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Target Prelims Special Material

23-02-2024 1.
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Ancient India

Indian Rivers (North Western)

Indus River
✓ Indus River, Tibetan and Sanskrit Sindhu, Sindhi Sindhu or Mehran, great trans-Himalayan River of South

Asia.
✓ It is one of the longest rivers in the world, with a length of some 2,000 miles (3,200 km).
✓ Its total drainage area is about 450,000 square
miles (1,165,000 square km), of which 175,000
square miles (453,000 square km) lie in the ranges
and foothills of the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush, and
the Karakoram Range; the rest is in the semiarid
plains of Pakistan.
✓ The river’s annual flow is about 58 cubic miles
(243 cubic km)—twice that of the Nile River and three times that of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
combined.
✓ The river’s conventional name derives from the Tibetan and Sanskrit name Sindhu.
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✓ The earliest chronicles and hymns of the Indo-European-speaking peoples of ancient India, the Rigveda,
composed about 1500 BCE, mention the river, which is the source of the country’s name.
Jhelum
✓ Jhelum River, river of northwestern India and northern and

eastern Pakistan.
✓ It constitutes the westernmost of the five rivers of the Punjab
region that merge with the Indus River in eastern Pakistan.
Chenab
✓ Chenab River, river of the Indian subcontinent in northwestern

India and northeastern and eastern Pakistan.

✓ The Chenab is formed by the confluence of two streams, Chandra and Bhaga, in the western (Punjab)
Himalayas in India’s Himachal Pradesh state.

✓ It flows west through Jammu and Kashmir union territory—the Indian-administered portion of the
disputed Kashmir region)—between the steep cliffs of the Siwalik Range (south) and the Lesser Himalayas
(north).
✓ Ravi River, in northwestern India and northeastern Pakistan, one of the five tributaries of the Indus River
that give the Punjab (meaning “Five Rivers”) its name.
✓ It rises in the Himalayas in Himachal Pradesh state, India, and flows west-northwest past Chamba,
turning southwest at the boundary of Jammu and Kashmir union territory.
✓ The river then flows to the Pakistani border and along it for more than 50 miles (80 km) before entering
Pakistan’s Punjab province.
✓ It flows past Lahore and turns west near Kamalia, emptying into the Chenab River south of Ahmadpur
Sial after a course of about 450 miles (725 km).
Beas River
✓ Beas River, Beas also spelled Bias, ancient Greek Hyphasis, Sanskrit Vipasha, river in Himachal Pradesh
and Punjab states, northwestern India.
✓ It is one of the five rivers that give the Punjab (“Five Rivers”) its name.

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✓ The Beas rises at an elevation of 14,308 feet (4,361 metres) at Rohtang Pass in the western (Punjab)
Himalayas (a section of the vast Himalayas Mountain range), in central Himachal Pradesh.

✓ From there it flows south through the Kullu Valley, receiving tributaries from the flanking mountains,
and then turns west to flow past Mandi into the Kangra Valley.
✓ After crossing the valley, the Beas enters Punjab state and veers south and then southwest to its
confluence with the Sutlej River at Harike after a course of about 290 miles (470 km).
✓ The Beas River was the approximate eastern limit of Alexander the Great’s invasion of India in 326 BCE.

Medieval India

Delhi Sultans
Balban
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, the Sultan of Delhi from 1266 to 1287 AD, was one of the most powerful Sultans of
the Middle Ages. He rose to power, like his master Iltutmish, and became the Sultan of Delhi. Balban was a
member of Iltutmish’s famed group of 40 Turkic slaves. After thirty years of near-anarchy since the days of
iltutmish, he restored peace and order to the kingdom, as well as the sultan’s power and dignity.
• Balban, like his master Iltutmish, was born into a Turkish family.

• He was abducted by the Mongols when he was young and sold to Khwaja Jamal-ud-din, a slave dealer.

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• He carried him to Delhi, where Iltutmish bought him.
• Iltutmish was so pleased by Balban’s knowledge and talent that he enrolled him in the legendary army of
the forty slaves during his stay in Delhi.
• Balban was raised to the position of Amir-i-Shikar (Lord of the Hunt) under the reign of Raziya Sultana.
• In the beginning, he was devoted to Raziya. Later, he teamed up with the nobles and successfully
removed Raziya Sultana from the throne of Delhi.
• The succeeding Sultan, Bahram Shah, rewarded him with the Jagir of Rewari and Hansi in exchange for
his loyalty.
• During Bahram Shah’s reign, he successfully resisted a Mongol invasion as a famous warrior.
• He was a kingmaker and he played a role in the deposition of Masud and the ascension of Nasir-uddin
Mahmud to the throne of Delhi.
• Nasir-ud-din rewarded him by appointing him as the Principal adviser of the Sultan and married to his
daughter.

