Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024

OPEN ACCESS
Engineering Science & Technology Journal
P-ISSN: 2708-8944, E-ISSN: 2708-8952
Volume 5, Issue 4, P.No. 1231-1242, April 2024
DOI: 10.51594/estj/v5i4.1014
Fair East Publishers
Journal Homepage: www.fepbl.com/index.php/estj

A REVIEW OF SMART WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

FROM AFRICA AND THE UNITED STATES
Tosin Michael Olatunde1 , Fatai Adeshina Adelani2, & Zamathula Queen Sikhakhane3

1
Department of Electrical Power and Energy Systems (with Advanced Practice), Teesside
University, Middlesbrough, UK
2
Lagos Water Corporation, Lagos, Nigeria
3
Independent Researcher, Durban, South Africa
___________________________________________________________________________
*Corresponding Author: Tosin Michael Olatunde
Corresponding Author Email: peecomm@gmail.com
Article Received: 08-01-24 Accepted: 15-03-24 Published: 10-04-24

Licensing Details: Author retains the right of this article. The article is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc/4.0/) which permits non-commercial use,
reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is
attributed as specified on the Journal open access page.
___________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
This review paper comprehensively examines smart water management systems, focusing on
their development, implementation, and impacts within Africa and the United States. It delves
into the theoretical frameworks that underlie these systems, including integrating cyber-
physical systems, sustainable development principles, and systems theory in water
management. The paper further explores the technological innovations driving smart water
management, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and remote
sensing. It discusses the policy and regulatory frameworks that support or hinder these
advancements in different regions. Additionally, it assesses the environmental, social, and
economic impacts of smart water management, highlighting the benefits of water conservation,
improved access to clean water, and efficiency gains. The challenges facing the implementation
of smart water management systems are critically analyzed, including technical, financial, and
regulatory obstacles. Future directions for smart water management are also discussed,
emphasizing the potential for scalability, adaptation, and the importance of cross-sectoral and
international collaboration. The paper concludes by underscoring the necessity of integrating

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 Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024

technology, policy, and community engagement in smart water management efforts and calls
for further research and collaboration to harness the full potential of these systems in addressing
global water challenges.
Keywords: Smart Water Management, Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI),
Sustainable Development, Policy Frameworks, Water Conservation.
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Water is a fundamental resource that sustains life, supports economic growth, and maintains
natural ecosystems. However, its management presents significant challenges due to climate
change, population growth, and urbanization. These challenges are felt worldwide but manifest
differently across regions such as Africa and the United States, necessitating the adoption of
innovative solutions like smart water management systems (SWMS). Smart water management
involves the integration of technology to enhance the efficiency of water use, ensure sustainable
access, and improve the quality of water services. This review paper aims to explore and
compare the development, adoption, and impact of SWMS in Africa and the United States,
highlighting the role of technological innovations in addressing the complex challenges of water
management in these regions.
In Africa, water scarcity and management issues are compounded by limited infrastructure,
financial constraints, and climate variability (Onukogu et al., 2023; Water, 2020). The
continent's approach to smart water management has often focused on leveraging technology
to improve water access and sanitation in both urban and rural settings. For instance, mobile
technology has been utilized to monitor water quality and distribute water resources efficiently
(Organization, 2018).
Conversely, in the United States, the focus has been optimizing existing water infrastructure,
reducing waste, and managing consumption through advanced technologies such as IoT
sensors, data analytics, and remote monitoring systems (EPA, 2001). These technologies have
facilitated better leak detection, water quality monitoring, and predictive maintenance of water
distribution networks.
This paper seeks to provide a comprehensive review of the smart water management systems
implemented in Africa and the United States. By examining these systems' technological,
economic, and social dimensions, the review aims to highlight successful practices, identify
common challenges, and suggest future directions for research and implementation.
Background and Context
Historical Perspective and Evolution of Water Management
Water management has been a critical component of human civilizations for millennia, evolving
from simple agricultural irrigation systems in ancient times to complex networks of dams,
canals, and water treatment facilities today. The earliest known water management systems date
back to around 6000 BCE in the Middle East, where irrigation was used to support agriculture
in arid regions (Mays, 2010). Ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and
Indus Valley also developed sophisticated water storage, distribution, and drainage techniques,
underscoring the importance of water in urban planning and societal development.
As societies progressed, so did their water management strategies, incorporating technological
advancements and expanding to address urban and industrial needs. The Roman Empire, for
example, is renowned for its aqueducts, which supplied cities with water from distant sources,

