DEBRE MARKOS UNIVERSITY

Institute of Technology
School of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

Regulation and Control

(MEng5272)

Chapter 2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System

By
ARUNDEEP MURUGAN
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 CONTENTS

ᴪMODELING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

ᴪEQUATION OF ELECTRICAL NETWORKS
ᴪTRANSFER FUNCTIONS
ᴪBLOCK DIAGRAM AND SIGNAL FLOW GRAPH

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 Mathematical Models of Control System
INTRODUCTION
❑A Control System is a Collection of Physical Objects connected
together to Serve an Objective.
❑The Input Output relations of various Physical Components of a
System are Governed by Differential Equations.
❑The Mathematical Model of a Control System constitutes a Set of
Differential Equations.
❑The Response or Output of the System can be Studied by Solving
the Differential Equations for Various Input Conditions.
❑A Mathematical Model will be Linear if the Differential Equations
describing the System has Constant Coefficients.
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INTRODUCTION
❑Mathematical Modeling of any Control System is the first and
foremost task that a Control Engineer has to accomplish for Design
and Analysis of any Control Engineering Problem.
❑Mathematical Model of a Dynamic System is defined as a Set of
Differential Equations that represents the Dynamics of the System
Accurately or at least fairly well.
❑Once a Mathematical Model of a System is obtained various
Analytical and Computational Techniques may be used for Analysis
and Synthesis purposes. Because the systems under consideration
are Dynamic in Nature, the equations are usually differential
equations. If these Equations can be Linearized, then the Laplace
Transform may be utilized to simplify the Method of Solution.
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LAPLACE TRANSFORM
✓ It is a Method for solving Differential Equations.
✓ Converts Differential Equations in Real Variable (Real Time f(t) =
Time Domain) into Algebraic equations in Complex Variable
(Complex Frequency F(s) = S-Domain).
Here,
t Time Variable
s Laplace Variable
f(t) Time Domain Function
F(s) Laplace Domain Function
✓ So the Laplace Transform takes a Time Domain Function f(t) and
Converts it into Laplace Domain Function F(s) to Evaluate the
Stability of System in Control Engineering Applications. 5
Tables For Laplace Transform

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Tables For Laplace Transform

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Example For Differential Equation into Laplace Transform

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Example For Differential Equation into Laplace Transform

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TRANSFER FUNCTION
✓ A Mathematical Model will be Linear if the Differential Equations
describing the System has Constant Coefficients.
✓ If the Coefficients of the Differential Equation describing the System
are Constants then the Model is Linear Time In-Variant.
✓ If the Coefficients of the Differential Equations Governing the
System are Functions of Time then the Model is Linear Time
Varying.
✓ The Differential Equations of a Linear Time In-Variant System can
be reshaped into different form for the Convenience of Analysis.
✓ One such Model for Single Input and Single Output System Analysis
is Transfer Function of the System.
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TRANSFER FUNCTION
✓ Transfer Functions are commonly used to Characterize the Input-Output
relationships of Components or Systems that can be described by Linear, Time
In-Variant, Differential Equations.
✓ The Transfer Function of a Linear, Time In-Variant, Differential Equation
System is defined as “The Ratio of the Laplace Transform of the
Output(Response Function) to the Laplace Transform of the Input(Driving
Function) under the assumption that all Initial Conditions are Zero”.
✓ The Models of Systems are often Written in the form of a Ratio of Output/Input.
✓ If the Models are turned into a Function of ‘s’ (Complex Frequency) it is called
a Transfer Function and this is usually denoted as G(s).

