetual, limitless, black abyss.
We have found the moon destitute of both air and water; it is evident
that it is also destitute of all vegetation; in fact of all life. As there is
darkness above, so there is silence below. The moon is a desert
land where no foliage rustles, where no flowers bloom, where no bird
builds or sings. No feet climb the lofty mountains, or explore the
gaping craters of moon-land. No voice causes an echo in the vast
yawning caves that penetrate moon-mountains.
A curious fact about these mountains in the moon is that they are
annular or ring-shaped. They are skeleton mountains, burnt-out
craters, mighty hollow cones thrust up, so that if one might climb to
the top of a moon-mountain, he could walk around the rim, as a fly
walks around the edge of a cup; or he could go down, down, down,
on the inside to the level of the plain from which he began his
ascent.
The surface of the moon changes, not by the motions of life and
growth, but by a slow decay; for changes in the moon’s face are
occasioned by the crumbling of mountains and the falling down of
lands. Thus we see the moon to be a dumb, dead, deserted planet,
wheeling on in its orbit around the earth, and carried with the earth in
its greater orbit around the sun. Silvery sweet and fair, this queen of
the night is a planet that long, long ago passed its childhood and its
prime, and fell, in its old age, a prey to fire.

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PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 169

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 170

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 170

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 171

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 172

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 175

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 180

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 181

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: 170

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: 179

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 184

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: 183

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 183

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 168

15. Which time-based description of a stage of development in pregnancy is accurate?

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Knowledge REF: 168

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Knowledge REF: 169

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 172

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 173

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Knowledge REF: 173

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Knowledge REF: 174

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 175

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 176

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 179

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 180

25. Which statement about a condition of pregnancy is accurate?

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: 183

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 172

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: 180

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 172

29. Physiologic anemia often occurs during pregnancy as a result of:

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Knowledge REF: 177

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Knowledge REF: 183

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Analysis REF: 184

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Application REF: 180

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 173

PTS: 1 DIF: Cognitive Level: Comprehension REF: 168

“They rise in joy, the starry myriads burning—

“In them hath he set a Tabernacle for the sun,

“That orbèd maiden, with white fire laden,

—Shelley, The Cloud.

“The splendor falls on castle walls

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