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 Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024

demonstrating early recognition of the importance of clean water for public health and well-
being (Cech, 2018). In the modern era, the advent of powered pumps, filtration systems, and
chemical treatment has vastly improved water quality and accessibility, though challenges
remain in equitable distribution and sustainable management.
Water management is pivotal in achieving sustainable development, as it intersects with
multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations, including clean
water and sanitation (SDG 6), climate action (SDG 13), and sustainable cities and communities
(SDG 11). Efficient water management practices contribute to reducing water scarcity,
mitigating climate change impacts, and ensuring populations' health and prosperity (Katila et
al., 2019).
Climate change exacerbates water management challenges through more frequent and severe
droughts, floods, and shifts in precipitation patterns, impacting water availability and quality
worldwide. In Africa, for instance, climate change threatens to intensify water stress in regions
already facing water scarcity, affecting agricultural productivity, food security, and livelihoods
(Outlook, 2020). Similarly, in the United States, variations in rainfall and the increasing severity
of weather events have put pressure on existing water infrastructure and management practices,
highlighting the need for adaptive and resilient water management strategies (Johnson, Butcher,
Parker, & Weaver, 2012).
The Role of Technology in Water Management
Technological innovations play a crucial role in advancing water management, offering
solutions to enhance water efficiency, monitoring, and treatment. Smart water management
systems, leveraging technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence
(AI), and remote sensing, are at the forefront of transforming traditional water management
approaches. These technologies enable real-time monitoring of water systems, predictive
analytics for demand and supply management, and efficient leak detection and water quality
assessment, thereby improving the sustainability and resilience of water resources (Lassiter &
Leonard, 2022).
In Africa, technological interventions are increasingly critical in addressing the unique water
management challenges of geographic and socio-economic conditions. For example, mobile
technology has improved access to water services and facilitated efficient water use in
agriculture (Yonazi, Kelly, Halewood, & Blackman, 2012). In the United States, smart water
technologies are being integrated into urban water systems to optimize water use, reduce waste,
and enhance system adaptability to changing climate conditions (Oberascher, Rauch, &
Sitzenfrei, 2022).
Theoretical Frameworks
Smart water management systems are grounded in various interdisciplinary theories and
concepts that span environmental science, technology, and socio-economic policy. At their
core, these systems utilize the principles of cyber-physical systems (CPS), where physical water
infrastructure is monitored and controlled by computer-based algorithms, integrating the
dynamics of the physical environment with software to achieve more efficient, reliable, and
sustainable water management (Gubbi, Buyya, Marusic, & Palaniswami, 2013; Tiwari & Singh,
2016).
The theory of sustainable development also plays a crucial role, emphasizing the need to meet
the present's water demands without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own

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 Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024

needs (Burton, 1987). This theory underpins the goals of smart water management systems to
enhance water efficiency, ensure equitable access, and protect water ecosystems.
Additionally, systems theory is applied in smart water management, viewing water resources
and management practices as part of a complex system with interdependent components. This
perspective facilitates understanding the interactions between natural water cycles, human
usage, and technological interventions, enabling more holistic and adaptive management
approaches (Meadows, 2008).
Technological Innovations in Water Management
The advancement of IoT technology has been a game-changer for water management, enabling
the deployment of sensors and devices throughout water systems to collect data on water
quality, flow rates, and consumption patterns. This real-time data can be analyzed to detect
leaks, predict demand, and optimize distribution (Narendran, Pradeep, & Ramesh, 2017; Salam
& Salam, 2020).
AI and machine learning are increasingly applied to predict water usage patterns, identify
potential system failures, and optimize water treatment processes. AI models can forecast
weather impacts on water availability and demand, enhancing the adaptability of water systems
to climate variability (Akindote et al., 2023; Akindote, Adegbite, Omotosho, Anyanwu, &
Maduka, 2024; Nishant, Kennedy, & Corbett, 2020; Sharma & Gundraniya, 2020).
Through satellites and drones, remote sensing technology offers comprehensive data on water
resources, land use, and environmental conditions affecting water cycles. This technology is
vital for monitoring large-scale water basins, tracking water availability changes, and assessing
aquatic ecosystems' health (Jorgenson & Grosse, 2016).
Policy and Regulatory Frameworks
In Africa, the policy and regulatory frameworks for smart water management are evolving, with
several countries adopting national strategies to integrate technology into water resources
management. The African Water Vision 2025, developed by the African Ministers' Council on
Water (AMCOW), promotes the use of ICT in water management to achieve sustainable use
and equitable access to water resources across the continent (Mutschinski & Coles, 2021;
Union).
In the United States, the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act provide regulatory
frameworks for protecting water resources and ensuring drinking water safety. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been instrumental in integrating smart
technologies through initiatives like the Smart Sectors Program, which encourages the adoption
of innovative technologies to improve environmental outcomes, including water management
(Gunningham & Sinclair, 2017).
Smart Water Management Technologies
Smart water management leverages advanced technologies designed to enhance water resources
management's efficiency, reliability, and sustainability. These technologies include sensors,
data analytics, cloud computing, and more, each playing a pivotal role in transforming
traditional water management approaches (Adewusi, Asuzu, et al., 2024; Adewusi, Okoli, et
al., 2024; Akindote et al., 2024).
Overview of Technologies
1) Sensors and IoT Devices: At the heart of smart water management are sensors and IoT
devices, which are deployed throughout water systems to collect data on various parameters