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2.1 MODELING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

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 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEMS
▪ The Model of Mechanical Translational Systems can be Obtained by
using 3 Basic Elements Mass, Spring and Dash-Pot(Damper).
▪ The Weight of the Mechanical System is represented by the Element
Mass and it is assumed to be Concentrated at the Centre of the Body.
▪ The Elastic Deformation of the Body can be represented by a Spring.
▪ The Friction Existing in the Rotating Mechanical System can be
represented by the Dash-Pot. The Dash-Pot is a Piston moving Inside
a Cylinder Filled with Viscous Fluid.
▪ When a Force is Applied to a Translational Mechanical System, it is
Opposed by Opposing Forces due to Mass, Elasticity and Friction of
the System.
▪ For Translational Systems, the Sum of Forces acting on a Body is
Zero based on Newton’s Second Law of Motion. 13
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 FORCE BALANCE EQUATIONS OF IDEALIZED ELEMENTS
MASS
✓ Consider an Ideal Mass Element shown in Figure which has
negligible Friction and Elasticity.
✓ Let a Force be applied on it.
✓ The Mass will offer an Opposing Force which is Proportional
to Acceleration of the Body.
f=Mxa
f = M x dv
dt Ideal Mass Element
f = M x d2x
dt2
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SPRING
✓ Consider an Ideal Elastic Element Spring shown in Figure
which has negligible Mass and Friction.
✓ Let a Force be applied on it.
✓ The Spring will offer an Opposing Force which is Proportional
to Displacement of the Body.

Ideal Spring with One End Fixed to Reference Ideal Spring with Displacement at Both Ends

fαx f α (x1 – x2)

f = Kx f = K (x1 – x2)
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DAMPER (or) DASH-POT
✓ Consider an Ideal Frictional Element Dash-pot shown in Figure
which has negligible Mass and Elasticity.
✓ Let a Force be applied on it.
✓ The Dash-pot will offer an Opposing Force which is
Proportional to Velocity of the Body.

Ideal Dash-Pot with One End Fixed to Reference Ideal Dash-Pot with Displacement at Both Ends

f=Bxv f = B x d (x1 – x2)

f = B x dx dt
dt 17
GUIDELINES TO DETERMINE THE TRANSFER FUNCTION
OF MECHANICAL TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM

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PROBLEMS ON MECHANICAL TRANSLATION SYSTEM
1. Write the Differential Equations Governing the Mechanical System
Shown in the Figure Below and Determine the Transfer Function.

Solution:-
In the Given System,
Applied Force f(t) = Input
Displacement ‘x’ = Output
Let,
Laplace Transform of f(t) = F(s)
Laplace Transform of x = X(s)
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Laplace Transform of x1 = X1(s)
Therefore Required Transfer Function is,

G(s) = X(s)
F(s)

➢The System has Two Nodes and They are Mass

M1 & M2
➢The Differential Equations Governing the System are given by Force
Balance Equations at these Nodes by Newton’s Second Law.
➢So Let us Calculate the Differential Equations and its Laplace
Transform for each Mass to Find out the Required Transfer Function.

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For Mass M1

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For Mass M2

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PROBLEMS ON MECHANICAL TRANSLATION SYSTEM
2. Determine the Transfer Function of the System Shown in Fig.
Solution:-
In the Given System,
Applied Force f(t) = Input
Displacement ‘y2’ = Output
Let,
Laplace Transform of f(t) = F(s)
Laplace Transform of y1 = Y1(s)
Laplace Transform of y2 = Y2 (s)
Therefore Required Transfer Function is, G(s) = Y2(s)
F(s)
➢The System has Two Nodes and They are Mass M1 & M2
➢The Differential Equations Governing the System are given by Force Balance
Equations at these Nodes by Newton’s Second Law.
➢So Let us Calculate the Differential Equations and its Laplace Transform for
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each Mass to Find out the Required Transfer Function.
For Mass M1

