INSTRUMENTATION

Contents

SR Topic Name Page No

NO
1 Introduction to Sensor 2
2 Characteristics of Measurement System 2
3 Introduction of Transducer 4
4 Selection of Transducer 5
5 Output of Transmitter 5
6 Industrial Process Measurement 8
7 Process and Instrumentation Symbols 23

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INTRODUCTION TO SENSOR

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture,
pressure, or any one of a great number of other environmental phenomena. The
output is generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display at the
sensor location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further
processing. Sensor is one which has the function of converting the physical
variable input into a signal variable output.
Active Sensor
Active sensors add energy to the measurement environment as part of the
measurement process. An example of an active sensor is a radar or sonar system,
where the distance to some object is measured by actively sending out a radio
(radar) or acoustic (sonar) wave to reflect off of some object and measure its range
from the sensor.
Passive Sensor
Passive sensors do not add energy as part of the measurement process but may
remove energy in their operation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Static Characteristics
Static characteristics are those which are either constant or slowly varying with
time.
List of Static Characteristics:
1. Static Sensitivity
2. Linearity
3. Precision
4. Accuracy
5. Drift, Zero Drift
6. Stability
7. Resolution
8. Hysteresis
9. Range & Span
10.Input Impedance/Loading Effect

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Accuracy:-It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give results close to the
true value of the measured quantity. Accuracy is measured by the absolute and
relative errors.
Linearity: - The closeness of the calibration curve to a specified straight line.
Precision: - The capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
Precision implies agreement between successive readings, not closeness to the true
value.
Static Sensitivity: - The slope of the calibration curve y=f(x) an ideal sensor will
have a large and constant sensitivity.
Hysteresis: - The difference between two output values that correspond to same
input depending on the trajectory followed by the sensor Backslash: hysteresis
caused by looseness in a mechanical joint.

Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics are those which are rapidly varying with time.

List of Dynamic Characteristics:

1. Speed of Response
2. Dynamic Error
3. Fidelity

Speed of Response: - The rapidity with which a measurement system responds to

changes in the measured quantity.
Dynamic Error: - The difference between true value of the quantity changing with
time and the value indicated by the measurement system.
Fidelity: - The degree of which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error.

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INTRODUCTION TO TRANSDUCER

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.
Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in another.
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation, measurement and
control system, where electrical signals are converted to and from other physical
quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.).The process of
converting one form of energy to another is known as ‘transduction’
Transducer Classification

Transdcucer

Based on Based on
Source of Based on
Parameter of
Energy Output
Measurement

Based on source of Energy:-

Active Transducer - A transducer which does not require auxiliary energy source
for conversion. (Ex. Thermocouple, piezoelectric, photovoltaic cell)
Passive Transducer - A transducer which requires auxiliary energy source for
conversion. (Ex. LDR, Strain Gauge, LVDT)
Based on Parameter of Measurement:-
1. Displacement transducer:- Linear, Angular
2. Velocity transducer:- Linear, Angular
3. Acceleration transducer:- Linear, Angular

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Based on Output:-
1. Analog
2. Digital
Based on Transduction principle:-
1. Variable Resistance Transducers
2. Variable Inductance Transducers
3. Variable Capacitance Transducers
4. Piezoelectric Transducers
5. Hall Effect Transducers
6. Magnetostrictive Transducers
7. Eddy Current Transducers
8. Fibre Optic Transducers

SELECTION OF TRANSDUCER
1. Installation and maintenance requirement
2. Need of frequent calibration
3. Accuracy required
4. Environmental Consideration
5. Right time Availability
6. Need of Expertise required to handle
7. Cost
OUTPUT OF TRANSMITTER
Standard Electrical Signals are:-
1. 0-10 Volts dc
2. 4-20mA
3. -10 to +10Volts DC
Comparison of Standard Transmitter Signal

0-10 Volts Signal proportional to process parameter is very easy to generate than
current signal but voltage may drop considerably over longer loop length.

