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mean solar days, or about 365¼ of the average interval which elapses between noon and noon,
that is, between the times when the sun is highest in the heavens. Our year is made to consist of
365 days, and the odd quarter is allowed for by adding one day to every fourth year, which gives
what we call leap-year. This is the same as adding ¼ of a day to each year, and is rather too much,
since the excess of the year above 365 days is not ·25 but ·24224 of a day. The difference is
·00776 of a day, which is the quantity by which our average year is too long. This amounts to a day
in about 128 years, or to about 3 days in 4 centuries. The error is corrected by allowing only one out
of four of the years which close the centuries to be leap-years. Thus, a.d. 1800 and 1900 are not
leap-years, but 2000 is so.
213. The day is therefore the first measure obtained, and is divided into 24 parts or hours, each
of which is divided into 60 parts or minutes, and each of these again into 60 parts or seconds. One
second, marked thus, 1″,[33] is therefore the 86400ᵗʰ part of a day, and the following is the

MEASURE OF TIME.[34]
60 seconds are 1 minute 1 m.
60 minutes ” 1 hour 1 h.
24 hours ” 1 day 1 d.
7 days ” 1 week 1 wk.
365 days ” 1 year 1 yr.
214. The second having been obtained, a pendulum can be constructed which shall, when put
in motion, perform one vibration in exactly one second, in the latitude of Greenwich.[35] If we were
inventing measures, it would be convenient to call the length of this pendulum a yard, and make it
the standard of all our measures of length. But as there is a yard already established, it will do
equally well to tell the length of the pendulum in yards. It was found by commissioners appointed for
the purpose, that this pendulum in London was 39·1393 inches, or about one yard, three inches,
and ⁵/₃₆ of an inch. The following is the division of the yard.

MEASURES OF LENGTH.
The lowest measure is a barleycorn.[36]
3 barleycorns are 1 inch 1 in.
12 inches 1 foot 1 ft.
3 feet 1 yard 1 yd.
5½ yards 1 pole 1 po.
40 poles or 220 yards 1 furlong 1 fur.
8 furlongs or 1760 yards 1 mile 1 mi.
Also
6 feet 1 fathom 1 fth.
69⅓ miles 1 degree 1 deg. or 1°.
A geographical mile is ¹/₆₀th of a degree, and three such miles are one nautical league.
In the measurement of cloth or linen the following are also used:
2¼ inches are 1 nail 1 nl.
 4 nails 1 quarter (of a yard) 1 qr.
3 quarters 1 Flemish ell 1 Fl. e.
5 quarters 1 English ell 1 E. e.
6 quarters 1 French ell 1 Fr. e.

215. MEASURES OF SURFACE, OR SUPERFICIES.

All surfaces are measured by square inches, square feet, &c.; the square inch being a square
whose side is an inch in length, and so on. The following measures may be deduced from the last,
as will afterwards appear.
144 square inches are 1 square foot 1 sq. ft.
9 square feet 1 square yard 1 sq. yd.
30¼ square yards 1 square pole 1 sq. p.
40 square poles 1 rood 1 rd.
4 roods 1 acre 1 ac.
Thus, the acre contains 4840 square yards, which is ten times a square of 22 yards in length
and breadth. This 22 yards is the length which land-surveyors’ chains are made to have, and the
chain is divided into 100 links, each ·22 of a yard or 7·92 inches. An acre is then 10 square chains.
It may also be noticed that a square whose side is 69⁴/₇ yards is nearly an acre, not exceeding it by
⅕ of a square foot.

216. MEASURES OF SOLIDITY OR CAPACITY.[37]

Cubes are solids having the figure of dice. A cubic inch is a cube each of whose sides is an
inch, and so on.
1728 cubic inches are 1 cubic foot 1 c. ft.
27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard 1 c. yd.
This measure is not much used, except in purely mathematical questions. In the measurements
of different commodities various measures were used, which are now reduced, by act of parliament,
to one. This is commonly called the imperial measure, and is as follows:

MEASURE OF LIQUIDS AND

OF ALL DRY GOODS.
4 gills are 1 pint 1 pt.
2 pints 1 quart 1 qt.
4 quarts 1 gallon 1 gall.
2 gallons 1 peck[38] 1 pk.
4 pecks 1 bushel 1 bu.
8 bushels 1 quarter 1 qr.
5 quarters 1 load 1 ld.
 The gallon in this measure is about 277·274 cubic inches; that is, very nearly 277¼ cubic
inches.[39]
217. The smallest weight in use is the grain, which is thus determined. A vessel whose interior is
a cubic inch, when filled with water,[40] has its weight increased by 252·458 grains. Of the grains so
determined, 7000 are a pound averdupois, and 5760 a pound troy. The first pound is always used,
except in weighing precious metals and stones, and also medicines. It is divided as follows:

AVERDUPOIS WEIGHT.
27¹¹/₃₂ grains are 1 dram 1 dr.
6 drams, or drachms 1 ounce[41] 1 oz.
16 ounces 1 pound 1 lb.
28 pounds 1 quarter 1 qr.
4 quarters 1 hundred-weight 1 cwt.
20 hundred-weight 1 ton 1 ton.
The pound averdupois contains 7000 grains. A cubic foot of water weighs 62·3210606 pounds
averdupois, or 997·1369691 ounces.
For the precious metals and for medicines, the pound troy, containing 5760 grains, is used, but
is differently divided in the two cases. The measures are as follow:

TROY WEIGHT.
24 grains are 1 pennyweight 1 dwt.
20 pennyweights 1 ounce 1 oz.
12 ounces 1 pound 1 lb.
The pound troy contains 5760 grains. A cubic foot of water weighs 75·7374 pounds troy, or
908·8488 ounces.

APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT.
20 grains are 1 scruple ℈
3 scruples 1 dram ʒ
8 drams 1 ounce ℥
12 ounces 1 pound lb
218. The standard coins of copper, silver, and gold, are,—the penny, which is 10⅔ drams of
copper; the shilling, which weighs 3 pennyweights 15 grains, of which 3 parts out of 40 are alloy,
and the rest pure silver; and the sovereign, weighing 5 pennyweights and 3¼ grains, of which 1 part
out of 12 is copper, and the rest pure gold.

MEASURES OF MONEY.
The lowest coin is a farthing, which is marked thus, ¼, being one fourth of a penny.
2 farthings are 1 halfpenny ½d.
2 halfpence 1 penny 1d.
 12 pence 1 shilling 1s.
20 shillings 1 pound[42] or sovereign £1
21 shillings 1 guinea.[43]
219. When any quantity is made up of several others, expressed in different units, such as £1.
14. 6, or 2cwt. 1qr. 3lbs., it is called a compound quantity. From these tables it is evident that any
compound quantity of any substance can be measured in several different ways. For example, the
sum of money which we call five pounds four shillings is also 104 shillings, or 1248 pence, or 4992
farthings. It is easy to reduce any quantity from one of these measurements to another; and the
following examples will be sufficient to shew how to apply the same process, usually called
Reduction, to all sorts of quantities.
I. How many farthings are there in £18. 12. 6¾?[44]
Since there are 20 shillings in a pound, there are, in £18, 18 × 20, or 360 shillings; therefore,
£18. 12 is 360 + 12, or 372 shillings. Since there are 12 pence in a shilling, in 372 shillings there
are 372 × 12, or 4464 pence; and, therefore, in £18. 12. 6 there are 4464 + 6, or 4470 pence.
Since there are 4 farthings in a penny, in 4470 pence there are 4470 × 4, or 17880 farthings;
and, therefore, in £18. 12. 6¾ there are 17880 + 3, or 17883 farthings. The whole of this process
may be written as follows:

£18 . 12 . 6¾
20
360 + 12 = 372
12
4464 + 6 = 4470
4
17880 + 3 = 17883
II. In 17883 farthings, how many pounds, shillings, pence, and farthings are there?
Since 17883, divided by 4, gives the quotient 4470, and the remainder 3, 17883 farthings are
4470 pence and 3 farthings (218).
Since 4470, divided by 12, gives the quotient 372, and the remainder 6, 4470 pence is 372
shillings and 6 pence.
Since 372, divided by 20, gives the quotient 18, and the remainder 12, 372 shillings is 18
pounds and 12 shillings.
Therefore, 17883 farthings is 4470¾d., which is 372s. 6¾d., which is £18. 12. 6¾.
The process may be written as follows:

4)17883
——
12)4470 ... 3
——
20)372 ... 6
£18 . 12 . 6¾
 EXERCISES.
A has £100. 4. 11½, and B has 64392 farthings. If A receive 1492 farthings, and B £1. 2. 3½,
which will then have the most, and by how much?—Answer, A will have £33. 12. 3 more than B.
In the following table the quantities written opposite to each other are the same: each line
furnishes two exercises.

£15 . 18 . 9½ 15302 farthings.

115ˡᵇˢ 1ᵒᶻ 8ᵈᵚᵗ 663072 grains.
3ˡᵇˢ 14ᵒᶻ 9ᵈʳ 1001 drams.
3ᵐ 149 yds 2ᶠᵗ 9 in 195477 inches.
19ᵇᵘ 2ᵖᵏˢ 1 gall 2 qᵗˢ 1260 pints.
16 ʰ 23ᵐ 47ˢ 59027 seconds.
220. The same may be done where the number first expressed is fractional. For example, how
many shillings and pence are there in ⁴/₁₅ of a pound? Now, ⁴/₁₅ of a pound is ⁴/₁₅ of 20 shillings;
⁴/₁₅ of 20 is
4 × 20 4×4 16
, or (110), or ,
15 3 3
or (105) 5⅓ of a shilling. Again, ⅓ of a shilling is ⅓ of 12 pence, or 4 pence. Therefore, £⁴/₁₅ = 5s.
4d.
Also, ·23 of a day is ·23 × 24 in hours, or 5ʰ·52; and ·52 of an hour is ·52 × 60 in minutes, or
3ᵐ·2; and ·2 of a minute is ·2 × 60 in seconds, or 12ˢ; whence ·23 of a day is 5ʰ 31ᵐ 12ˢ.
Again, suppose it required to find what part of a pound 6s. 8d. is. Since 6s. 8d. is 80 pence, and
since the whole pound contains 20 × 12 or 240 pence, 6s. 8d. is made by dividing the pound into
240 parts, and taking 80 of them. It is therefore £⁸⁰/₂₄₀ (107), but ⁸⁰/₂₄₀ = ⅓ (108); therefore, 6s.
8d. = £⅓.

EXERCISES.

⅖ of a day is 9ʰ 36ᵐ
·12841 of a day 3ʰ 4ᵐ 54ᔆ·624[45]
·257 of a cwt. 28ˡᵇˢ 12ᵒᶻ 8ᵈʳ·704
£·14936 2ˢ 11ᵈ 3ᶠ·3856
221, 222. I have thought it best to refer the mode of converting shillings, pence, and farthings
into decimals of a pound to the Appendix (See Appendix On Decimal Money). I should strongly
recommend the reader to make himself perfectly familiar with the modes given in that Appendix. To
prevent the subsequent sections from being altered in their numbering, I have numbered this
paragraph as above.
 223. The rule of addition[46] of two compound quantities of the same sort will be evident from the
following example. Suppose it required to add £192. 14. 2½ to £64. 13. 11¾. The sum of these two
is the whole of that which arises from adding their several parts. Now

