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Target Prelims Special Material

08-02-2024 1.
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Ancient India

Sikhism

✓ The word Sikh is derived from the Sanskrit word Shishya, meaning disciple or learner.

✓ The Sikh religion originated with the advent of Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh Religion.

✓ It was developed through the successive Gurus who appeared in the form of the same divine light and
reached its climax with the creation of Khalsa by the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh.
✓ Sikhism was born at a time when there was a growing conflict amongst the two dominating religious
traditions of Hinduism and Islam in India.
✓ Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith, is generally depicted as a reconciler of the two conflicting
traditions.
✓ Guru Nanak got his enlightenment in Sultanpur in 1496.

✓ After enlightenment, he travelled extensively to spread the message of love and brotherhood.

✓ The number of Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the sixteenth century under his successors.

✓ They belonged to a number of castes, but traders, agriculturists, artisans and craftsmen predominated.
They were also expected to contribute to the general funds of the community of followers.
✓ By the beginning of the seventeenth century, the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around
the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple). It was virtually self-governing, and modern
historians refer to the early seventeenth-century Sikh community as ‘a state within the state’.

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Vaishnavism

✓ Vaishnavism is the worship and acceptance of Vishnu (Sanskrit: “The Pervader” or “The Immanent”) or

one of his various incarnations (avatars) as the supreme manifestation of the divine.
✓ During a long and complex development, many Vaishnava groups emerged with differing beliefs and
aims.
✓ Some of the major Vaishnava groups include the Shrivaishnavas (also known as Vishishtadvaitins) and
Madhvas (also known as Dvaitins) of South India; the followers of the teachings of Vallabha in western
India; and several Vaishnava groups in Bengal in eastern India, who follow teachings derived from those of
the saint Chaitanya.

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✓Most Vaishnava believers, however, draw from various traditions and blend worship of Vishnu with local

practices. ✓ In the Vedas and Brahmanas, Vishnu is the god of far-extending motion and pervasiveness
who, for humans in distress, penetrates and traverses the entire cosmos to make their existence possible.
✓ All beings are said to dwell in his three strides or footsteps (trivikrama): his highest step, or abode, is
beyond mortal ken in the realm of heaven.
✓ Vishnu is also the god of the pillar of the universe and is identified with the sacrifice.

✓ He imparts his all-pervading power to the sacrificer who imitates his strides and identifies himself with
the god, thus conquering the universe and attaining “the goal, the safe foundation, the highest light”
(Shatapatha Brahmana).

Medieval India

Turkish invasion in India

The starting of Arabs and Turks invasion in India began with the Arabs invaded India from the northwest
regon in 712 CE under Mohammed Bin Qasim. Arabs already had good trade relations with India and thus
were aware of the rich resources and enormous wealth India Possessed. This was the main reason for the
Arabs’ interest in expansion in India along with territorial expansion and Islamic Faith
Central Asia and Northern India witnessed many changes from 1000-1000 CE. Mahmud Ghaznavi was the
first Turkish ruler to invade India in parts which were dominated by Rajputs. He did not want to rule India
but expand his kingdom in Iran, Afghanistan and Khorasan. His major aim to invade India was rather the
wealth which India possessed. Every time he invaded and returned with a vast amount of wealth collected
from Indian Temples and rulers.
Of the various invasions made by Arabs and Turks two of the most notable are
The invasion of Sindh led by Arab Mohammed bin Qasim in 712 CE can be considered a landmark in history
as it gave dominance to Muslim rule in the Indian Subcontinent.
Turkish Invasion by Muhammed Ghuri which led to the Battle of Tarain in 1191 and 1192 and led to the
setting up of the first Muslim rule in India

Arab Invasion in India

Arab Invasion started in 710 CE with the conquest of Sindh by Mohammed Bin Qasim and the growth of the Islamic
religion in India which was starting period of Arabs and Turks Invasion in India.

