AS LEVEL

7 Waves
In this course, you will meet various types of waves. The importance of waves is that
they are a way of storing energy (stationary waves) and transferring energy from
one place to another (progressive waves). Progressive waves transfer energy – they
do not transfer matter.

Progressive waves
Terminology
A wave motion is formed when particles vibrate about their equilibrium position.
There are many examples of wave motions, and a few examples you should be
familiar with are: waves formed on springs, ropes, water (both in the natural world
and on the surface of a ripple tank), sound waves and electromagnetic waves.
KEY TERMS
» Displacement (x) of a particle is its distance from its equilibrium position. 1 hertz is one complete
The unit is the metre (m). oscillation per second.
» Amplitude (x0) is the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium
An oscillation is one
position. The unit is the metre (m).
vibration of a particle –
» Phase difference is the fraction of a cycle between two oscillating particles, for example, from its
expressed in either degrees or radians. mean position to the
» Period (T) is the time taken for one complete oscillation of a particle in the position of maximum
wave. The unit is the second (s). displacement in one
» Frequency (f) of a wave is the number of complete oscillations of a particle in direction, back to the
the wave per unit time. The unit is the hertz (Hz). mean position, then to
maximum displacement
» Wavelength (λ) is the distance between points on successive oscillations of the
in the opposite direction
wave that are vibrating exactly in phase. The unit is the metre (m). and finally back to the
» Wave speed (v) is the distance travelled by the wave energy per unit time. mean position.
The unit is the metre per second (m s−1).
(a)
Period T
Displacement

Time

Period T

(b)
Displacement
Wavelength λ STUDY TIP
Distance of It is easy to confuse
Amplitude wave travel these two graphs.
Check the axes
Amplitude carefully. Figure 7.1(a)
describes the variation
of displacement with
Wavelength λ time, and Figure 7.1(b)
▲ Figure 7.1 describes the variation
of displacement with
Figure 7.1 shows (a) the displacement of a particle in a wave against time and position along the wave.
(b) the displacement of all the particles at a particular moment in time.

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 7 Waves

Phase difference
Moving along a progressive wave, the vibrating particles are slightly out of step
with each other, for example, there is a phase difference between points P and Q in
Figure 7.2.
Displacement
P R
Distance
S

▲ Figure 7.2 Phase difference

Study Table 7.1, which describes the phase relationships between the different
points on the wave in Figure 7.2.
▼ Table 7.1

Points Phase difference/ Phase difference/ Common terms used

degrees radians to describe the phase
difference
P and R 360 or 0 2π or 0 in phase
P and Q 180 π exactly out of phase
(or antiphase)
R and S 90 ½π 90° or ½π out of phase

Phase difference also compares how two sets of waves compare with each other.
Figure 7.3 shows two sets of waves that are approximately 45° (¼π) out of phase.
Displacement
STUDY TIP
In the AS Level course,
Time you will use degrees
to measure phase
Displacement difference. You will meet
radian measurement in
‘Kinematics of uniform
Time circular motion’ on
p. 115.
▲ Figure 7.3

The wave equation

The speed of a wave is given by the equation:
distance
speed (v) =
time
By definition, in time T, the period of the oscillation, the wave travels one complete
wavelength. Hence:
λ
v=
T
But frequency and period are related by the equation:
1
f=
T
Hence:
v = fλ

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 WORKED EXAMPLE
A car horn produces a note of frequency 280 Hz. Sound travels at a speed of
320 m s–1. Calculate the wavelength of the sound.

Answer
v = fλ
320 = 280 × λ
320
λ= = 1.14 ≈ 1.1 m
280

NOW TEST YOURSELF

1 State the relationship between the frequency of a wave and the time period
of the oscillating particles in the wave.
2 Sketch a graph of the displacement against time of an oscillating particle in
a wave. Describe how you could find the frequency of the wave.

Intensity of radiation in a wave

Progressive waves transfer energy. This can be seen with waves on the sea. Energy is
picked up from the wind on one side of an ocean and is carried across the ocean and KEY TERMS
dispersed on the other side, as the wave crashes onto a shore. Intensity is defined as
the energy transmitted
Intensity is the energy transmitted per unit time per unit area at right angles to the per unit time (power)
wave velocity. per unit area at right
Energy transmitted per unit time is the power transmitted, so that: angles to the wave
velocity.
power
intensity =
area
The unit is watts per metre squared (W m−2).
The intensity of a wave is proportional to the amplitude squared of the wave:
I ∝ x02
This means that if the amplitude is halved, the intensity is decreased by a factor
of 4 (= 22).