¾d. + ½d. = ⁵/₄d. = £0 . 0 . 1¼ (219)

11d. + 2d. = 13d. = 0.1.1
13s. + 14s. = 27s. = 1.7.0
£64 + £192 = = 256 . 0 . 0
The sum of all of which is £257. 8 . 2¼
This may be done at once, and written as follows:

£192.14. 2½
64.13.11¾
£257. 8. 2¼
Begin by adding together the farthings, and reduce the result to pence and farthings. Set down
the last only, carry the first to the line of pence, and add the pence in both lines to it. Reduce the
sum to shillings and pence; set down the last only, and carry the first to the line of shillings, and so
on. The same method must be followed when the quantities are of any other sort; and if the tables
be kept in memory, the process will be easy.
224. Subtraction is performed on the same principle as in (40), namely, that the difference of
two quantities is not altered by adding the same quantity to both. Suppose it required to subtract
£19 . 13. 10¾ from £24. 5. 7½. Write these quantities under one another thus:

£24. 5. 7½
19. 13. 10¾

Since ¾ cannot be taken from ½ or ²/₄, add 1d. to both quantities, which will not alter their
difference; or, which is the same thing, add 4 farthings to the first, and 1d. to the second. The pence
and farthings in the two lines then stand thus: 7⁶/₄d. and 11¾d. Now subtract ¾ from ⁶/₄, and the
difference is ¾ which must be written under the farthings. Again, since 11d. cannot be subtracted
from 7d., add 1s. to both quantities by adding 12d. to the first, and 1s. to the second. The pence in
the first line are then 19, and in the second 11, and the difference is 8, which write under the pence.
Since the shillings in the lower line were increased by 1, there are now 14s. in the lower, and 5s. in
the upper one. Add 20s. to the upper and £1 to the lower line, and the subtraction of the shillings in
the second from those in the first leaves 11s. Again, there are now £20 in the lower, and £24 in the
upper line, the difference of which is £4; therefore the whole difference of the two sums is £4. 11.
8¾. If we write down the two sums with all the additions which have been made, the process will
stand thus:

£24 . 25 . 19⁶/₄
20 . 14 . 11¾
Difference £4 . 11 . 8¾
225. The same method may be applied to any of the quantities in the tables. The following is
another example:
 From 7 cwt. 2 qrs. 21 lbs. 14 oz. Subtract 2 cwt. 3 qrs. 27 lbs. 12 oz.
After alterations have been made similar to those in the last article, the question becomes:
From 7 cwt. 6 qrs. 49 lbs. 14 oz.
Subtract 3 cwt. 4 qrs. 27 lbs. 12 oz.
The difference is 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 22 lbs. 2 oz.
In this example, and almost every other, the process may be a little shortened in the following
way. Here we do not subtract 27 lbs. from 21 lbs., which is impossible, but we increase 21 lbs. by 1
qr. or 28 lbs. and then subtract 27 lbs. from the sum. It would be shorter, and lead to the same
result, first to subtract 27 lbs. from 1 qr. or 28 lbs. and add the difference to 21 lbs.

226. EXERCISES.
A man has the following sums to receive: £193. 14. 11¼, £22. 0. 6¾, £6473. 0. 0, and £49. 14.
4½; and the following debts to pay: £200 . 19. 6¼, £305. 16. 11, £22, and £19. 6. 0½. How much
will remain after paying the debts?

Answer, £6190. 7. 4¾.

There are four towns, in the order A, B, C, and D. If a man can go from A to B in 5ʰ 20ᵐ 33ˢ,
from B to C in 6ʰ 49ᵐ 2ˢ and from A to D in 19ʰ 0ᵐ 17ˢ, how long will he be in going from B to D, and
from C to D?

Answer, 13ʰ 39ᵐ 44ˢ, and 6ʰ 50ᵐ 42ˢ.

227. In order to perform the process of Multiplication, it must be recollected that, as in (52), if
a quantity be divided into several parts, and each of these parts be multiplied by a number, and the
products be added, the result is the same as would arise from multiplying the whole quantity by that
number.
It is required to multiply £7. 13. 6¼ by 13. The first quantity is made up of 7 pounds, 13 shillings,
6 pence, and 1 farthing. And
1 farth. × 13 is 13 farth. or £0 . 0 . 3¼ (219)
6 pence × 13 is 78 pence, or 0. 6.6
13 shill. × 13 is 169 shill. or 8. 9.0
7 pounds × 13 is 91 pounds, or 91 . 0 . 0
The sum of all these is £99 . 15 . 9¼
which is therefore £7. 13. 6¼ × 13.
This process is usually written as follows:

£ 7 . 13 . 6¼
13
£99 . 15 . 9¼
228. Division is performed upon the same principle as in (74), viz. that if a quantity be divided
into any number of parts, and each part be divided by any number, the different quotients added
together will make up the quotient of the whole quantity divided by that number. Suppose it required
to divide £99. 15. 9¼ by 13. Since 99 divided by 13 gives the quotient 7, and the remainder 8, the
quantity is made up of £13 × 7, or £91, and £8. 15. 9¼. The quotient of the first, 13 being the
divisor, is £7: it remains to find that of the second. Since £8 is 160s., £8. 15. 9¼ is 175s. 9¼d., and
175 divided by 13 gives the quotient 13, and the remainder 6; that is, 175s. 9¼d. is made up of
169s. and 6s. 9¼d., the quotient of the first of which is 13s., and it remains to find that of the
second. Since 6s. is 72d., 6s. 9¼d. is 81¼d., and 81 divided by 13 gives the quotient 6 and
remainder 3; that is, 81¼d. is 78d. and 3¼d., of the first of which the quotient is 6d. Again, since 3d.
is ¹²/₄, or 12 farthings, 3¼d. is 13 farthings, the quotient of which is 1 farthing, or ¼, without
remainder. We have then divided £99. 15. 9¼ into four parts, each of which is divisible by 13, viz.
£91, 169s., 78d., and 13 farthings; so that the thirteenth part of this quantity is £7. 13. 6¼. The
whole process may be written down as follows; and the same sort of process may be applied to the
exercises which follow:

£ s. d. £ s. d.
13)99 15 9¼(7 13 6¼
91
8
20
160 + 15 = 175
13
45
39
6
12
72 + 9 = 81
78
3
4
12 + 1 = 13
13
0
Here, each of the numbers 99, 175, 81, and 13, is divided by 13 in the usual way, though the
divisor is only written before the first of them.