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 Engineering Science & Technology Journal, Volume 5, Issue 4, April 2024

such as flow rates, pressure, water quality, and leakage. These sensors enable real-time
monitoring and control of water infrastructure, facilitating early detection of leaks,
predictive maintenance, and optimized water distribution.
2) Data Analytics and Artificial Intelligence (AI): Data collected from sensors and IoT devices
are analyzed using advanced data analytics and AI algorithms to extract actionable insights.
Machine learning models can predict water demand, identify patterns in water use, and
optimize treatment processes. AI can also enhance decision-making by predicting system
failures and recommending preventive measures.
3) Cloud Computing: Cloud computing provides the backbone for storing, processing, and
managing the vast amounts of data that smart water management systems generate. It
enables scalable and flexible access to computing resources, facilitating data sharing and
collaboration across different stakeholders involved in water management. Cloud platforms
also support the deployment of AI and data analytics applications, making it easier to
implement sophisticated water management solutions.
4) Remote Sensing: This technology involves the use of satellites and drones to gather
comprehensive data on water bodies, land use, and environmental conditions. Remote
sensing is invaluable for large-scale water resource monitoring, offering insights into
changes in water availability, land use patterns affecting water cycles, and the health of
aquatic ecosystems.
Advantages of These Technologies
Smart technologies enable more efficient use of water resources, reducing wastage and
promoting conservation. For example, leak detection systems can significantly reduce water
losses in distribution networks. Real-time data collection and monitoring offer unparalleled
control over water systems, allowing for immediate responses to issues like contamination or
pipeline breaks. By analyzing data trends, utilities can predict and prevent equipment failures,
minimize downtime, and extend the lifespan of infrastructure.
Sensors and analytics can continuously monitor water quality, ensuring compliance with health
standards and swiftly addressing pollution issues. Access to detailed, real-time data supports
more informed decision-making, enabling water managers to allocate resources more
effectively and plan for future demands.
Limitations of These Technologies
The deployment of smart water management technologies can involve significant initial
investments in sensors, infrastructure, and software. The collection and storage of vast amounts
of data raise concerns about data security and privacy, requiring robust cybersecurity measures.
Implementing and managing these technologies demand technical expertise, which can be a
barrier for water utilities with limited resources or technical capacity. Challenges in ensuring
interoperability between different devices and systems can hinder the seamless integration of
smart technologies. The effectiveness of IoT-based solutions is contingent on reliable internet
connectivity, which can be problematic in remote or underdeveloped areas.
Smart water management technologies offer transformative potential for improving water
resource management, making systems more efficient, resilient, and sustainable. However, the
successful implementation of these technologies requires addressing the limitations related to
costs, technical complexity, and data security, ensuring that the benefits of smart water
management can be fully realized.