Ala-ud-din Khalji
• Allaudin Khilji (1296–1316 AD) was a Turco-Afghan monarch of the Khalji dynasty who governed the
Delhi Sultanate in the Indian subcontinent.

• He was the most prominent ruler of the Khilji Dynasty. He was also known as Ali Gurshasp.
• Alauddin implemented a number of key administrative reforms in the areas of revenue, price controls,
and society. • He ascended to the throne by killing Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji. To consolidate his power, he
assassinated Firoz Khilji’s entire family after becoming Sultan.
• His main focus now was on expanding his empire and improving his administration.
• Alauddin Khilji was the nephew and son-in-law of his predecessor Jalaluddin Khilji.
• After Jalaluddin deposed the Mamluks and became Sultan of Delhi, Alauddin was awarded the title of
Amir-i-Tuzuk. • He was appointed governor of Kara in 1291 after suppressing a revolt against Jalaluddin
and governor of Awadh in 1296, following a successful expedition on Bhilsa.

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• Alauddin stormed Devagiri in 1296 and looted enough to organize a successful insurrection against
Jalaluddin.
• Following Firoz Khilji’s death in 1296 AD, Ali Gurshap declared himself sultan of Manikpur under the
name Alauddin Khilji.
• He solidified his dominance in Delhi after executing Jalaluddin’s sons in Multan.
• He defeated the Mongols near the Ravi riverbed in 1306, and thereafter ransacked the Mongol territory
in modern-day Afghanistan.
• Zafar Khan, Ulugh Khan, and his slave-general Malik Kafur were among the military commanders who
successfully commanded his army against the Mongols.
• Yamin-ul-Khilafat, Nasir-e-amir-ul-momini, and Sikander-e sani were among his many titles.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351.

• He was the eldest son of Ghiyas-ud-Din-Tughlaq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. In 1321 and 1323,
Ghiyas-ud-din sent the young Muhammad to the Deccan to campaign against King Prataparudra of the
Kakatiya dynasty, whose capital was at Warangal.

• During his reign, Muhammad is said to have ordered the massacre of all the inhabitants of Kannauj, a
Hindu city.
• He is also known for his wild policy swings. After his father died in 1325, Muhammad ascended to the
Delhi throne. • In AD 1325, Jauna Khan succeeded his father as Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• He was one of the most knowledgeable scholars of his time. He spoke Arabic and Persian and was well-
versed in philosophy, astronomy, logic, mathematics, and physical science.
• The Sultan maintained good relations with foreigners, and the Chinese ruler sent an envoy to him.
• Toghan Timur (AD 1341) came to seek permission to rebuild Buddhist monasteries destroyed during the
critical expedition in the Himalayan region.

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• In 1347, the sultan granted permission and dispatched Ibn Batuta to the court of the Chinese emperor.
• Ibn Batutah was a Moroccan traveller. In 1333, he arrived in India and was appointed as the chief Qazi of
Delhi by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
• He has left an invaluable account of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s reign.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

• Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq was a Tughlaq dynasty Muslim ruler of
Turkic origin who ruled over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to
1388.
• Following the death of his cousin Muhammad bin Tughlaq at
Thatta in Sindh, where Muhammad bin Tughlaq had gone in pursuit
of Taghi, the ruler of Gujarat, he succeeded him.
• For the first time in the history of the Delhi Sultanate, a situation
arose in which no one was willing to accept power.
• Firoz Shah relied heavily on his commander, Malik Maqbul (who
accepted Islam after he was arrested).
• Sultan used to address him as khan-i-jahan, which meant “true ruler.” When Firoz Shah went on
expeditions, Malik acted as ruler.
• He chose not to reconquer territories that had seceded in order to prevent other regions from gaining
autonomy.