EXERCISES.
2 cwt. 1 qr. 21 lbs. 7 oz. × 53 = 129 cwt. 1 qr. 16 lbs. 3 oz.
2ᵈ 4ʰ 3ᵐ 27ˢ × 109 = 236ᵈ 10ʰ 16ᵐ 3ˢ
£27 . 10 . 8 × 569 = £15666 . 9 . 4
£7 . 4 . 8 × 123 = £889 . 14
£166 × ₈/₃₃ = £40 . 4 . 10⁶/₃₃
£187 . 6 . 7 × ³/₁₀₀ = £5 . 12 . 4¾ ²/₂₅
4s. 6½d. × 1121 = £254 . 11 . 2½
4s. 4d. × 4260 = 6s. 6d. × 2840
 229. Suppose it required to find how many times 1s. 4¼d. is contained in £3. 19. 10¾. The way
to do this is to find the number of farthings in each. By 219, in the first there are 65, and in the
second 3835 farthings. Now, 3835 contains 65 59 times; and therefore the second quantity is 59
times as great as the first. In the case, however, of pounds, shillings, and pence, it would be best to
use decimals of a pound, which will give a sufficiently exact answer. Thus 1s. 4¼d. is £·067, and
£3. 19. 10¾ is £3·994, and 3·994 divided by ·067 is 3994 by 67, or 59⁴¹/₆₇. This is an extreme case,
for the smaller the divisor, the greater the effect of an error in a given place of decimals.

EXERCISES.
How many times does 6 cwt. 2 qrs. contain 1 qr. 14 lbs. 1 oz.? and 1ᵈ 2ʰ 0ᵐ 47ˢ contain 3ᵐ 46ˢ?

Answer, 17·30758 and 414·367257.

If 2 cwt. 3 qrs. 1 lb. cost £150. 13. 10, how much does 1 lb. cost?

Answer, 9s. 9d. ¹³/₃₀₉.

A grocer mixes 2 cwt. 15 lbs. of sugar at 11d. per pound with 14 cwt. 3 lbs. at 5d. per pound. At
how much per pound must he sell the mixture so as not to lose by mixing them?

Answer, 5d. ¾ ¹⁵³/₉₀₅.

230. There is a convenient method of multiplication called Practice. Suppose I ask, How much
do 153 tons cost if each ton cost £2. 15. 7½? It is plain that if this sum be multiplied by 153, the
product is the price of the whole. But this is also evident, that, if I buy 153 tons at £2. 15. 7½ each
ton, payment may be made by first putting down £2 for each ton, then 10s. for each, then 5s., then
6d., and then 1½d. These sums together make up £2. 15. 7½, and the reason for this separation of
£2. 15 . 7½ into different parts will be soon apparent. The process may be carried on as follows:
1. 153 tons, at £2 each ton, will cost

£306 0 0
2. Since 10s. is £½, 153 tons, at 10s. each, will cost £15³/₂, which is

76 10 0
3. Since 5s. is ½ of 10s., 153 tons, at 5s., will cost half as much as the
same number at 10s. each, that is, ½ of £76 . 10, which is

38 5 0
4. Since 6d. is ⅒ of 5s., 153 tons, at 6d. each, will cost ⅒ of what the
same number costs at 5s. each, that is, ⅒ of £38 . 5, which is

3 16 6
5. Since 1½ or 3 halfpence is ¼ of 6d. or 12 halfpence, 153 tons, at
1½d. each, will cost ¼ of what the same number costs at 6d. each,
that is, ¼ of £3 . 16 . 6, which is

0 19 1½

The sum of all these quantities is 425 10 7½

which is, therefore, £2 . 15 . 7½ × 153.
The whole process may be written down as follows:
 or what
153 tons
would
cost at
£153 0 0 £1 per ton.
£2 is 2 × £1 306 0 0 2 0 0
10s. is ½ of £1 76 10 0 0 10 0
10s. is ½ of £1 76 10 0 0 10 0
5s. is ½ of 10s. 38 5 0 0 5 0
6d. is ⅒ of 5s. 3 16 6 0 0 6
1½d. is ¼ of 6d. 0 19 1½ 0 0 1½
Sum £425 10 7½ 0 0 1½

ANOTHER EXAMPLE.
What do 1735 lbs. cost at 9s. 10¾d. per lb.? The price 9s. 10¾d. is made up of 5s., 4s., 10d.,
½d., and ¼d.; of which 5s. is ¼ of £1, 4s. is ⅕ of £1, 10d. is ⅙ of 5s., ½d. is ¹/₂₀ of 10d., and ¼d. is
½ of ½d. Follow the same method as in the last example, which gives the following:

or what
1735 tons
would
cost at
£1735 0 0 £1 per ton.
5s. is ¼ of £1 433 15 0 0 5 0
4s. is ⅕ of £1 347 0 0 0 4 0
10d. is ⅙ of 5s. 72 5 10 0 0 10
½d. is ¹/₂₀ of 10d. 3 12 3½ 0 0 0½
¼d. is ½ of ½d. 1 16 1¾ 0 0 0¼
by addition ... £858 9 3¼ £0 9 10¾
In all cases, the price must first be divided into a number of parts, each of which is a simple
fraction[47] of some one which goes before. No rule can be given for doing this, but practice will
enable the student immediately to find out the best method for each case. When that is done, he
must find how much the whole quantity would cost if each of these parts were the price, and then
add the results together.