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Policy and Regulation

Smart water management systems are increasingly recognized as pivotal for enhancing water
sustainability and resilience against climate change. However, the success of these technologies
heavily relies on robust policy frameworks and effective regulations.
Comparative Analysis of Policy Frameworks
In Africa, the policy landscape for smart water management is diverse, reflecting the varied
socio-economic, environmental, and technological contexts across the continent. The African
Union's Agenda 2063 and the African Water Vision 2025 are significant continental
frameworks that emphasize the importance of sustainable water resource management and the
role of technology in achieving these goals. These visions advocate for integrated water
resources management (IWRM), the enhancement of water governance, and the utilization of
information and communication technologies (ICT) to improve water management
(Mutschinski & Coles, 2021; Union).
Several African countries have developed national policies and strategies that align with these
continental visions, incorporating smart technologies into their water management practices.
For instance, Kenya's Water Act 2016 emphasizes the role of technology in water conservation
and management, setting the stage for the adoption of smart water technologies (Ewim et al.,
2023; Gachenga, 2019; Mutschinski & Coles, 2021).
The United States has a more established regulatory framework for water management, with
federal laws such as the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)
providing the foundation for water quality and safety standards. There has been a growing
emphasis on integrating smart technologies within this regulatory framework to address
contemporary water management challenges in recent years. The Water Infrastructure
Improvements for the Nation (WIIN) Act and initiatives like the Digital Water Program
highlight the federal government's commitment to supporting innovation in water management
through research, development, and deployment of smart water technologies (Act, 1974;
Adekanmbi & Wolf, 2024; Oguejiofor, Omotosho, et al., 2023; Oguejiofor, Uzougbo, Kolade,
Raji, & Daraojimba, 2023; Tiemann, 2014).
Challenges and Opportunities in Policy Implementation and Regulation
Challenges
One of the primary challenges in both regions is the pace of technological adaptation.
Implementing smart water management technologies requires significant investment in
infrastructure, training, and public awareness, which can be a hurdle for many African countries
due to financial constraints. In contrast, while funding is more readily available in the United
States, the challenge often lies in upgrading existing, ageing water infrastructure to incorporate
new technologies.
The use of smart technologies raises concerns about data privacy and security. Protecting
sensitive water usage data against cyber threats is a critical challenge that requires
comprehensive cybersecurity policies and regulations. The lack of interoperability standards for
smart water technologies can hinder their integration and scalability. Developing and
implementing universal standards is crucial for the efficient operation of smart water
management systems.

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Opportunities
Both Africa and the United States can leverage PPPs to accelerate the adoption of smart water
management technologies. Collaborations between governments, technology providers, and
financiers can mobilize resources, share risks, and enhance innovation. Investing in capacity
building and education can empower stakeholders, from policymakers to local communities, to
effectively utilize and manage smart water technologies.
International cooperation can significantly share best practices, technological know-how, and
financial resources, especially in supporting African countries to leapfrog to advanced smart
water management systems. In conclusion, while the policy and regulatory landscapes in Africa
and the United States present distinct challenges, they also offer unique opportunities for
leveraging smart water management technologies to achieve sustainable water management
goals. Bridging the technological, financial, and regulatory gaps will require concerted efforts
from governments, the private sector, and international partners to ensure that the benefits of
smart water management can be realized globally.
Impact of Smart Water Management
Smart water management systems leverage cutting-edge technologies to optimize water
resource use, distribution, and treatment. These systems have far-reaching impacts that span
environmental, social, and economic domains, contributing significantly to sustainable
development goals. Below, we delve into the multifaceted impacts of smart water management.
Environmental Impacts
Smart water management technologies, such as IoT-based sensors and AI-driven analytics, play
a pivotal role in conserving water resources. They enable precise monitoring and control of
water usage, minimizing waste through leak detection, efficient irrigation practices, and
optimized water distribution networks. For instance, sensor-equipped irrigation systems can
adjust watering schedules based on soil moisture and weather forecasts, substantially reducing
water usage in agriculture (Adelekan et al., 2024; McCready, Dukes, & Miller, 2009; Ogunjobi
et al., 2023).
By enhancing the efficiency of water treatment and distribution systems, smart water
management contributes to reducing pollution. Advanced monitoring systems can detect and
report contaminants in real-time, allowing immediate remediation actions. This capability is
crucial for preventing pollutants from entering natural water bodies and ensuring the cleanliness
of drinking water, thereby protecting aquatic ecosystems and public health (Drăgulinescu et al.,
2021; Singh & Ahmed, 2021).
Social Impacts
The deployment of smart water technologies has significantly improved access to clean and
safe drinking water, especially in underserved communities. Mobile water quality testing kits
and remote sensing technologies help identify sources of contamination, guiding interventions
to improve water quality. Furthermore, data-driven management approaches ensure that water
distribution is optimized to meet community needs, addressing disparities in water access
(Sarkar, 2019).
Smart water management systems often incorporate platforms for community engagement and
feedback, fostering a participatory approach to water governance. Residents can report issues,
track water quality, and engage in water conservation initiatives through mobile apps and online
portals. This engagement raises awareness about water issues and empowers communities to

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contribute to sustainable water management practices (Wehn, Collins, Anema, Basco-Carrera,