WORKED EXAMPLE
The intensity of light from a small lamp is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance of the observer from the lamp, that is I ∝ 1/r 2. Observer A is
1.0 m from the lamp; observer B is 4.0 m from the lamp. Calculate how the
amplitude of the light waves received by the two observers compares.

Answer
intensity of light at B = ( 14 ) ( = 161 ) of that at A
2

STUDY TIP
intensity ∝ amplitude2
There are no simple
amplitude ∝ √intensity formulae that you can
apply here. You need
1 to ensure that you
amplitude at B = of that at A
√16 understand the physics
1 and then work through
amplitude at B = of that at A
4 in a logical fashion.

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 7 Waves

Transverse and longitudinal waves

In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points. When a wave passes
along a rope, the particles of the rope vibrate at right angles to the direction of
transfer of energy of the wave. Water waves can also be considered to behave in a
similar manner. This type of wave is called a transverse wave (see Figure 7.4).

Oscillations
of particles

KEY TERMS
Hand In a transverse wave,
movement
the particles vibrate
at right angles to the
Direction of direction of transfer of
wave travel energy.

▲ Figure 7.4 Transverse wave

Sound waves are rather different.

» Particles vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction of transfer of energy of
the wave.
» This causes areas where the particles are compressed together and areas where
they are spaced further apart than normal. KEY TERMS
» The areas where the particles are compressed together are called compressions. In a longitudinal wave,
» The areas where the particles are spaced further apart are called rarefactions. the particles vibrate
» This type of wave is called a longitudinal wave (Figure 7.5). parallel to the direction
of transfer of energy.
Oscillations In a compression, the
of particles
Hand particles are closer
movement
together than normal.
In a rarefaction, the
Direction of particles are further
wave travel
apart than normal.
▲ Figure 7.5 Longitudinal wave

NOW TEST YOURSELF

3 Figure 7.6 shows a graph of displacement against time of a particle in a
longitudinal wave.
+3
x /mm

+2

+1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
–1 t /s

–2

–3
▲ Figure 7.6
a Using the graph determine:
i the amplitude of the wave
ii the frequency of the wave

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 b Figure 7.7 shows the particles at rest before the wave arrives.

Direction of travel of the wave

▲ Figure 7.7
On a copy of Figure 7.7, show how one of the particles vibrates as the
wave passes.

Sound waves
Measuring the frequency of a sound wave
» Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
» The frequency of a sound wave can be measured using a cathode-ray oscilloscope
(CRO). The apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 7.8.

Cathode-ray Signal
oscilloscope generator Loudspeaker

Microphone

▲ Figure 7.8 Measuring the frequency of a sound wave

The period of the wave can be determined from the time-base setting and the
number of oscillations shown on the screen (frequency = 1/period).

WORKED EXAMPLE
In Figure 7.8, the time-base is set at 5 ms div−1. Calculate the frequency of the
wave.

Answer STUDY TIP

When measuring the
In four divisions, there are 3.5 oscillations.
frequency of a wave with
Therefore, in 4 × 5 ms (= 20 ms) there are 3.5 oscillations. a CRO, use as much of
the screen as possible
Therefore: to reduce uncertainties.
20
period (time for one wave) = ms = 5.7 × 10−3 s One period is from one
3.5
peak (or one trough)
1 1
f= = = 175 Hz to the next peak (or
T 5.7 × 10−3 trough).

NOW TEST YOURSELF

4 The engine of a train bumps into a row of trucks
and a pulse moves down the row of trucks.
Discuss whether it would be better to model the
pulse as transverse in nature or longitudinal.
5 The signal from a signal generator is fed to a
cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO). The time-base
is changed from 5 ms div−1 to 50 μs div−1. Discuss
whether fewer or more oscillations are visible on
the CRO screen.

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 7 Waves

The Doppler effect

Listen to the pitch of a siren as a police car approaches and passes you. You will
observe that on approach the pitch is higher than when the car is stationary and on KEY TERMS
leaving you the pitch is lower. This is known as the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect is
the change in frequency
Figure 7.9 shows the wavefronts spreading from (a) a stationary source and of waves due to the
(b) a moving source. relative motion of the
wave source and the
» Notice how the wavefronts from the moving source are much closer in front of
observer.
the source, giving a shorter wavelength and higher frequency.
» Behind the source, the waves are further apart than normal, giving a longer
wavelength and lower frequency.
STUDY TIP
(a) (b)
Velocity
If the source and the
of source observer are moving
towards each other, the
frequency increases
and a minus sign is
used in the denominator
▲ Figure 7.9 (a) Waves spreading out from a stationary source, and (b) waves spreading of the equation. If the
out from a moving source source and observer
are moving apart, a plus
The relationship between the observed frequency and the source frequency is given sign is used, leading to
by the formula: lower frequency.
fsv
fo =
v ± vs
where fo is the observed frequency, fs is the source frequency, v is the velocity of the
waves and vs is the relative velocity of the source and observer.