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Why 4-20mA Standard is used?
1. It can be effectively used to detect open circuit in a DC system. If the line
breaks in 4-20Ma system. The current drops to zero raising an alarm;
whereas in a 0-20Ma system this cannot be done.
2. Most two wire DC devices require minimum of 3.9mA to operate; Moreover
in this systems the same two wires are used to carry the loop signal at the
same time doing the work of powering up.
Transmitter Instrumentation
The function of the transmitter is to convert the output of primary sensing element
into standard electrical signal and to transmit is over telemetering channel. This
signal is in electrical format (mostly) and is received by a receiver placed at a
remote location.
Transmitter Types
1. 2 Wire Transmitters
2. 3 Wire Transmitters
3. 4 Wire Transmitters
Connections of 2-Wire Transmitter

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 A 2-wire transmitter energized by the loop current where the loop source
voltage (compliance) is included in the receiver. The transmitter floats and
signals ground is in the receiver.

Connections of 3-Wire Transmitter

A 3-wire transmitter energized by a supply voltage at the transmitter. The

transmitter sources the loop current. Transmitter common is connected to
receiver common.

Connections of 4-Wire Transmitter

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A 4-wire transmitter energized by a supply voltage at the transmitter. The
transmitter sources the loop current to a floating receiver load.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

1. Pressure Measurement
2. Flow Measurement
3. Level Measurement
4. Flow Measurement

Pressure Measurement
Pressure is nothing but force exerted per unit area.

Pressure (P) is defined as the amount of force (F) acting per unit area (A). The
mathematical equation for pressure can be written as:
P= F/A = mg/A
Where P is pressure F is the normal force (g is acceleration) and A is the area of
the surface. Although the normal force is a vector quantity, pressure is
a scalar quantity

Types of Pressure
Absolute Pressure:-
The clearest reference pressure is the pressure zero, which exists in the air-free
space of the universe. A pressure which is related to this reference pressure is
known as absolute pressure. For the required differentiation from other types of

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pressure, it is denoted with the index “abs”, which is derived from the Latin
“absolutes”, meaning detached, independent.

Atmospheric Pressure:-
The probably most important pressure for life on earth is the atmospheric pressure,
pamb (amb = ambiens = ambient). It is created by the weight of the atmosphere
which surrounds the earth up to a height of approx. 500 km. Up to this altitude, at
which the absolute pressure pabs = zero, its magnitude decreases continuously.
Furthermore, the atmospheric pressure is subject to weather-dependent
fluctuations, as is only too well known from the daily weather report. At sea level,
pamb averages 1,013.25 hectopascal (hpa), corresponding to 1,013.25 millibar
(mbar). With “cyclones” and “anticyclones”, this pressure varies by about 5 %.

Gauge Pressure:-
The most frequently measured pressure in the technological field is the
atmospheric pressure differential, Pe (e = excedens = exceeding). It is the
difference between an absolute pressure, pabs, and the relevant (absolute)
atmospheric pressure (pe = pabs - pamb) and is known, in short, as the overpressure or
gauge pressure. A positive overpressure is referred to when the absolute pressure is
greater than the atmospheric pressure. In the opposite case, one speaks of negative
overpressure.

Instruments used to measure Pressure:-

1. Bourdon Tube:-

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 Instruments Used for Pressure Measurement

Circular-shaped tubes with oval cross section. The pressure medium acts on the
inside of the tube. The outward pressure on the oval cross section forces it to
become rounded. Because of the curvature it bends.
Due to robust construction, they are often used in harsh environments and high
pressures.
The response time is slower than the bellows or diaphragm.

Fig. Schematic View of Bourdon Tube used for Pressure

Measurement

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2. Diaphragm:-

1. Circular shaped convoluted membrane.

2. The membrane is attached to the pressure fixture around the
circumference.
3. The pressure medium is on one side and the indication medium is on the
other.
4. It provide fast acting and accurate pressure indication
5. Material of construction brass, SS, phosphor bronze, beryllium copper etc.