• He made numerous imperative concessions to the scholars and boycotted practises that the mainstream
scholars deemed un-Islamic.
• He forbade Muslim females from visiting holy people’s graves to pray.
• He is accused of mistreating various Muslim groups deemed unorthodox by scholars.
• Firoz provided the armed forces with the principle of inheritance. Officers were allowed to relax and
enjoy themselves while their children were sent to the army in their place.
• Officers were not paid in cash, but rather through town land revenue. This novel method of instalment
resulted in numerous misunderstandings.

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• He demolished Hindu temples, as well as their books and literature. The Islamic literature has been
translated into either Sanskrit or Persian.

Modern India

Lord Dalhousie
• Lord Dalhousie was born to George Ramsay (9th Earl of Dalhousie) and his wife, James Andrew Broun-
Ramsay. The family had Scottish ancestors.
• He attended Harrow School and Oxford’s Christ Church College.
• When he was elected to the House of Commons in 1837, he became active in politics.
• On January 12, 1848, he was named Governor-General of India and Governor of Bengal.
• The consolidation of British dominance was Dalhousie’s main goal in India. He had a reputation for being
a hard worker who was also autocratic and aggressive.
• His assessment has sparked some debate. He was in charge of
bringing a number of modern changes in India, including
railways, telegraph and postal networks, and public works.
During his reign, the Ganga Canal was built.
• But he is best known for his Doctrine of Lapse doctrine, which
many believe was directly responsible for the 1857 Indian Revolt.
• Despite the Doctrine, Lord Dalhousie is often regarded as the
“Maker of Modern India.”
• In India, Lord Dalhousie established a number of Anglo-
vernacular schools. He also instituted social changes, such as the prohibition of female infanticide.
• He was a fervent believer in western administrative changes, believing that they were both essential and
preferable to Indian methods.
• He also built engineering institutions to supply resources for each presidency’s newly established public
works department.
In addition, he restructured the military. He outlawed the practice of criminals being branded. He also
increased the size of India’s Legislative Council. He modernized the civil service by instituting an open
recruitment method.
• Dalhousie attempted to alter the method of land income collection. Many landlords had portions of their
estates taken away, while many landholders had their whole landholding taken away. This was significant
because many sepoys came from this socioeconomic group.

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• Many Indian soldiers were displeased with the company’s rule because of his conquest of states like
Satara, Oudh, and Jhansi through the Doctrine of Lapse.
• Through wars with the local rulers, Dalhousie oversaw the acquisition of Punjab and parts of Burma.
During his presidency, the Second Anglo-Sikh War was fought.
• After nearly eight years as Governor-General of India, he returned to Britain in March 1856. A year later,
the Indian Mutiny broke out, and Dalhousie was chastised for his actions in India.
• Dalhousie, a highland station in Himachal Pradesh, was named after him. It began as a summer resort for
English civil and military authorities in 1854.
Significant Events under Lord Dalhousie
• During Lord Dalhousie's reign, a separate Lieutenant Governor was created for the Bengal Presidency in

order to relieve the Governor-General of India of the burden of local administration.

• Under the provisions of the Charter Act of 1853, Fredrick J Halliday was appointed First Lieutenant
Governor-General of Bengal.

• Shimla, a cool hill town, was designated as the British Empire's summer capital.
• The army's artillery headquarters were relocated from Calcutta to Meerut. Shimla was chosen as the
new location for the army headquarters.
• Gurkha regiments were established under Lord Dalhousie's reign.
• The postal system was upgraded, and Telegraph lines were built to connect all of the major cities.
• Wood's Dispatch of 1854 was a significant change during this time.
Reforms under Lord Dalhousie
Administrative
• Until recently, the governor-general was in charge of not just the entire British territory in India, but also
the administration of the province of Bengal. As a result, he was swamped with work.
• Dalhousie appointed a lieutenant governor to oversee Bengal administration, freeing the governor-
general to concentrate on all-India matters.

