UNIT SIX

ELECTROSTATICS AND ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

6.1 Coulomb’s Law

Properties of Electric Charges

Charge
➢ Charge is the fundamental property of matter associated with electrons and
protons which are found in any atom.

Properties of charges

➢ There are two kinds of electric charges: Positive and Negative.

➢ Two similarly charged bodies repel each other and two oppositely charged
bodies attract each other.
➢ Electric charge is always conserved, i.e., it cannot be created or destroyed.
➢ Electric charge is quantized. Charge comes in discrete packets, it means that
charge (q) always occurs as some integral multiple of the charge of an electron,
e. It can be written as: q=± ne (where n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
➢ The magnitude of the charge of an electron is:
1e=1.6x10-19 C
Example1.
1. What number of protons needed to make a charge of +1.0 C?

2. How many electrons must be removed from a neutral object to leave a net
charge of +0.50 μC?

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Electrostatic Force

➢ It is a force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies.

Coulomb’s law
➢ Coulomb’s law states that any two-point charges exert an electrical force on
each other that is directly proportional to the product of their charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
➢ The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point-charges is given by

➢ The proportionality constant k is called the electrostatic, or Coulomb constant

Example2.
1. Two tiny spherical water drops with identical charges of –1x10-10C, have a
center-to-center separation of 1.0cm.
a) What is the electrostatic force acting between them?

b) How many excess electrons are on each drop giving it its charge imbalance?

Force on a Charge due to Multiple Electric Charges

➢ Electrostatic force is a vector quantity. Therefore, if there are more than one
force acting on a charged particle, then the resultant force acting on the particle
will be the vector sum of all these forces. This is known as the superposition
principle.

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Example3.

Example4.
Referring to the question on the above example 3, determine the magnitude and
direction of the total electrostatic force acting
(a) On q1, and (b) on q2

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 Home work (Review questions 6.1 on page 228)
6.2 Electric Fields
➢ An electric field is a region in space where one charge experiences a force from
another charge.
Electric field lines
➢ The electric field produced by a charged particle can be represented by lines of
force called electric field lines.

Properties of electric Field lines

➢ Electric field lines do not cross each other.
➢ Electric field lines begin on positive charges and radiate away from them toward
negative charges, where they terminate.
➢ Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of the charged body.
➢ The closer the lines, the stronger the electric field, and the farther apart they
are the weaker is the field.
➢ Equally spaced electric field lines indicate the field is uniform. The electric field
between two parallel plates, shown in Figure 6.8, is a common example of a
uniform electric field.
The Electric field strength
➢ The magnitude and direction of the electric field is expressed by a quantity
called electric field strength or electric field intensity ( E )

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 ➢ Electric Field of Point Charge: The electric field of a point charge can be
obtained from Coulomb’s law. From Coulomb’s law, the equation for the force
between two electric charges is:

➢ The SI unit for the electric field strength is newton per coulomb (N/C).
Example.5
Calculate the strength and direction of the electric field E due to a point charge
of 2.0 nC (nano-Coulombs) at a distance of 5.0 mm from the charge.

Exercise

What electric force does the electric field found in the above example 5. Would exert on
a point charge of −0.25 μC?

Electric field for multiple point charges

➢ The electric field from multiple point charges can be obtained by taking the
vector sum of the electric fields of the individual charges.

Example.6

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EXERCISE

Repeat example 6, if (a) both q1 and q2 are positively charged, and (b) they are both
negatively charged.

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Electric flux

➢ Electric flux is a measure of the number of electric field lines that crosses a
given area.
➢ The product of the electric field and the surface area, A, perpendicular to the
field is called the electric flux and represented by the symbol ∅
∅ = 𝐸𝐴 =𝐸A𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃=𝐸. 𝐴
➢ Electric flux (φ )is a scalar quantity, whose SI unit is N.m2/C
➢ The area vector of a flat surface of area A has the following
magnitude and direction:
• Magnitude is equal to area of the surface
• Direction along normal or perpendicular to the surface

NOTE

➢ the electric field vectors are tangent to the surface at all points
➢ If the field don’t penetrate the surface the flux is zero

Fig. Field lines of a uniform electric field penetrating a plane of area A perpendicular to the
field. The electric flux φ through this area is equal to EA

Example.6

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Exercise

HOME WORK (Review Questions 6.2, PAGE234-235)

6.3 Electric Potential

Electric Potential Energy
➢ Work done by external force in bringing a unit positive charge from point
A to B.

Electric Potential(V)
➢ Electric potential (denoted by V) is equal to the work done per positive charge in
carrying it from infinity to that point in an electric field.

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 The potential due to a single point charge
➢ In electrostatics the zero of potential is at infinity, at a larger distance from the
source charge, because the electric field and force approach zero there
➢ Mathematically:

➢ Electrical potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is Volt (V) .