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 2. Pressure Switch:-

Fig. Pressure Switch

This is a device designed to monitor the process pressure and provide an

output when set pressure reached. In pressure switch, process pressure
generates a force on diaphragm which is compared to that of a pre-
compressed range spring. A Pressure switch is used to detect the presence of
fluid pressure.

Flow Measurement
 LAMINAR FLOW:- occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous
forces are dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion;
 TURBULENT FLOW:- occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is
dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce
chaotic eddies, vortices and other flow instabilities

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 Relationship with the Reynolds number
 The type of flow occurring in a fluid in a channel is important in fluid
dynamics problems. The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important
parameter in the equations that describe whether flow conditions lead to
laminar or turbulent flow
 In the case of flow through a straight pipe with a circular cross-section, at a
Reynolds number below a critical value of approximately 2040, fluid motion
will ultimately be laminar, whereas at larger Reynolds numbers, the flow can
be turbulent.
Flow Measuring Instruments

Orifice Plate:-

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 Structure and schematics of Orifice Plates

The orifice plate flow meter is commonly used in clean liquid, gas, and steam
services. It is available for all pipe sizes but it is very cost-effective for measuring
flows in larger ones (over 6" diameter). The orifice plate is also approved by many
organizations for custody transfer of liquids and gases. The orifice plate
calculations used nowadays still differ from one another, although various
organizations are working to adopt an universally accepted orifice flow equation.
Orifice plate sizing programs usually allow the user to select the flow equation
desired.The orifice plate meter can be made of any material, although stainless
steel is the most common. The thickness of the plate used ( 1/8-1/2") is a function
of the line size, the process temperature, the pressure, and the differential pressure.
The traditional orifice flow meter is a thin circular plate (with a tab for handling
and for data), inserted into the pipeline between the two flanges of an orifice union.
This method of installation is cost-effective, but it calls for a process shutdown
whenever the plate is removed for maintenance or inspection. In contrast, an

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orifice fitting allows the orifice to be removed from the process without
depressurizing the line and shutting down flow. In such fittings, the universal
orifice plate, a circular plate with no tab, is used.

Advantages
 Low cost
 High differential pressure generated
 Can be used in wide range of pipe sizes
Disadvantages
 High permanent pressure loss implies higher pumping cost.
 Cannot be used for dirty fluids, slurries or wet steam as erosion will alter DP
generated.

Ventury Tube
The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows
through a constricted section (or choke) of a pipe. The Venturi effect is named
after Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746–1822), an Italian physicist.

In fluid dynamics, an incompressible fluid's velocity must increase as it passes

through a constriction in accord with the principle of mass continuity, while its
static pressure must decrease in accord with the principle of conservation of
mechanical energy. Thus, any gain in kinetic energy a fluid may attain due to its
increased velocity through a constriction is balanced by a drop in pressure. By
measuring the change in pressure, the flow rate can be determined, as in various
flow measurement devices such as venturi meters, venturi nozzles and orifice
plates. Referring to the adjacent diagram, using Bernoulli's equation in the special
case of steady, incompressible, inviscid flows (such as the flow of water or other
liquid, or low speed flow of gas) along a streamline.

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p 1 − p 2 = ρ 2 ( v 2 2 − v 1 2 ) {\displaystyle p_{1}-p_{2}={\frac {\rho
}{2}}\left(v_{2}^{2}-v_{1}^{2}\

Advantages of Ventury Tubes

 Very small permanent pressure loss

 Available in very large pipe sizes
 Can handle suspended solids

Disadvantages of Ventury Tubes:-

 High cost
 Generally not useful below 15cm pipe dia
 More difficult to inspect due to its installation in the pipe

Industrial Structure of a Ventury Tube

Level Measurement

Methods of Level Measurement

 Mechanical: Direct and Indirect methods
 Hydrostatic techniques
 Capacitance Methods
 Ultrasonic Methods

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Mechanical or Direct Method

Direct level measurement is simple, almost straightforward and economical; it uses

a direct measurement of the distance (usually height) from the datum line, and used
primarily for local indication. It is not easily adopted to signal transmission
techniques for remote indication or control.