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Mohammed Bin Qasim

Mohammed Bin Qasim who was a general of Umayyad khalifa was borne in Taif Saudi Arabia. After the
death of the last Hindu emperor Harshvardhana, there was political instability in India. Qasim took this
opportunity as India was a prosperous State.
Sindh was ruled by Dahir, Son of Cach who also had usurped power from previous Buddhist rulers.
The battle fought by Mohammed Bin Qasim.
Fall of Debal- Dehar is a famous seaport. It was captured and a large amount of booty and women went
into the hands of Arabs
Fall of Nirun- Nirun was under the charge of Dahir’s Son Jai Sindh. With the approach of Qasim, Jai Sindh
fled and Nirun was Captured without any fight
Fall of Sehwan – Cousin of Dahir, Bajhra was in charge of Sehwan. Bajhra could not face the attacks of Arab
and fled.
Fall of Sisam and Victory over Jats- It was ruled by Kaka a Jat king. He gave shelter to Bajhra after he fled
from Sehwan. Qasim defeated jats and Bajhra and their followers were killed.
Battle of Rewar- Fought between Mohammed bin Qasim and Dahir Ruler of Sindh. Dahir died in the battle
and Qasim got the rule of Multan and Sindh. Soon capitals of other provinces such as Brahmanabad, and
Alor were also captured.

Army Capacity

Qasim had a boisterous militia consisting

250000 troops with 600 Camels
6000 Syrian Horses
3000 Bactrian Donkeys
An artillery force containing 2000 men, advanced guards, and five catapults
End of Qasim
Qasim died due to a family feud. In 714 CE Hajaj Governor of Iraq died and Mohammed Bin Qasim was
recalled and executed.

Administrative Policies of Arab invaders

Arab administrative policies show they were lenient and adaptable. Local practices were allowed
unhindered even after a particular area was conquered.

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Caliph Umar who is considered one of the main architects of the Arab administration prohibited
interference of Arabs in local administration. It was primarily in the hands of local chiefs majority of which
were non-Muslims.
Their leniency and liberty in administration can be shown by Brahmanabad Settlement which was made by
Qasim after his victory over Dahar. Under it, Hindus were treated as “people of the book” or “zimmis” (the
protected ones).
Zimmis agreed to pay taxes to Caliph, Caliph in turn protected them and allowed them to follow their Faith
and worship their god.
Arab rulers and administrators were forbidden from usurping local’s property which was declared vide a
proclamation.
Qasim had a tolerant policy towards Brahmins and native traditions.
Jizya was a kind of tax imposed on Non-muslims.
Sindh and Multan were divided into several Iqtas or districts and were ruled by Arab military officers.

Effects of Arab Invasion

The fall of Sindh made way for Islam in the Indian Subcontinent.
Art of administration, music, astronomy, painting and architecture was taken from the Indian subcontinent
to Europe through Arabs.
It also helped Turks in achieving success in India.
Arabs took expert guidance from Indian Craftsmen which helped them build several mosques.
Charak Samhita, a medical journal, was translated into Arabic during this period.
With the commencement of new religion in India people of the oppressed lower class embraced Islam. It
was of great point of view from both cultural and political aspects.
Arabs had tolerance and did not interfere with the social systems. As inferred from Chachnama Qasim did
not interfere with the caste system and upheld the Indian social tradition.
Two weapons that came with the Arabs were Naptha or Greek fire and Manjaniq or mangonel/trebuchet.
Indian forces were not as good as those of the Invaders and thus faces defeats.

Modern India

The founder of the Mysore dynasty, otherwise known as the Wodeyar Dynasty (also spelt as Wadiyar), is
alluded to as Vijaya. Wadiyars of Vijaya’s dynasty belonged to the Arasu Wadiyar community of Karnataka,
which included many of the noble clans of the region.