Electrical Potential Difference
➢ The potential difference between two points(ΔV) (A and B in this case) in an
electric field is defined as the work(W) required to move a unit positive test(q)
charge from the point of lower potential to that of higher potential.

Example
1. Determine the electric potential produced by a charge of 1μC at a distance of
1mm from it.

Potential difference in a uniform electric field

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➢ the electrical potential difference between the two plates is expressed as, the
electric field strength times the distance between the plates. So the unit of
electric field in this case is
volt /meter=newton/coulomb, V/m=N/C
Potential due to a system of point charges
➢ Consider a system of charges q1 q 2 , , ..., qn with position vectors r1 r2 , , ...,rn relative to some
origin (Figure below)

NOTE

➢ the potential of a positive charge is positive and the potential of a negative

charge is negative. . It means the signs of the charges are used in calculating
the potential.
Example.7
➢ Two charged particles are placed on the x-axis of a coordinate system. The first ( q 1 = 2µC ) is at
the origin. The second ( q 2 = −5µC ) is at x m =1.0 . Determine the potential at x =0.2m

➢ Referring to example 7, (a) determine the potential at x =1.5m . (b) At what point in between
these two charges the electric potential is zero?

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 Example.8
➢ Calculate the change in electrical potential energy in moving a 1nC charge from
5 cm to 1 cm from a charged sphere with a charge of 1μc

Equipotential line or surface

➢ Equipotential lines are lines connecting points of the same electric potential.
➢ If a charge moves along the equipotential line then, there is no change in its
potential and hence, no electrical work is done.
Characteristics of equipotential lines/surfaces:
1. Two equipotential surfaces never intersect each other.
2. The equipotential lines of a uniform field are parallel to each other and the
equipotential lines of a point charge are concentric sphere (see Figure 6.17)

Figure 6.17: Equipotential lines of (a) a uniform field, (b) a point charge.
2. Since the electric field (E) is stronger near the charge, so equipotential surfaces of point
charge are crowded near the charge as shown in the Figure 6.17.
3. No work is required to move a charge along an equipotential line because there is no change
in potential.
4. Equipotential lines are always perpendicular to the electric field lines

Home work (Review Questions 6.3) 1,3 5,7,9 page 242

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6.4 Electric Current, Resistance and ohm’s law

Electric current

➢ Electric current(I) is defined as the rate( of flow of charges through some cross-
sectional area.

𝐼 = ∆𝑞/∆𝑡
➢ The SI unit of electric current is ampere, denoted by A. Small currents are
measured in milliampere (mA), and microampere (nA). 1mA = 10-3A and
1μ A=10-6A
Electric current(I) and current density(Ј)
➢ defined as the magnitude of the electric current(I) per cross-sectional area(A).
J = I/A
➢ current density is a vector quantity and its SI unit amperes per square meter.
➢ The other formula of current density is
Ј = 𝜎𝐸 𝜎 = 1/ ρ
➢ Where σ = conductivity of the conductor, and ρ resistivity. The SI unit of ρ is
Ohm meter (Ω.m), where 1 Ω.m = 1 V/A, and the SI unit of resistivity Siemens
per meter (S/m), or Ώ-1.
Example.9
➢ A current of 6 mA, flows through a copper wire of correctional are 12 mm².
What is the current density?

Drift velocity
➢ The average velocity by which the free electrons move through a conductor is
called their drift velocity.
➢ Drift velocity (Vd )can be calculated by
𝑉𝒅 = 𝐼/𝑛𝐴𝑒 where I= current ,n= number of electron. e= 1.6x10-19C
or 𝑉𝑑 = 𝐽/𝑛𝑒

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 Example.10
➢ Calculate the mean drift velocity of the electrons in a copper wire of cross-
sectional area 5.0x10-6m2 carrying a current of 1.0 A. There are 8.5 x10-6 free
electrons in one m3 of copper

Resistance and Ohm’s Law

Resistance
➢ It is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit
Ohm’s Law
➢ Ohms law state that the current in a metal wire is directly proportional to
the potential difference between its ends, provided that physical
conditions, such as temperature, remain constant

R=V/I R=resistance ,V= voltage I= current

➢ The SI unit of resistance is Ohm denoted by Ώ, a Greek letter read as Omega. 1Ω =1 V /1A
Example.10
➢ What is the resistance of an automobile headlight through which 2.50 A flows
when 12.0 V is applied to it?

Exercise
➢ The current through a component is 2.0 mA when connected to a source which
provides 12 V. Assuming its resistance is unchanged, what pd is required
across the component when the current is 2.0μA?

