CSCS 105

Basic Electronics
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 are in series as shown in the figure
below. Since the same current i flows in both of them.
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,
we obtain

If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the

clockwise direction)

Combining both equations, we obtain:

OR
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
v = i(R1 + R2)
Two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req:
Req = R1 + R2

So,
v = iReq
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in
series is the sum of the individual resistances

For N resistors in series then,

Series Resistors and Voltage Division
As:

The voltage across each resistor

Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct
proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the
voltage drop. This is called the principle of voltage division,
Series Resistors and Voltage Division

Req = R1 + R2
Parallel Resistors and Current Division
Parallel Resistors and Current Division
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel as shown in
the figure below. Therefore, have the same voltage v across them.
Parallel Resistors and Current Division
From Ohm’s law,
OR

Applying KCL at node a gives the total

current i as:

Combining both equations:

Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor Req:

OR

So,
Parallel Resistors and Current Division
Resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by their sum.

For N resistors in parallel then,

Parallel Resistors and Current Division
As:
And

The total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse

proportion to their resistances. This is known as the principle
of current division, also known as a current divider.
Parallel Resistors and Current Division
Example
• Find Req for the circuit shown:
Circuit analysis
Circuit analysis
• Nodal analysis: It is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s
current law(KCL).
• Nodal Analysis without Voltage Sources
• Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources

• Mesh analysis: It is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s

voltage law (KVL).
Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
• In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages.
Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal
analysis of the circuit involves taking the following three steps
Nodal Analysis

The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed

to have zero potential.

A reference node is indicated by any of the three symbols

Common ground Ground Chassis Ground

Step1: Select a reference Node and Assign voltages to
remaining nodes
Node 0 is the reference node
(v=0) while nodes 1 and 2 are
assigned voltages v1 and v2,
respectively.
Step2
Apply KCL to each nonreference node in the circuit.

At Node 1:

At Node 2:
Step 2:
Apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown currents i1, i2 and i3 in terms
of node voltages.
According to the passive sign convention:
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor
• We can express this principle as:
Nodal Analysis
• From step 1, we know:

• From step 2, we know:

• Substituting these equations:

or
Step3
The third step in nodal analysis is to solve for the node voltages.

If apply KCL to n-1 nonreference nodes, we obtain n-1

simultaneous equations.

To obtain node voltages using any standard method:

• Substitution method
• Elimination method
• Cramer’s rule
• Matrix inversion

To use either of the last two methods, one must cast the
simultaneous equations in matrix form.
Calculate the node voltages in the circuit
shown below
At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives:

Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we

obtain:

At node 2, we do the same thing and get:

Multiplying each term by 12 results in:

Nodal Analysis

Using the elimination technique, we add both equations:

Substituting in
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• Case 1: If a voltage source is connected between the reference node
and a nonreference node, we simply set the voltage at the
nonreference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source.

• Case 2: If the voltage source is connected between two nonreference

nodes, the two nonreference nodes form a generalized node or
supernode, we apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node
voltages.
Supernode
A supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage source connected
between two nonreference nodes and any elements connected in
parallel with it.

nodes 2 and 3 form a supernode

Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
• We analyze a circuit with supernodes using the same three steps
mentioned in the previous section except that the supernodes are
treated differently.

• An essential component of nodal analysis is applying KCL, which

requires knowing the current through each element. There is no way
of knowing the current through a voltage source in advance.
However, KCL must be satisfied at a supernode like any other node.
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
At the supernode:

Or
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the supernode.
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
From:

we can obtain the node voltages.

Properties of Supernode
Note the following properties of a supernode:
1. The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint
equation needed to solve for the node voltages.
2. A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3. A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
Example
For the circuit shown, find the node voltages.
Applying KCL to the supernode
To get the relationship between and we
apply KVL to the circuit
 AS

we write