WORKED EXAMPLE
A loudspeaker connected to a signal generator produces a steady note of
frequency 256 Hz. An observer moves towards the loudspeaker at a speed of
25 m s−1. Calculate the frequency of the sound that the observer hears (speed of
sound = 330 m s−1). STUDY TIP
Answer All waves exhibit
the Doppler effect.
fsv 256 × 330 The electromagnetic
fo = = = 277 Hz
v ± vs 330 − 25 radiation from galaxies
shows a decrease in
It is worth noting that it is the relative movement between an object and the
the frequencies in their
source which is important, not the absolute movement. spectra – known as the
red shift. The fainter the
galaxies, the greater
NOW TEST YOURSELF the Doppler shift,
which suggests that the
further away the galaxy,
6 An alarm is set off by a burglar. A nearby police officer runs as fast as he the faster it is moving
can towards the alarm. The burglar runs as fast as he can from the alarm. away from the Earth.
The householder remains in her garden. This gives us evidence
a Who hears the highest pitched sound? for the expansion of the
b Why would the change in pitch be very small? Universe.

Electromagnetic waves
» Electromagnetic waves have the amazing property of being able to travel through
free space (a vacuum).
» They are transmitted by the repeated variations in electric and magnetic fields.
» The electric and magnetic fields vibrate at right angles to the direction of travel
of the disturbance.

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 » Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
» You see light (a form of electromagnetic wave) that has travelled through billions
of kilometres of empty space from distant stars.
Electromagnetic radiation comes at many different frequencies. Table 7.2 lists different
types of electromagnetic radiation and their approximate wavelengths in a vacuum.
▼ Table 7.2 Types of electromagnetic radiation

Type of radiation Approximate range of Properties and uses

wavelength in a vacuum/m
Gamma rays 10 −16 to 10 −11 Produced by the disintegration of atomic nuclei; very
penetrating, causes ionisation, affects living tissue
X-rays 10 −13 to 10 −9 Produced from rapidly decelerated electrons; properties similar
to gamma rays, the only real difference is in their method of
production
Ultraviolet 10 −9 to 4 × 10 −7 Ionising radiation, affects living tissue, stimulates the
production of vitamin D in mammals
Visible light 4 × 10 −7 to 7 × 10 −7 Stimulates light-sensitive cells on the retina of the eye
Infrared 7× 10 −7 to 10 −3 Has a heating effect and is used for heating homes and
cooking
Microwaves 10 −3 to 10 −1 Used in microwave cooking where it causes water molecules to
resonate; also used in telecommunications, including mobile
telephones
Radio waves 10 −1 to 105 Used in telecommunications

» There are no sharp boundaries between these types of radiation. The properties
gradually change as the wavelength changes. For example, it is not possible to
give a precise wavelength at which radiation is no longer ultraviolet and becomes
X-ray radiation.
» These radiations travel at the same speed, c, in a vacuum, where c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1.
So, for calculations for electromagnetic waves, the wave equation can be written as
c = fλ.
» If we know a radiation’s frequency, we can calculate its wavelength in a vacuum.

WORKED EXAMPLE
The shortest wavelength that the average human eye can detect is
approximately 4 × 10 −7 m, which lies at the violet end of the spectrum.
Calculate the frequency of this light.

Answer
c = fλ
c
f=λ

3.0 × 108
f= = 7.5 × 1014 Hz
4 × 10−7

NOW TEST YOURSELF

7 A spectral line in the sodium spectrum has a frequency of 5.08 × 1014 Hz.
a Calculate the wavelength of the light.
(speed of light in a vacuum = 3.00 × 108 m s−1)
b Suggest the colour of this light.

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 7 Waves

Polarisation
» The oscillations in light waves are not generally in a single plane (as shown in
Figure 7.10a,b), although some types of electromagnetic radiation do only have
oscillations in a single plane. Figure 7.10(c) shows a vector diagram in which the
unpolarised light is resolved into two perpendicular components.
» When the oscillations are limited to a single plane (as with radio waves) the wave
is said to be plane polarised.
(a) (b)

STUDY TIP
Unpolarised light represented in Vector diagram showing unpolarised
three dimensions light When electromagnetic
waves are polarised,
the oscillating electric
(c) (d) and magnetic fields
are at right angles to
each other. The vector
diagram in Figure 7.10(d)
is a simplification and
Vector diagram showing the Vector diagram showing polarised represents the electric
unpolarised light resolved into light vector only.
components at right angles
▲ Figure 7.10