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 Resistors

➢ An object of conducting material, having a resistance of desired value, is called

a resistor. In an electric circuit, a resistor is represented by symbol shown in
Figure below

Combination of Resistors

1. Resistors in Series.
➢ In series connection components are connected end-to-end in a line to form a
single path for electrons to flow

➢ In series combination
• Current is constant throughout the circuit
I1=I2=I3=……
• The potential difference V across all three resistors is given by

• The total resistance R of the three resistors is then given by

R=R1+R2+R3

2.Resitor in parallel

➢ In parallel connection, there are more than one path for electrons to flow

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 ➢ In parallel combination
• In a purely parallel circuit, the potential difference across any resistor is
the same
V= V1= V2 =V3
• The total current is the equal to the sum of the current
across each resistor
I=I1+I2+I3
• The total resistance can be calculated by

• For only two resistors connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance can
determined by the equation.

Example .11

➢ For the circuit shown in the figure below, determine (a) the equivalent
resistance of the circuit, (b), the current through each resistor, and the
potential difference across each resistor

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Exercise
1. For the circuit shown below, list resistors that are connected (a) in series, and (b) in parallel

2. What is the equivalent resistance of the circuit shown in the figure? (b) What current flows
through the 5Ω resistor?

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 Measuring Instruments
➢ An ammeter is a device used to measure current flowing in a circuit.
➢ It must be connected in series with the resistor and has small internal
resistance in it

Exercise
1. In the circuit, shown below, an ammeter has a resistance of 0.5Ω .
Determine the current in the circuit, (a) before an ammeter is introduced,
and (b) after it is introduced. (c) Based on your result of question (b), discuss
the effect of inserting the ammeter.

Measurement of Voltage
➢ Voltmeter is a device used to measure the potential difference between two
points in the circuit.
➢ It must be connected in parallel and has very high internal resistor in it

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 Exercise
1.A voltmeter shown in the figure below which can measure up to 6V has a resistance of 50 kΩ .
Determine the pd across the 20 kΩ in the circuit, (a) when the voltmeter is not in place, and (b)
when the voltmeter is in place. (c) Based on your result of question (b), discuss the effect of
inserting a voltmeter.

Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter and voltmeter

➢ A galvanometer is an instrument used for measuring small electric current in
electric circuit. It works by deflecting a pointer in response to an electric current flowing
through a coil in a constant magnetic field. The deflection is proportional to the current passed

converting a galvanometer into an ammeter

➢ In order to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, a very low resistance

known as “shunt” resistance is connected in parallel to it.

➢ The shunt resistance can be calculated by

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Example.10

Converting a galvanometer into voltmeter

➢ A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting with it with a

very high resistance called multiplier in series with it

➢ The multiplier resistance can be calculated by

Example.11

➢ A galvanometer has a resistance of 40 Ω and is of 3 mA full scale deflection.

How would you modify it to a 0 − 10 V voltmeter

The Potential divider

➢ A potential divider consists of two or more resistors in series with each other
and with a source of fixed potential difference.

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 fig. the potential divider circuit
➢ The potential in each resistor in the above circuit can be calculated by

Potentiometer
➢ A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact
that forms an adjustable voltage divider It works by varying the position of a
sliding contact across a uniform resistance wire.
➢ The Potentiometer can also be used for the following purposes
• to measure the emf of a given cell
• to measure the internal resistance of a cell
• to compare the emf of different cells, and
• as a variable resistor.
➢ the two symbols of a potentiometer in an electric circuit.

Measurement of Resistance
➢ Resistance can be measured directly by using ohmmeter. Experimentally
resistance is measured using the following two methods.
1. The ammeter-voltmeter method
2. Using Wheatstone bridge
➢ A Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances which can be used
to measure one of them in terms of the rest

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➢ When no current is flowing through, the bridge(CD), it is said to be balanced. As
there is no current through the galvanometer, the potential difference across its
terminals is zero.
➢ Then the ratio of R1 to R2 is equal to the ratio of R3 to R4

Example.12

Comparing the Brightness of Bulbs

➢ The amount of light emitted by a bulb (brightness) is measured in Lumens.
➢ The higher the wattage rating, the more energy consumed, and brighter the
bulb will be.
➢ From the equation for electric power, P= I2R , we see that brightness depends
on current and resistance.

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 Kirchhoff’s Rules
1. Kirchhoff’s First Rule (Junction rule)
➢ Kirchhoff’s first rule states that, at any junction in a circuit, the total
current entering the junction is equal to the total current leaving the
junction
➢ The other name of junction rule is law of conservation of charge(the net
charge coming towards the point should be equal to that going away
from it in the same time)

• In the above figure, the currents I1 and I2 enters into the junction, while the
currents I3and I4 leave the junction.