& Lerebours, 2020).
Economic Impacts
Implementing smart water management systems can lead to significant cost savings for water
utilities and consumers alike. Automated leak detection and repair systems can prevent water
loss, reducing operational costs. Additionally, data analytics can optimize treatment processes,
lowering energy consumption and maintenance expenses. These savings can be passed on to
consumers in the form of lower water bills and to governments and organizations as reduced
expenditure on water infrastructure (Aderibigbe, Ani, Ohenhen, Ohalete, & Daraojimba, 2023;
Aderibigbe, Ohenhen, Nwaobia, Gidiagba, & Ani, 2023; Dada et al., 2024; Lee, Sarp, Jeon, &
Kim, 2015; Ramos, McNabola, López-Jiménez, & Pérez-Sánchez, 2019).
The efficiency gains from smart water management are profound. Predictive analytics and
machine learning models can accurately forecast water demand, allowing utilities to adjust
supply dynamically, reducing resource wastage. This efficiency extends to agricultural
practices, where precision irrigation systems ensure water is used judiciously, enhancing crop
yields while conserving water (Dogo, Salami, Nwulu, & Aigbavboa, 2019).
hallenges and Future Directions in Smart Water Management
Despite its transformative potential, the implementation of smart water management systems is
confronted with multifaceted challenges. Addressing these challenges is crucial for realizing
the full benefits of smart water technologies. Concurrently, future trends in technology and
policy promise to expand the scope and effectiveness of smart water management, offering
pathways for scalability and adaptation across diverse contexts.
The integration of advanced technologies like IoT, AI, and remote sensing into water
management systems involves complex technical requirements, including robust data
collection, processing, and analysis capabilities. Ensuring interoperability among diverse
systems and technologies, maintaining data security and privacy, and addressing data accuracy
and reliability issues represent significant technical hurdles. The initial investment required for
implementing smart water management systems can be substantial, covering costs for
technology procurement, system integration, and capacity building. Securing funding and
justifying the return on investment are considerable challenges, especially for municipalities
and regions with limited financial resources. The regulatory environment can either facilitate
or hinder the adoption of smart water technologies. In many cases, outdated regulations fail to
accommodate innovative technologies and management approaches. Moreover, the lack of
standardized guidelines and frameworks for deploying and operating smart water systems poses
additional barriers to adoption.
Future Trends in Smart Water Management
The future of smart water management is likely to be shaped by advancements in technology,
including next-generation IoT devices with enhanced capabilities for environmental sensing,
AI algorithms for more sophisticated data analysis and prediction, and blockchain for secure
and transparent water transactions. These technologies promise to improve water management
practices' efficiency, accuracy, and reliability.
As the value of smart water management becomes increasingly recognized, policy innovation
is expected to follow. This includes the development of supportive regulatory frameworks,
incentives for technology adoption, and integrated water resources management approaches that

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align water policy with environmental and economic policies. Future trends also emphasize the
role of public engagement and participatory governance in water management. Digital
platforms and mobile applications will enable greater community involvement in monitoring
water resources, reporting issues, and participating in decision-making processes, fostering a
more inclusive and sustainable approach to water management.
Potential for Scalability and Adaptation
The scalability and adaptation of smart water management systems across different contexts are
promising, given the modular and flexible nature of the technologies involved. Smart water
solutions can be tailored to meet various regions' specific needs and constraints, from densely
populated urban areas to remote rural communities. The adaptability of these systems to diverse
environmental conditions, regulatory environments, and socio-economic contexts is a critical
advantage, allowing for widespread adoption and customization.
Moreover, the potential for international collaboration and knowledge sharing in smart water
management practices offers opportunities for leveraging global expertise and resources,
enhancing the capacity of regions to implement and scale smart water solutions effectively.
CONCLUSION
This review has explored the multifaceted aspects of smart water management systems,
highlighting their critical role in addressing contemporary water management challenges.
Several key findings emerge from the discussion on the theoretical frameworks underpinning
these systems to the detailed examination of the technologies, policy frameworks, and their
impacts.
Smart water management technologies, including IoT, AI, and remote sensing, offer
transformative potential to enhance water conservation, improve access to clean water, and
ensure sustainable water use. These technologies enable real-time monitoring and management
of water resources, leading to significant environmental, social, and economic benefits.
However, the implementation of smart water management systems is not without challenges.
Technical, financial, and regulatory barriers must be addressed to fully realize the potential of
these technologies. The review underscores the importance of integrating technology with
supportive policy frameworks and active community engagement to overcome these challenges.
Policies that encourage innovation, investment in technology, and public participation are vital
for the successful adoption of smart water management systems.
The review also points to the need for further research and collaboration across countries,
sectors, and disciplines to advance smart water management. Sharing knowledge and
experiences, developing standardized practices, and fostering international cooperation can
accelerate the adoption of smart water technologies and practices globally. In conclusion, smart
water management is a critical pathway towards sustainable water resources management.
Integrating technology, policy, and community engagement is essential for addressing the
complex challenges of water management in the 21st century. As we move forward, it is
imperative to continue exploring innovative solutions, promoting interdisciplinary
collaboration, and encouraging the adoption of smart water management practices worldwide.

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