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Wodeyars
• The Wadiyar dynasty controlled the Kingdom of Mysore from 1399 to 1950, with a brief hiatus in the late

1700s.
• They were a feudatory dynasty under the Vijayanagara Emperor, but they took advantage of the
Vijayanagara Empire’s weakness and became free.
• In 1610, Raja Odeyar captured Srirangapatna, the seat of the Vijayanagar Viceroy.
• During a short period of Mughal dominance, the kingdom adopted a Sultanate administrative style.
Following gaining independence from the British administration, the kingdom was included in the
Dominion of India.

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Zamorins
• Zamorin (Samoodiri) of Calicut is the hereditary royal title used by the Hindu rulers of the medieval

Kingdom of Calicut on Malabar Coast (present day Kerala).

• The Zamorins ruled for almost six centuries, between c. 12th and 18th century AD based at the city of
Calicut, the one of important trading centres in southern India.
• The Portuguese trader and navigator Vasco da Gama visited the Calicut in 1498, opening the sailing route
directly from Europe to India.

Hoysalaa
• Hoysalas were feudatories of chalukyas of Kalyana.

• Dwarasamudra(Halebeedu) was their capital.

• Sala was the founder of this dynasty.
• He was succeeded by Vinayaditya and Balalla 1.
• Vishnu Vardhana (Bittideva) was greatest in Hoysala dynasty.
• He completely routed Cholas from Gangavadi in battle of Talakadu, for this he got the title Talkadugonda.
• In commemoration of this victory he built kirtinarayana temple at Talakadu and Chennakesavar temple at
Beluru.

Religion:
• Hoysalas patronized Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Jainism.

• Vishnu Vardhana followed Jainism.

• He was influenced by Sri Ramanuja Charya and converted into Sri Vaishnavism. (remember we discussed
in Cholas history that Ramanuja Charya left Sri Rangam in Tamil Nadu and settled in Melkote, Karnataka).

Marathas
• Raigad was the capital of the Maratha Empire, which began as a small kingdom in western India.
• The famous Maratha Chief Shivaji Maharaj established a Hindavi-Swarajya by leading Marathas against
the Sultan of Bijapur (Adil Shahi Dynasty).
• Shivaji’s son, Sambhaji, was seized and executed by Aurangzeb’s army in Deccan, while his son, Shahu,
was taken, prisoner.
• Bahadur Shah I liberated Shahu in 1707, and the Marathas quickly established themselves.
• The states of Satara and Kolhapur were established, and Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath to the
position of Sena-Karte (Organizer of Forces). Later, the post of Peshwa, or Prime Minister, was created.

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• Balaji and his successors played a significant role in Maratha’s growth.

Geography

Willy
• Willy is a tropical cyclone of north-west Australia. Willy originates in the Timor Sea and causes
rainfall in different parts of Australia.

• The trees in the temperate regions are having broad leaves like oaks, maples, beeches,
shrubs, peninial herbs and mosses.
• Temperate forests mainly found in Eastern United States, Canada, Europe, China and Japan.
• Temperate deciduous forests are most notable because they go through four seasons:
Winter, Spring, Summer and fall.
• A sirocco is a hot desert wind that blows northward from the Sahara toward the Mediterrian
coast of Europe.
• Squall describes a sudden violent wind often accompanied by rain or snow.