EXERCISES.
What is the cost of
243 cwt. at £14 . 18 . 8¼ per cwt.?—Answer, £3629 . 1 . 0¾.
169 bushels at £2 . 1 . 3¼ per bushel?—Answer, £348 . 14 . 9¼.
273 qrs. at 19s. 2d. per quarter?—Answer, £261 . 12. 6.
 2627 sacks at 7s. 8½d. per sack?—Answer, £1012 . 9 . 9½.

231. Throughout this section it must be observed, that the rules can be applied to cases where
the quantities given are expressed in common or decimal fractions, instead of the measures in the
tables. The following are examples:
What is the price of 272·3479 cwt. at £2. 1. 3½ per cwt.?

Answer, £562·2849, or
£562. 5. 8¼. 66½lbs. at 1s. 4½d. per lb. cost £4. 11. 5¼.
How many pounds, shillings, and pence, will 279·301 acres let for if each acre lets for £3·1076?
—Answer, £867·9558, or £867. 19. 1¼.
What does ¼ of ³/₁₃ of 17 bush. cost at ⅙ of ⅔ of £17. 14 per bushel?

Answer, £2·3146, or £2. 6. 3½.

What is the cost of 19lbs. 8oz. 12dwt. 8gr. at £4. 4. 6 per ounce?—Answer, £999. 14. 1¼ ⅙.
232. It is often required to find to how much a certain sum per day will amount in a year. This
may be shortly done, since it happens that the number of days in a year is 240 + 120 + 5; so that a
penny per day is a pound, half a pound, and 5 pence per year. Hence the following rule: To find how
much any sum per day amounts to in a year, turn it into pence and fractions of a penny; to this add
the half of itself, and let the pence be pounds, and each farthing five shillings; then add five times
the daily sum, and the total is the yearly amount. For example, what does 12s. 3¾d. amount to in a
year? This is 147¾d., and its half is 73⅞d., which added to 147¾d. gives 221⅝d., which turned into
pounds is £221. 12. 6. Also, 12s. 3¾d. × 5 is £3. 1. 6¾, which added to the former sum gives £224.
14. 0¾ for the yearly amount. In the same way the yearly amount of 2s. 3½d. is £41. 16. 5½; that of
6¾d. is £10. 5. 3¾; and that of 11d. is £16. 14. 7.
233. An inverse rule may be formed, sufficiently correct for every purpose, in the following way:
If the year consisted of 360 days, or ³/₂ of 240, the subtraction of one-third from any sum per year
would give the proportion which belongs to 240 days; and every pound so obtained would be one
penny per day. But as the year is not 360, but 365 days, if we divide each day’s share into 365
parts, and take 5 away, the whole of the subtracted sum, or 360 × 5 such parts, will give 360 parts
for each of the 5 days which we neglected at first. But 360 such parts are left behind for each of the
360 first days; therefore, this additional process divides the whole annual amount equally among
the 365 days. Now, 5 parts out of 365 is one out of 73, or the 73d part of the first result must be
subtracted from it to produce the true result. Unless the daily sum be very large, the 72d part will do
equally well, which, as 72 farthings are 18 pence, is equivalent to subtracting at the rate of one
farthing for 18d., or ½d. for 3s., or 10d. for £3. The rule, then, is as follows: To find how much per
day will produce a given sum per year, turn the shillings, &c. in the given sum into decimals of a
pound (221); subtract one-third; consider the result as pence; and diminish it by one farthing for
every eighteen pence, or ten pence for every £3. For example, how much per day will give £224.
14. 0¾ per year? This is 224·703, and its third is 74·901, which subtracted from 224·703, gives
149·802, which, if they be pence, amounts to 12s. 5·802d., in which 1s. 6d. is contained 8 times.
Subtract 8 farthings, or 2d., and we have 12s. 3·802d., which differs from the truth only about ¹/₂₀ of
a farthing. In the same way, £100 per year is 5s. 5¾d. per day.
234. The following connexion between the measures of length and the measures of surface is
the foundation of the application of arithmetic to geometry.
 Suppose an oblong figure, a, b, c, d, as here drawn (which is called a rectangle in geometry),
with the side a b 6 inches, and the side a c 4 inches. Divide a b and c d (which are equal) each into
6 inches by the points a, b, c, l, m, &c.; and a c and b d (which are also equal) into 4 inches by the
points f, g, h, x, y, and z. Join a and l, b and m, &c., and f and x, &c. Then, the figure a b c d is
divided into a number of squares; for a square is a rectangle whose sides are equal, and therefore
a a f e is square, since a a is of the same length as a f, both being 1 inch. There are also four rows
of these squares, with six squares in each row; that is, there are 6 × 4, or 24 squares altogether.
Each of these squares has its sides 1 inch in length, and is what was called in (215) a square inch.
By the same reasoning, if one side had contained 6 yards, and the other 4 yards, the surface would
have contained 6 × 4 square yards; and so on.
235. Let us now suppose that the sides of a b c d, instead of being a whole number of inches,
contain some inches and a fraction. For example, let a b be 3½ inches, or (114) ⁷/₂ of an inch, and
let a c contain 2½ inches, or ⁹/₄ of an inch. Draw a e twice as long as a b, and a f four times as
long as a c, and complete the rectangle a e f g. The rest of the figure needs no description. Then,
since a e is twice a b, or twice ⁷/₂ inches, it is 7 inches. And since a f is four times a c, or four times
⁹/₄ inches, it is 9 inches. Therefore, the whole rectangle a e f g contains, by (234), 7 × 9 or 63
square inches. But the rectangle a e f g contains 8 rectangles, all of the same figure as a b c d;
and therefore a b c d is one-eighth part of a e f g, and contains ⁶³/₈ square inches. But ⁶³/₈ is made
by multiplying ⁹/₄ and ⁷/₂ together (118). From this and the last article it appears, that, whether the
sides of a rectangle be a whole or a fractional number of inches, the number of square inches in its
surface is the product of the numbers of inches in its sides. The square itself is a rectangle whose
sides are all equal, and therefore the number of square inches which a square contains is found by
multiplying the number of inches in its side by itself. For example, a square whose side is 13 inches
in length contains 13 × 13 or 169 square inches.