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For Mass M2

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MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEMS
▪ The Model of Mechanical Translational Systems can be Obtained by
using 3 Basic Elements Moment of Inertia[J] of Mass, Torsional
Spring with Stiffness[K] and Dash-Pot(Damper) with Rotational
Frictional Coefficient[B].
▪ The Weight of the Mechanical System is represented by the Moment
of Inertia of the Mass and it is assumed to be Concentrated at the
Centre of the Body.
▪ The Elastic Deformation of the Body can be represented by a
Torsional Spring.
▪ The Friction Existing in the Rotating Mechanical System can be
represented by the Dash-Pot. The Dash-Pot is a Piston moving Inside
a Cylinder Filled with Viscous Fluid.
▪ When a Torque is Applied to a Rotational Mechanical System, it is
Opposed by Opposing Torques due to Moment of Inertia, Elasticity
and Friction of the System.
▪ For Rotational Systems, the Sum of Torque acting on a Body is Zero 28
based on Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
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 TORQUE BALANCE EQUATIONS OF IDEALIZED ELEMENTS
MASS
✓ Consider an Ideal Mass Element shown in Figure which has
negligible Friction and Elasticity.
✓ Let a Torque be applied on it.
✓ The Mass will offer an Opposing Torque due to Moment of
Inertia which is Proportional to Angular Acceleration of the
Body.
T=Jxα
T = J x dω
dt Ideal Rotational Mass Element

T = J x d2θ
dt2 30
TORSIONAL SPRING
✓ Consider an Ideal Elastic Element Spring shown in Figure
which has negligible Moment of Inertia and Friction.
✓ Let a Torque be applied on it.
✓ The Torsional Spring will offer an Opposing Torque which is
Proportional to Angular Displacement of the Body.

Ideal Spring with One End Fixed to Reference Spring with Angular Displacement at Both Ends

Tαθ T α (θ 1 – θ2)
T = Kθ T = K (θ 1 – θ2)
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DAMPER (or) DASH-POT
✓ Consider an Ideal Frictional Element Dash-pot shown in Figure
which has negligible Moment of Inertia and Elasticity.
✓ Let a Torque be applied on it.
✓ The Dash-pot will offer an Opposing Torque which is
Proportional to Angular Velocity of the Body.

Ideal Dash-Pot with One End Fixed to Reference DashPot with Angular Displacement at Both Ends

T=Bxω T = B x d (θ1 – θ2)

T = B x dθ dt
dt 32
GUIDELINES TO DETERMINE THE TRANSFER FUNCTION
OF MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM

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PROBLEMS ON MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM
3. Write the Differential Equations Governing the Mechanical
Rotational System Shown in the Figure Below and Determine the
Transfer Function.

Solution:-
In the Given System,
Applied Force ‘T’ = Input
Angular Displacement ‘θ’ = Output
Let,
Laplace Transform of T = T(s)
Laplace Transform of θ = θ(s)
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Laplace Transform of θ1 = θ1(s)
Therefore Required Transfer Function is,

G(s) = θ(s)
T(s)

➢The System has Two Nodes and They are Mass with Moment of Inertia
J1 & J2
➢The Differential Equations Governing the System are given by Torque
Balance Equations at these Nodes by Newton’s Second Law.
➢So Let us Calculate the Differential Equations and its Laplace
Transform for each Mass to Find out the Required Transfer Function.

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For Moment of Inertia J1

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For Moment of Inertia J2

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2.2 MODELING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

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 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
▪ The Model of Mechanical Translational Systems can be
Obtained by using 3 Basic Elements Resistor, Inductor and
Capacitor.
▪ For Modeling Electrical Systems, the Electrical Network or
Equivalent Circuit is formed by using R, L and C and Voltage
or Current Source.
▪ The Differential Equations Governing the Electrical Systems
can be formed by writing Kirchhoff’s Current Law Equations
by choosing various Nodes in the Network or Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law Equations by choosing various Closed Paths in the
Network.
▪ The Transfer Function can be obtained by taking Laplace
Transform of the Differential Equations and Rearranging them
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as a Ratio of Output to Input.
 CURRENT – VOLTAGE RELATION OF R, L & C
RESISTOR (R)
✓ A Resistor is an Electrical Component that Limits or Regulates the Flow
of Electrical Current in an Electronic Circuit.
✓ In Electronic Circuits, Resistors are used to Reduce Current Flow,
Adjust Signal Levels, to Divide Voltages, Bias Active Elements, and
Terminate Transmission Lines.
✓ In a DC circuit, the Current through a Resistor is Inversely Proportional
to its Resistance, and Directly Proportional to the Voltage across it.
✓ Resistor is an Energy Dissipation device (Electrical Energy converted
into Thermal Energy).
✓
✓ v(t) = R i(t)