Exercise

2. Kirchhoff’s Second Rule (Loop Rule)

➢ Kirchhoff’s loop rule is stated as: For any complete loop of a circuit, the sum of
the emfs round the loop is equal to the sum of the potential drops around
the loop’. It follows from the law of conservation of energy.
Sign convention for Kirchhoff’s Rule
1. The e.m.f of the cells is taken as positive when the direction of motion is from negative terminal
to the positive terminal, but negative when traversing from positive to negative terminal.

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2. The potential difference across a resistor (IR) is taken as positive if we move in the opposite
direction to the current, and negative when moving in the direction of the current.
Example.13

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 Exercise
1. By using Kirchhoff’s second law determine the resistance R of the resistor
shown in the circuit below

HOME WORK(REVIEW QUESTION) page 271-272

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 6.6 Capacitors and Capacitance
➢ A capacitor is a device used to store electric charge, and hence electric energy.
➢ A capacitor becomes fully charged when the potential difference between the
plates of the capacitor becomes equal to the emf of the battery.

➢ For a given capacitor, the charge Q stored on the capacitor is proportional to

the potential difference V between the plates, Q V ∝ . Thus,

➢ The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. It is

independent of Q and V but depends on geometrical factors. The SI unit of
capacitance is farad (F). Small values of capacitances are measured in micro,
nano and Pico farads. 1 µF = 10-6 F, 1 nF =10-9 F, and 1 pF =10-12 F.
Parallel-plate Capacitor
➢ A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two large plane plates placed parallel to
each other with a small separation between them

➢ If a charge Q is stored on the positive plate, a charge –Q will be stored on the

negative plate. The charge density (σ) on each of these surfaces has a
magnitude.

➢ The electric field between the plates is given by the equation

➢ The potential difference between each plate is given by:

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➢ Therefore
➢ Substituting this into our defining equation for capacitance we get:

Dielectric
➢ A dielectric is an insulator such as a glass, paraffin, wood or plastic that is inserted in the gap
between the plates of a capacitor

➢ The positive charges within the dielectric are displaced lightly towards the
negative plate, and the negative charges are displaced slightly towards the
positive plate. This slight separation of charge is known as polarization
➢ Due to polarization the potential difference and hence the electric field between
the plates will decrease. As a result, the capacitor can hold more charge, and
thus, its capacitance increased

➢ A dielectric constant, k , also called relative permittivity or specific inductive

capacity, measures the ability of a capacitor to store charge. It is the property of
the dielectric.:

➢ the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depends on the size or area (A), distance of
separation of the plates(d), and the medium between them(kϵ)

Example14
➢ Consider a parallel plate capacitor with plates of area 2 200 cm and separated
by a sheet of mica thickness 2mm and dielectric constant 6. If the capacitor is
connected to 12V source, determine the charge stored on the plates of the
capacitor.

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EXERCISE

1. The dimensions of a parallel plate capacitor are 5cm by 10m, they are separated
by a distance of 2mm, and connected to a 24V dc source. If an insulator of
dielectric constant 5 is inserted between the plates, determine the amount of
charge stored on the plates.

Dielectric strength
➢ It is the maximum electric field that the material can withstand without
undergoing electrical breakdown and becoming electrically conductive (i.e.
without failure of its insulating properties).

COMBINATION OF CAPACITOR
1. Capacitors connected in parallel
➢ Consider three capacitors connected in parallel as shown in Figure

➢ In parallel combination
1. The same potential difference is provided for each capacitor.

2. The total charge is the sum of the charge drop on each capacitor

3. The total capacitance can be calculated by

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 2.Capacitors Connected in Series
➢ Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1,C2 and C3 connected in series to a potential
difference of V as shown in Figure

➢ In parallel combination
1. the magnitude of charge on all plates is the same

2. the total voltage is equal to the sum of voltage drop across

each capacitor

3. the total capacitance can be calculated by

EXERCISE

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 2. For the network of capacitors shown in the figure below, determine (a) the
equivalent capacitance, (b) the charge stored on each capacitor, and (c) the
voltage across each capacitor

HOMEWORK(REVIEW QUESTION 6.5) PAGE282-283

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 6.7 Electric Circuits in Our Surroundings

Household Electric Installations

➢ In our country Ethiopia, the voltages of the mains are 220 V – 240 V. Heating
appliances include electric kettle, immersion heater, electric irons, hair driers
and electric stoves. All heating appliances contain a heating element that
converts electrical energy into heat energy.
Color Code of Resistors
➢ It consists of a set of individual colored rings or bands in spectral order
representing each digit of the resistor value.
➢ The first band represents the first digit number, the second band the second
digit number and the third band represents multiplier to the base 10. The
fourth band is the tolerance (the permissible percentage error ± of the value.

EXAMPLE
➢ Based on the above figure the resistance of the band
Brown=1,black=0, red =100Ω, gold=±5%
R=1000Ω ± 5%

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