236. EXERCISES.
What is the content, in square feet and inches, of a room whose sides are 42 ft. 5 inch. and 31
ft. 9 inch.? and supposing the piece from which its carpet is taken to be three quarters of a yard in
breadth, what length of it must be cut off?—Answer, The content is 1346 square feet 105 square
inches, and the length of carpet required is 598 feet 6⁵/₉ inches.
 The sides of a rectangular field are 253 yards and a quarter
of a mile; how many acres does it contain?—Answer, 23.
What is the difference between 18 square miles, and a
square of 18 miles long, or 18 miles square?—Answer, 306
square miles.
237. It is by this rule that the measure in (215) is deduced
from that in (214); for it is evident that twelve inches being a
foot, the square foot is 12 × 12 or 144 square inches, and so
on. In a similar way it may be shewn that the content in cubic
inches of a cube, or parallelepiped,[48] may be found by
multiplying together the number of inches in those three sides
which meet in a point. Thus, a cube of 6 inches contains 6 × 6
× 6, or 216 cubic inches; a chest whose sides are 6, 8, and 5
feet, contains 6 × 8 × 5, or 240 cubic feet. By this rule the
measure in (216) was deduced from that in (214).

SECTION II.
RULE OF THREE.
238. Suppose it required to find what 156 yards will cost, if 22 yards cost 17s. 4d. This quantity,
reduced to pence, is 208d.; and if 22 yards cost 208d., each yard costs ²⁰⁸/₂₂d. But 156 yards cost
156 times the price of one yard, and therefore cost

208 208 × 156

× 156 pence, or pence (117).
22 22
Again, if 25½ French francs be 20 shillings sterling, how many francs are in £20. 15? Since 25½
francs are 20 shillings, twice the number of francs must be twice the number of shillings; that is, 51
francs are 40 shillings, and one shilling is the fortieth part of 51 francs, or ⁵¹/₄₀ francs. But £20 15s.
contain 415 shillings (219); and since 1 shilling is ⁵¹/₄₀ francs, 415 shillings is

51 × 415
⁵¹/₄₀ × 415 francs, or (117) francs.
40
239. Such questions as the last two belong to the most extensive rule in Commercial Arithmetic,
which is called the Rule of Three, because in it three quantities are given, and a fourth is required
to be found. From both the preceding examples the following rule may be deduced, which the same
reasoning will shew to apply to all similar cases.
It must be observed, that in these questions there are two quantities which are of the same sort,
and a third of another sort, of which last the answer must be. Thus, in the first question there are 22
and 156 yards and 208 pence, and the thing required to be found is a number of pence. In the
second question there are 20 and 415 shillings and 25½ francs, and what is to be found is a
number of francs. Write the three quantities in a line, putting that one last which is the only one of
its kind, and that one first which is connected with the last in the question.[49] Put the third quantity
in the middle. In the first question the quantities will be placed thus:

22 yds. 156 yds. 17s. 4d.

In the second question they will be placed thus:

20s. £20 15s. 25½ francs.

Reduce the first and second quantities, if necessary, to quantities of the same denomination.
Thus, in the second question, £20 15s. must be reduced to shillings (219). The third quantity may
also be reduced to any other denomination, if convenient; or the first and third may be multiplied by
any quantity we please, as was done in the second question; and, on looking at the answer in
(238), and at (108), it will be seen that no change is made by that multiplication. Multiply the second
and third quantities together, and divide by the first. The result is a quantity of the same sort as the
third in the line, and is the answer required. Thus, to the first question the answer is (238)
208 × 156 17s. 4d. × 156
pence, or, which is the same thing, .
22 22
240. The whole process in the first question is as follows:[50]

yds. yds. s. d.
22 : 156 ∷ 17 . 4
12
208 pence.
156
1248
1040
208
22)32448(1474¾d. and ¹⁴/₂₂, or ⁷/₁₁ of a farthing,
22 or (219) £6 . 2 . 10¾-⁷/₁₁.
104
88
164
154
108
88
20
(228) 4
80
66
14
The question might have been solved without reducing 17s. 4d. to pence, thus:
 yds. yds. s. d.
22 : 156 ∷ 17 . 4
156 (227)
22) £135 . 4 . 0(£6 . 2 . 10¾-⁷/₁₁ (228)
132
3 × 20 + 4 = 64
44
20 × 12 = 240
220
20 × 4 = 80
66
14
The student must learn by practice which is the most convenient method for any particular case,
as no rule can be given.
241. It may happen that the three given quantities are all of one denomination; nevertheless it
will be found that two of them are of one, and the third of another sort. For example: What must an
income of £400 pay towards an income-tax of 4s. 6d. in the pound? Here the three given quantities
are, £400, 4s. 6d., and £1, which are all of the same species, viz. money. Nevertheless, the first
and third are income; the second is a tax, and the answer is also a tax; and therefore, by (152), the
quantities must be placed thus:

£1 : £400 ∷ 4s. 6d.