» Some naturally occurring crystals polarise visible light, although a form of

plastic polarisng filter known as PolaroidTM is more commonly used today.
» Reflected light is partially polarised, thus polarising glasses are used to reduce
glare.
Polarising filter Second `crossed´ filter

STUDY TIP
Unpolarised light Plane polarised light No light Longitudinal waves,
where the vibrations are
▲ Figure 7.11 The effect of crossed polarising filters parallel to the direction
of travel, cannot be
» Light can be polarised using a polarising filter.
polarised. Waves can be
» Only oscillations in one direction pass through the filter. identified as transverse
» A second polarising filter, with its axis at right angles to the first, will not allow if they can be polarised.
any of the light through at all.

Malus’ law
» Plane-polarised light of amplitude x0 and intensity I0 is incident on a polarising
filter.
» The light is polarised with the electric vector parallel to the filter’s transmission
axis, as shown in Figure 7.12(a). In this case, 100% of the radiation is
transmitted.
» The filter is then rotated, as shown in Figure 7.12(b). As it is rotated, the amount
of radiation being transmitted reduces and the plane of polarisation rotates,
always being parallel to the transmission axis.

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 » After a rotation of 90°, the radiation transmitted falls to zero.
» Figure 7.12(b) shows the filter after it has been rotated through an angle θ.
The amplitude of the transmitted wave is now x0 cos θ.
(a) (b)
Plane polarised light Transmission axis Plane polarised light Transmission axis

STUDY TIP
▲ Figure 7.12
Malus’ law only applies
» The intensity of a wave is proportional to the amplitude squared, therefore: when the incident light
is plane polarised.
intensity of the transmitted wave I = I0 cos2 θ It cannot be used with
» This is known as Malus’ law. unpolarised light as
there is no unique plane
» Thus, we can calculate the intensity and hence the power transmitted when in which the vibrations
a plane polarised wave is incident on a polarising filter at any angle to the occur.
transmission axis of the filter.

WORKED EXAMPLE
The light from a laser pointer is plane polarised and has a power output of
5.0 mW. It passes through a polarising filter. The plane of polarisation is at an
angle of 60° to the transmission axis of the filter. It then forms a spot on a wall
of diameter 3.0 mm. Calculate the intensity of the spot of light on the wall.

Answer
Calculate the area of the spot:
πd2 (3.0 × 10−3)2
area = =π× = 7.1 × 10−6 m2
4 4
Calculate the intensity of the spot of light, ignoring the effect of the filter:
power 5 × 10−3 −2
I=
area = 7.1 × 10−6 = 710 W m
Use Malus’ law to find the intensity of the light after passing through the filter:
I = I0 cos2 θ = 710 × cos2 60 = 180 W m−2

REVISION ACTIVITIES
List the key terms in this chapter on pieces of card. Write out the meaning of
each key term on separate pieces of card. Shuffle the two sets of cards and
then try to match each key term with its definition.
‘Must learn’ equations:
1
f= intensity = power/area
T
v = fλ fs v
fo =
c = fλ ( v ± vs )
I = I0 cos2 θ

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 7 Waves

NOW TEST YOURSELF

8 A plane polarised beam of light is incident on a polarising filter with its
plane of polarisation at an angle of 40° to its transmission axis. What
fraction of the original intensity of the light is transmitted by the filter?

END OF CHAPTER CHECK

In this chapter, you have learnt:
» that a wave motion is produced by particles
vibrating about their mean positions
» the meanings of the terms displacement,
amplitude, phase difference, period,
frequency, wavelength and speed
» to derive the equation v = fλ
» to recall and use the equation v = fλ
» to understand that a progressive wave
transfers energy without transferring matter
» to recall and use the equation:
intensity = power/area
» to recall and use: intensity of a progressive
wave ∝ (amplitude)2
» about the difference between transverse and
longitudinal waves
» to analyse and interpret graphical
representations of transverse and longitudinal
waves
» to understand that when there is relative
movement between a source of sound and
an observer, there is a change in frequency
of the sound, and this is known as the
Doppler effect
» to use the expression f 0 = fsv/(v ± vs)
» to understand that electromagnetic waves
are transverse
» to recognise that all electromagnetic waves
travel at the same speed, c (3 × 108 m s−1) in
free space
» to recall and use the equation c = fλ
» to recall the approximate range of wavelengths
in free space of the different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum
» to recall that the wavelengths in the range
400–700 nm in free space are visible to the
human eye
» that only transverse waves can be polarised
» to recall and use Malus’ law (I = I0 cos2 θ) to
calculate the intensity of plane polarised
electromagnetic waves after transmission
through polarising filters

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