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 The Lakshadweep Islands are located close to the Malabar Coast in the west. This set of small
Islands was earlier known as Laccadive, Mincoy and Amindive Islands. In 1973, it got changed
to a collective name Lakshadweep.
What is Montane Forest?
Montane forests are found on mountain slopes. Montane Forest is a type of mountain
ecosystem. It is influenced by the colder climate at moderate elevations. Dense forests are
common in these areas. Rainfall and a temperate climate cause natural vegetation to
changes in the Mountain Forest.
The forests found in the mountains are known as montane forests. Wet temperate forests
are found between 1000 and 2000 metres in elevation. Temperate forests and grasslands
give way to Alpine vegetation at high altitudes, generally more than 3,600 metres above sea
level.
Tibetan antelope, yak, spotted deer, wild sheep, snow leopard, squirrels, Kashmir stag,
jackrabbit, Shaggy horned wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair
are common animals found in these forests.
Montane Forests in India are characterised by a decrease in temperature with increasing
altitude which causes a change in natural vegetation in mountainous areas. Temperate
forests with coniferous trees such as pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce, and cedar can be found
between 1500 and 3000 metres. They primarily cover the southern slopes of the Himalayas,
as well as high-altitude areas in southern and northeastern India.
Montane Forest in India: Characteristics
Montane forests can be found in high-altitude areas such as the Himalayas. They are a
mountain ecosystem.
Some montane forest trees include deodar, pine, and cedar.
Because temperatures fall as elevation increases, the alpine climate in these regions has a
significant impact on the ecosystem.
Trees are conical in shape in these forests.
Temperate grasslands are common at higher elevations.
Temperate forests and grasslands give way to Alpine vegetation at high altitudes, generally
more than 3,600 metres above sea level.
The most common trees in these forests are silver fir, junipers, pines, and birches.
Because of the moderate temperatures and high rainfall, dense montane forests are
common at moderate elevations.
These are dense forests at moderate elevation.

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 At higher elevations, the vegetation transforms into tundra or grasslands.
Based on climate, this climate can be divided into three types: temperate, Mediterranean,
and tropical.
They are gradually stunned as they approach the snow and they are widely used by nomadic
tribes such as Gujjars and Bakarwals to pasture.
Types of Montane Forest in India
Temperate Mountain Forests
The northern middle (1801 to 3001 m) and southern Niligiri, which is higher than the upper
hills, are predominantly formed in these types of forests.
The production of this kind of forest demands around 201 cm of average yearly rainfall. Some
major highland, temperate forest areas are rhododendrons, ferns, oaks, maples, juniper,
deodar, chilgoza and many others.
Montane Subtropical Forest
Montane Subtropical Forests are generated mostly from the state of Assam, Nagaland,
Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, etc.
Subtropical poonspar, cannamon, rhododendron, sal, sand, laburnum, grenade, olive,
oleanders, etc., are some important trees of the mountain forest.
Conditions of climate change: The average temperature of the precipitation in the region is
about 100-200 cm and ranges from 15°C to 22°C.
Region: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh are found in North-
Western Himalayas (with the exception of Ladakh and Kashmir).
Wet Temperate Forests
These varieties of forest occur in regions of 150 cm – 300 cm, with average annual
precipitation ranging between 11 °C – 14 °C and an average relative humidity exceeding 80
per cent, at a height of 1800-3000 m above sea level.
Region: It is situated in Tamil Nadu and Kerala highlands to the East of the Eastern Himalayas
and is 88°E long, including West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Nagaland.
This range of roller coasts can also be seen.
Vegetation: The trees are rarely over 6 metres high. These are closed, evergreen woods in
which the trees are generally branchy and have a wide circle. The leaves are thick and round.
Branches of moose, fern and other epiphytes are covered in cloth. Woody mountaineers are
frequent.
Alpine Forest
These forests start to grow up in the region below the snowline at an altitude of over 3000
m.

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 Snow covering the land over five months every year varies from the Sub-Arctic to the Arctic
conditions. The plants are consequently stunted in the growing season. In summer, migratory
bovine pastures are grazed.
Vegetation: The vegetation generally consists of the black wolver, and the willow juniper; the
common trees are the honeysuckle and willow.
Elevation: The shift to Alpine forests and meadows takes place about 2.500-4.000 metres
above sea level. The vegetation not exceeding 1 m is common in low mountainous
grasslands.
Region: From Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh, subalpine woods range from about 2900 to
3500 metres. It is found both in the main Himalayan highlands and in the barren cold Tran
Himalayan deserts.

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