242. The following exercises either depend directly upon this rule, or can be shewn to do so by
a little consideration. There are many questions of the sort, which will require some exercise of
ingenuity before the method of applying the rule can be found.

EXERCISES.
If 15 cwt. 2 qrs. cost £198. 15. 4, what does 1 qr. 22 lbs. cost?

Answer, £5 . 14 . 5 ¾ ¹⁸⁵/₂₁₇.
If a horse go 14 m. 3 fur. 27 yds. in 3ʰ 26ᵐ 12ˢ, how long will he be in going 23 miles?

Answer, 5ʰ 29ᵐ 34ˢ(²⁴⁶²/₂₅₃₂₇).

Two persons, A and B, are bankrupts, and owe exactly the same sum; A can pay 15s. 4½d. in
the pound, and B only 7s. (6¾)d. At the same time A has in his possession £1304. 17 more than B;
what do the debts of each amount to?

Answer, £3340 . 8 . 3 ¾ ⁹/₂₅.

For every (12½) acres which one country contains, a second contains (56¼). The second
country contains 17,300 square miles. How much does the first contain? Again, for every 3 people
in the first, there are 5 in the second; and there are in the first 27 people on every 20 acres. How
many are there in each country?—Answer, The number of square miles in the first is 3844⁴/₉, and
its population 3,321,600; and the population of the second is 5,536,000.
 If (42½) yds. of cloth, 18 in. wide, cost £59. 14. 2, how much will (118¼) yds. cost, if the width
be 1 yd.?

Answer, £332. 5. (2⁴/₁₇).

If £9. 3. 6 last six weeks, how long will £100 last?

Answer, (65¹⁴⁵/₃₆₇) weeks.

How much sugar, worth (9¾d). a pound, must be given for 2 cwt. of tea, worth 10d. an ounce?

Answer, 32 cwt. 3 qrs. 7 lbs. ³⁵/₃₉.

243. Suppose the following question asked: How long will it take 15 men to do that which 45
men can finish in 10 days? It is evident that one man would take 45 × 10, or 450 days, to do the
same thing, and that 15 men would do it in one-fifteenth part of the time which it employs one man,
that is, in (450 ÷ 15) or 30 days. By this and similar reasoning the following questions can be
solved.

EXERCISES.
If 15 oxen eat an acre of grass in 12 days, how long will it take 26 oxen to eat 14 acres?

Answer, (96¹²/₁₃) days.

If 22 masons build a wall 5 feet high in 6 days, how long will it take 43 masons to build 10 feet?

Answer, (6⁶/₄₃) days.

244. The questions in the preceding article form part of a more general class of questions,
whose solution is called the Double Rule of Three, but which might, with more correctness, be
called the Rule of Five, since five quantities are given, and a sixth is to be found. The following is an
example: If 5 men can make 30 yards of cloth in 3 days, how long will it take 4 men to make 68
yards? The first thing to be done is to find out, from the first part of the question, the time it will take
one man to make one yard. Now, since one man, in 3 days, will do the fifth part of what 5 men can
do, he will in 3 days make ³⁰/₅, or 6 yards. He will, therefore, make one yard in ³/₆6 or (3 × 5)/30 of a
day. From this we are to find how long it will take 4 men to make 68 yards. Since one man makes a
yard in

3×5 3×5
of a day, he will make 68 yards in × 68 days,
30 30
3 × 5 × 68
or (116) in days; and 4 men will do this in one-fourth;
30
3 × 5 × 68
of the time, that is (123), in days, or in 8½ days.
30 × 4
Again, suppose the question to be: If 5 men can make 30 yards in 3 days, how much can 6 men
do in 12 days? Here we must first find the quantity one man can do in one day, which appears, on
reasoning similar to that in the last example, to be 30/(3 × 5) yards. Hence, 6 men, in one day, will
make

6 × 30 12 × 6 × 30
yards, and in 12 days will make or 144 yards.
5×3 5×3
 From these examples the following rule may be drawn. Write the given quantities in two lines,
keeping quantities of the same sort under one another, and those which are connected with each
other, in the same line. In the two examples above given, the quantities must be written thus:

SECOND EXAMPLE.

Draw a curve through the middle of each line, and the extremities of the other. There will be
three quantities on one curve and two on the other. Divide the product of the three by the product of
the two, and the quotient is the answer to the question.
If necessary, the quantities in each line must be reduced to more simple denominations (219),
as was done in the common Rule of Three (238).

EXERCISES.
If 6 horses can, in 2 days, plough 17 acres, how many acres will 93 horses plough in 4½ days?

Answer, 592⅞.
If 20 men, in 3¼ days, can dig 7 rectangular fields, the sides of each of which are 40 and 50
yards, how long will 37 men be in digging 53 fields, the sides of each of which are 90 and 125½
yards?
2451
Answer, 75 20720 days.
If the carriage of 60 cwt. through 20 miles cost £14 10s., what weight ought to be carried 30
miles for £5. 8. 9?

Answer, 15 cwt.
If £100 gain £5 in a year, how much will £850 gain in 3 years and 8 months?

Answer, £155. 16. 8.

 SECTION III.
INTEREST, ETC.
245. In the questions contained in this Section, almost the only process which will be employed
is the taking a fractional part of a sum of money, which has been done before in several cases.
Suppose it required to take 7 parts out of 40 from £16, that is, to divide £16 into 40 equal parts, and
take 7 of them. Each of these parts is
16 16 16 × 7
£ 40 and 7 of them make 40 × 7, or 40
pounds (116).

The process may be written as below:

£16
7
40)112(£2 . 16s.
80
32
20
640
40
240
240
0
Suppose it required to take 13 parts out of a hundred from £56. 13. 7½.