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INDUCTOR (L)
✓ An Inductor, also called a Coil, Choke, or Reactor, is a Passive Two-
Terminal Electrical Component that stores Energy in a Magnetic Field
when Electric Current flows through it.
✓ An Inductor typically consists of an Insulated Wire wound into a Coil
around a Core.
✓ When Electricity flows into the Coil from the Left to the Right, this will
generate a Magnetic Field in the Clockwise Direction.
✓ Inductors can be roughly divided into Two types according to their
Function. One is to Control Signals, and the Other is to Store Electrical
Energy.
✓ Voltage Induced across Inductor is dependent upon Rate of Change
of Current. v(t) = L di(t)
dt
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CAPACITOR (C)
✓ The Capacitor is a Component and it has the Ability to Store Energy in
the form of Electrical Charge produces the Electrical Difference across
its Plates and it is like a small Rechargeable Battery.
✓ Capacitors are widely used as parts of Electrical Circuits in many
common Electrical Devices.
✓ Unlike a Resistor, a Capacitor does not Dissipate Energy.

i(t) = C dv(t)
dt

v(t) = 1 ʃ i(t) dt
C
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CURRENT – VOLTAGE RELATION OF R, L & C

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 BASICS OF ELECTRICALS

The Voltage across a Resistor is Directly Proportional

to the Current flowing through it.

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 CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY

 Topology: How a Circuit is laid out.

 A Branch represents a Single Circuit (Network)
Element - i.e. Any Two Terminal Element.
 A Node is the Point of connection between Two or
More Branches.
 A Loop is any Closed Path in a Circuit (Network).
 A Loop is said to be Independent if it contains a
Branch which is not in any other loop.

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 Elements in Series
Two or More Elements are connected in Series if they carry
the same Current and are connected sequentially.
I

R1
V0 = V1 + V2

So,
V0 = IR1 + IR2
R2
V0

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 Elements in Parallel
Two or More Elements are connected in Parallel if they are
connected to the same Two Nodes & Consequently have the
same Voltage across them.

I V0 = V1 + V2
So,
I1 I2
R1 R2 V = I1R1 + I2R2
V

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 Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
✓Sum of all Currents entering a Node is
Zero
✓Sum of Currents entering Node is equal to
sum of Currents leaving Node
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
✓Sum of Voltages around any Loop in a
Circuit is Zero

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RS = Total Resistance in Series Circuit
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 I

RP = Total Resistance in
Parallel Circuit

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Voltage Source with Rs = Current Source with RP

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 Elements in Quantities in
Voltage Analogy Voltage Analogy

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 Elements in Quantities in
Current Analogy Current Analogy

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PROBLEMS ON ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
4. Obtain the Transfer Function of the Electrical Network Shown in Fig 1.

Solution:-
In the Given System,
Voltage ‘e(t)’ = Input
Voltage ‘v2(t)’ = Output

Let,
Laplace Transform of e(t) = E(s)
Laplace Transform of v2(t) = V2 (s)
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Therefore Required Transfer Function is,

G(s) = V2(s)
E(s)

➢ Transform the Voltage Source in Series with Resistance R1 into

Equivalent Current Source as shown in Figure2.
➢The Network has Two Nodes and They are Node Voltages
v1 & v2
➢The Differential Equations Governing the Network are given by
Kirchhoff’s Current Law Equations at these Nodes.
➢So Let us Calculate the Differential Equations and its Laplace
Transform for each Voltage to Find out the Required Transfer Function. 61
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For Node 1
Here,
Total Current e = Current Flowing
R1 into Nodes

Incoming Current=Outgoing Current

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For Node 2
Here,
=

Incoming Current=Outgoing Current

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THANK YOU

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