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• In the same way that the newly gained territories were entrusted to the custody of Commissioners in the
case of Punjab, the newly acquired territories were also entrusted to the charge of Commissioners.
Military
• The British territory in India had reached its natural borders by that time, and Calcutta was no longer its
center. As a result, Dalhousie believed it was important to concentrate the Company's military resources in
one location.
• Lord Dalhousie made Simla the army's headquarters and arranged for the soldiers and their equipment
to be moved there, a process that was finally completed in 1865.
• Calcutta's artillery, on the other hand, was transferred to Meerut.
• Dalhousie also believed that the number of Indian soldiers in the army had expanded disproportionately
in comparison to the number of English soldiers, posing a threat to the empire's security at any time.
• As a result, he made an endeavor to boost the number of English soldiers. Three new English army
regiments were established.
• He established a Sikh force in Punjab under British officers and used Gurkhas in the Indian army. His
actions undoubtedly aided the English in defeating the 1857 uprising.
Education
• Dalhousie approved a number of legislation affecting primary education in 1853.
• Sir Charles Wood, the president of the Board of Control, gave him instructions on education in India in
1854.
• It was proposed that schools and colleges be created in each region, as well as a university in each
Presidency town, namely Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.
• It was also suggested that the government encourage private businesses and individuals to open schools
and universities that would be subsidized by the government.
• In addition, each district would have an Inspector of Schools and each province would have a Director of
Education. Dalhousie made every effort to put these proposals into practice as much as possible.
• Examining universities were established in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, as well as an Engineering and
Agriculture college in Roorkee.
Railways, Telegraphs, and Postal Services

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• In India, Dalhousie established railways, telegraphs, and postal facilities. These were deemed important
for the Empire's defense as well as improved commercial opportunities.
• During his reign, a plan was developed to build railway lines connecting all parts of India, and work on
the project began. The railway connecting Bombay and Thane was completed in 1853.
• Another railway line was built from Calcutta to Raniganj, a coal-producing district in Bihar. In Bihar,
certain railway lines were also built.
• In 1852, the Telegraph Department was established. The Telegraphs covered about four thousand miles.
Telegraphs connected Calcutta to Peshawar, Bombay to Madras, and other key cities to one another.
• On the proposal of a Commission, the Post Office Act was passed in 1854. The postal department was
organized under a Director-General, and post offices were created in a variety of locations.
• It was set up in such a way that a two-paise (half-anna) postcard may be dispatched from one area of
India to another.
Public Works Department
• The Public Works Department was administered by military boards before the Dalhousie period. For this
reason, Dalhousie formed a distinct department.
• The Public Works Department was tasked with building roads, canals, bridges, and other infrastructure.
• The Grand Trunk Road from Calcutta to Peshawar was restored under Dalhousie's reign.
• The Ganges Canal, Punjab's canals, and several bridges over various rivers were built.
Trade
• Dalhousie was a staunch supporter of English trade and business.

• Certain raw resources were imported from India by the United Kingdom.
• Cotton and tea were two of the most important. As a result, Dalhousie took all precautions possible to
ensure the output of cotton and tea.
• He also followed a free-trade strategy, opening all Indian ports to British goods without charge and
expanding the docks at the ports of Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.
Doctrine of Lapse
•Dalhousie introduced the Doctrine of Lapse, which said that in the absence of a natural heir, Indian states'

sovereignty lapsed to the British, and monarchs could not

adopt a son to succeed.
• This doctrine was not created by Dalhousie. Adoption after
the death of natural heirs "should be the exception, not the
rule," the Company's Directors decided in 1844, "and should
only be granted as a particular mark of favor or approval."

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• Upon the death of natural heirs, the supreme power is transferred to the next in line. In fact, it was a
way Dalhauise considered expedient to expand the Company's territory.
• Dalhousie only applied this approach to dependent states. Dependent states were one of three types of

states.
• Those kings who refused to pay homage to the British and accepted British supremacy in India were
under independent States.
• Those States and Rajas that acknowledged British supremacy and paid regular tribute were called
protected allies. • Those Rajas and Chieftains who were established or installed on the throne by the
British Government were called dependent States.
• The business had to approve the adoption of a son to succeed the king. Permission was granted at the
whim of the British. The third category couldn't adopt a son at all.
Legacy of Lord Dalhousie
• As a result, Lord Dalhousie implemented reforms in a variety of administrative areas.
• Dalhousie has been lauded by British historians, who have placed him among the great governors-
general dispatched from Britain to India.
• "As an imperial administrator, Dalhousie has never been surpassed and hardly equaled by any of the
distinguished men whom England has sent forth to govern India," wrote Sir Richard Temple.
• It should not be forgotten, however, that Dalhousie was an imperialist.
• In India, he accomplished many things, but his principal goal was to protect and consolidate the British
empire. He was unconcerned about the Indians' wishes and feelings.
• As a result, after his departure from India in 1857, they responded angrily to the British administration.
Many experts believe that Lord Dalhousie was also responsible for the uprising of 1857.

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