56 . 13 . 7½
13
100) 736 . 17 . 1½ ( £7 . 7 . 4 ¼ ¹/₄₁
700
36 × 20 + 17 = 737
700
37 × 12 + 1 = 445
400
45 × 4 × 2 = 182
100
82
Let it be required to take 2½ parts out of a hundred from £3 12s. The result, by the same rule is
£3 12s. × 2½ 5
, or 123 £3 12s. × ;
100 200
so that taking 2½ out of a hundred is the same as taking 5 parts out of 200.
 EXERCISES.
Take 7⅓ parts out of 53 from £1 10s.
129
Answer, 4s. 1 d.
159
Take 5 parts out of 100 from £107 13s. 4¾d.

Answer, £5. 7. 8 and ³/₂₀ of a farthing.

£56 3s. 2d. is equally divided among 32 persons. How much does the share of 23 of them
exceed that of the rest?

Answer, £24. 11. 4½ ½.

246. It is usual, in mercantile business, to mention the fraction which one sum is of another, by
saying how many parts out of a hundred must be taken from the second in order to make the first.
Thus, instead of saying that £16 12s. is the half of £33 4s., it is said that the first is 50 per cent of
the second. Thus, £5 is 2½ per cent of £200; because, if £200 be divided into 100 parts, 2½ of
those parts are £5. Also, £13 is 150 per cent of £8. 13. 4, since the first is the second and half the
second. Suppose it asked, How much per cent is 23 parts out of 56 of any sum? The question
amounts to this: If he who has £56 gets £100 for them, how much will he who has 23 receive? This,
by 238, is 23 × ¹⁰⁰/₅₆ or ²³⁰⁰/₅₆ or 41¹/₁₄. Hence, 23 out of 56 is 41¹/₁₄ per cent.

Similarly 16 parts out of 18 is 16 × ¹⁰⁰/₁₈, or 88⁸/₉ per cent, and 2 parts out of 5 is 2 × ¹⁰⁰/₅, or 40
per cent.
From which the method of reducing other fractions to the rate per cent is evident.
Suppose it asked, How much per cent is £6. 12. 2 of £12. 3? Since the first contains 1586d.,
and the second 2916d., the first is 1586 out of 2916 parts of the second; that is, by the last rule, it is
¹⁵⁸⁶⁰⁰/₂₉₁₆, or 54¹¹³⁶/₂₉₁₆, or £54. 7. 9½ per cent, very nearly. The more expeditious way of doing this
is to reduce the shillings, &c. to decimals of a pound. Three decimal places will give the rate per
cent to the nearest shilling, which is near enough for all practical purposes. For instance, in the last
example, which is to find how much £6·608 is of £12·15, 6·608 × 100 is 660·8, which divided by
12·15 gives £54·38, or £54. 7. Greater correctness may be had, if necessary, as in the Appendix.

EXERCISES.
How much per cent is 198¼ out of 233 parts?—Ans. £85. 1. 8¾.
Goods which are bought for £193. 12, are sold for £216. 13. 4; how much per cent has been
gained by them?

Answer, A little less than £11. 18. 6.

A sells goods for B to the amount of £230. 12, and is allowed a commission[51] of 3 per cent;
what does that amount to?

Answer, £6 . 18. 4¼ ⁷/₂₅.

A stockbroker buys £1700 stock, brokerage being at £⅛ per cent; what does he receive?—
Answer, £2. 2. 6.
A ship whose value is £15,423 is insured at 19⅔ per cent; what does the insurance amount to?
—Answer, £3033. 3. 9½ ²/₅.
 247. In reckoning how much a bankrupt is able to pay his creditors, as also to how much a tax
or rate amounts, it is usual to find how many shillings in the pound is paid. Thus, if a person who
owes £100 can only pay £50, he is said to pay 10s. in the pound. The rule is easily derived from the
same reasoning as in 246. For example, £50 out of £82 is

50 50 × 20
£ out of £1, or shillings,
82 82
or 12s. 2½ ¹⁵/₄₁ in the pound.
248. Interest is money paid for the use of other money, and is always a per-centage upon the
sum lent. It may be paid either yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly; but when it is said that £100 is lent at
4 per cent, it must be understood to mean 4 per cent per annum; that is, that 4 pounds are paid
every year for the use of £100.
The sum lent is called the principal, and the interest upon it is of two kinds. If the borrower pay
the interest as soon as, from the agreement, it becomes due, it is evident that he has to pay the
same sum every year; and that the whole of the interest which he has to pay in any number of
years is one year’s interest multiplied by the number of years. But if he do not pay the interest at
once, but keeps it in his hands until he returns the principal, he will then have more of his creditor’s
money in his hands every year, and if it were so agreed will have to pay interest upon each year’s
interest for the time during which he keeps it after it becomes due. In the first case, the interest is
called simple, and in the second compound. The interest and principal together are called the
amount.
249. What is the simple interest of £1049. 16. 6 for 6 years and one-third, at 4½ per cent? This
interest must be 6⅓ times the interest of the same sum for one year, which (245) is found by
multiplying the sum by 4½, and dividing by 100. The process is as follows:
(230) (a) £1049 . 16 . 6
a × 4 4199 . 6 . 0
a×½ 524 . 18 . 3
(82) 100) 47,24 . 4 . 3(£47 . 4 . 10¹¹/₁₀₀
20
(228) 4,84 [52]
12
10,11 [53]

(b) £47 . 4 . 10¹¹/₁₀₀ Int. for one yr.

b×6 283 . 9 . 0⁶⁶/₁₀₀
b×⅓ 15 . 14 . 11³⁷/₁₀₀
£299 . 4 . 0³/₁₀₀ Int. for 6⅓ yrs.

EXERCISES.
What is the interest of £105. 6. 2 for 19 years and 7 weeks at 3 per cent?

Answer, £60. 9, very nearly.