A. Deep Stick or Lead Lines:-

B.Sight Glass Method

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It is quite straightforward in use; the level in the glass seeks the same position as
the level in the tanks. It provides a continuous visual indication of liquid level in a
process vessel or a small tank and are more convenient than dip stick, dip rod and
manual gauging tapes. Sight glass A is more suitable for gauging an open tank. A
metal ball normal used in the tube to prevent the fluid from flowing out of the
gauge. Tubular glass of this sort is available in lengths up to 70 inches and for
pressure up to 600 psi. It is now seldom used. The closed tank sight glass B,
sometimes called a ‘reflex glasses, is used in many pressurized and atmospheric
processes. The greatest use is in pressurized vessel such as boiler drums,
evaporators, condensers, stills, tanks, distillation columns, and other such
applications. The length of reflex glass gauges ranges from a few inches or eight
feet, but like the tube type gauges, they can be gauge together to provide nearly
any length of level measurement. He simplicity and reliability of gauge type level
measurement results in the use of such devices for local indication. When level
transmitters fail or must be out of service for maintenance, or during times of
power failure, this method allow the process be measured and controlled by
manual means. However, glass elements can get dirty and are susceptible to
breakage thus presenting a safety hazard especially when hot, corrosive or
flammable liquids are being handled.

Use of level/Float Switches

It consist of a reed switch and a tiny magnet attached to a float
Hermetically sealed nature of reed switch allows immersion in liquid at required
level.

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Float gets lifted above set level as liquid level rises; causing magnet attached to
float to operate reed switch

Float/Level Switches used in industries

Temperature Measurement
Temperature Scales

Different Temperature Scales used in Industries for Temperature Measurement

Instruments used for Temperature Measurement

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 1. Thermocouple
2. Thermistor
3. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
4. Thermometers
5. Pyrometers

1. Thermocouple

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical

conductors forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple
produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect,
and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a
widely used type of temperature sensor.[1]
Commercial thermocouples are inexpensive,[2] interchangeable, are supplied with
standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. In contrast to
most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self powered
and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples
is precision; system errors of less than one degree Celsius (°C) can be difficult to
achieve.[3]

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry. Applications include

temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other
industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices and businesses
as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame sensors in safety
devices for gas-powered appliances.

2. Thermistor
A Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature,
more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and
resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature
sensors (negative temperature coefficient or NTC type typically), self-resetting
overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements (positive temperature
coefficient or PTC type typically).
Thermostats are of two opposite fundamental types:

 With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC

is commonly used as a temperature sensor, or in parallel with a circuit as an
inrush current limiter.

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  With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises. PTC
thermistors are commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used to
protect against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the
material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs
use pure metals. The thermistors are in the form of beads, rods and discs but
RTDs are in different shapes and sizes. The temperature response is also
different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors
typically achieve a greater precision within a limited temperature range,
typically −90 °C to 130 °C.[1]
Advantages of Thermistors
Their sizes are small & have fast response.
 They are suitable for narrow spans.
 They are low cost devices.
 Greater sensitivity.
 Cold junction compensation not required.
 Due to large resistance of device lead resistance is negligible.

3. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors
(RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature. Many RTD elements
consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core but
other constructions are also used. The RTD wire is a pure material, typically
platinum, nickel, or copper. The material has an accurate
resistance/temperature relationship which is used to provide an indication of
temperature. As RTD elements are fragile, they are often housed in
protective probes. RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are
slowly replacing thermocouples in industrial applications below 600 °C.[

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 RTD used industries for Temperature Measurement

Advantages of RTDs:
 High accuracy levels
 Wide range of measurement from – 200 to 850’
 Size is small
 They are fast in response
 They have good reproducibility
 Temperature compensation not required

4. Thermocouple

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 Thermocouples used in Industries for Temperature Measurement

PROCESS AND INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS

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