DEFINITION OF MEMORY

Memory is the electronic holding place for the instructions and data a computer
needs to reach quickly.

Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information
and instructions. It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. It can store both the
input and output can be stored here.

Memory types

1.Semiconductor memories
-Electronic semiconductor memory technology can be split into two main types or
categories, according to the way in which the memory operates:
RAM – Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM)is the best known form of computer memory. The
Read and write (R/W) memory of a computer is called RAM. The User can
write information to it and read information from it.
The RAM is a volatile memory, it means information written to it can be accessed
as long as power is on. As soon as the power is off, it can not be accessed. so this
mean RAM computer memory essentially empty.RAM holds data and processing
instructions temporarily until the CPU needs it. Scratchpad storage in memory
space is used for the temporary storage of data.

ROM – Read Only Memory

Read only memory (ROM) is an example of nonvolatile memory. ROM is a class
of storage medium used in computers and other electronic devices. Read Only
Memory (ROM), also known as firmware, is an integrated circuit
programmed with specific data when it is manufactured. The instructions for
starting the computer are housed on Read only memory chip.
Flash memory: Flash memory may be considered as a development of EEPROM
technology. Data can be written to it and it can be erased, although only in blocks,
but data can be read on an individual cell basis. To erase and re-programme areas
of the chip, programming voltages at levels that are available within electronic
equipment are used. It is also non-volatile, and this makes it particularly useful. As
a result Flash memory is widely used in many applications including memory
cards for digital cameras, mobile phones, computer memory sticks and many other
applications.

Semiconductor memory technologies

Rom
PROM: This stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is
a semiconductor memory which can only have data written to it once – the data
written to it is permanent. These memories are bought in a blank format and they
are programmed using a special PROM programmer. Typically a PROM will
consist of an array of fuse able links some of which are “blown” during the
programming process to provide the required data pattern.

EPROM: This is an Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This form

of semiconductor memory can be programmed and then erased at a later time. This
is normally achieved by exposing the silicon to ultraviolet light. To enable this to
happen there is a circular window in the package of the EPROM to enable the light
to reach the silicon of the chip. When the PROM is in use, this window is normally
covered by a label, especially when the data may need to be preserved for an
extended period.

EEPROM: This is an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.

Data can be written to it and it can be erased using an electrical voltage. This is
typically applied to an erase pin on the chip. Like other types of PROM, EEPROM
retains the contents of the memory even when the power is turned off. Also like
other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM.
RAM
DRAM: Dynamic RAM is a form of random access memory. DRAM uses
a capacitor to store each bit of data, and the level of charge on each capacitor
determines whether that bit is a logical 1 or 0. However these capacitors do not
hold their charge indefinitely, and therefore the data needs to be refreshed
periodically

SRAM: Static Random Access Memory. This form of semiconductor

memory gains its name from the fact that, unlike DRAM, the data does not need to
be refreshed dynamically. It is able to support faster read and write times than
DRAM (typically 10 ns against 60 ns for DRAM), and in addition its cycle time is
much shorter because it does not need to pause between accesses.

SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM. This form of semiconductor memory can run at

faster speeds than conventional DRAM. It is synchronised to the clock of the
processor and is capable of keeping two sets of memory addresses open
simultaneously. By transferring data alternately from one set of addresses, and then
the other, SDRAM cuts down on the delays associated with non-synchronous
RAM, which must close one address bank before opening the next.

MRAM: This is Magneto-resistive RAM, or Magnetic RAM. It is a non-volatile

RAM memory technology that uses magnetic charges to store data instead of
electric charges. Unlike technologies including DRAM, which require a constant
flow of electricity to maintain the integrity of the data, MRAM retains data even
when the power is removed. An additional advantage is that it only requires low
power for active operation. As a result this technology could become a major
player in the electronics industry now that production processes have been
developed to enable it to be produced.

2.Magnetic memories
a.Magnetic grum
What Does Magnetic Drum Mean?
A magnetic drum is a magnetic storage device used in many early computers as the
main working memory, similar to how modern computers use random access
memory (RAM) cards. In some cases, magnetic drum memory was also used for
secondary storage. It is basically a metal cylinder that is coated with a magnetic
iron-oxide material where the changing magnetic polarities are used to store data
on its surface, similar to how modern disk drives use magnetism to store and
retrieve data.

he magnetic drum was invented by Gustav Tauschek in Austria in 1932, but it was
only in the 1950s to 60s that it gained wide use as the main memory for computers,
and to an extent, secondary storage. The main storage area of the magnetic drum is
the metal cylinder coated with a ferromagnetic layer.
Magnetic core memory
magnetic-core memory, also called core memory or magnetic-core storage, any of
a class of computer memory devices consisting of a large array of tiny toruses of a
hard magnetic material that can be magnetized in either of two directions. The two
directions can represent either of the values, 0 or 1, in a binary bit. Magnetic-core
memory entered widespread use in the 1950s and was supplanted
by semiconductor memory chips in the 1970s

magnetic tapes
Magnetic Tape memory :
In magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data. It is sequential
memory which contains thin plastic ribbon to store data and coated by magnetic
oxide. Data read/write speed is slower because of sequential access. It is highly
reliable which requires magnetic tape drive writing and reading data
 Magnetic disk
A magnetic disk is a storage device that can be assumed as the shape of a
Gramophone record. This disk is coated on both sides with a thin film of Magnetic
material. This magnetic material has the property that it can store either ‘1’ or ‘0]
permanently. The magnetic material has square loop hysteresis (curve) which can
remain in one out of two possible directions which correspond to binary ‘1’ or ‘0’.
Bits are saved in the magnetized surface in marks along concentric circles known
as tracks. The tracks are frequently divided into areas known as sectors.
In this system, the lowest quantity of data that can be sent is a sector. The
subdivision of one disk surface into tracks and sectors is displayed in the figure.
Advantages of Magnetic Disk
Access time − With a magnetic disk, it is achievable to access a record explicitly.
Therefore access time is less in this case.
Flexibility − Magnetic disk has to be the flexibility of being used as a sequential as
well as direct access storage device.
Transmission Speed − The rate of data transfer is fast in a magnetic disk.
Reusable − It can remove a specific data and save another data at the same place.
Storage Capacity − It can store a very large amount of data.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Disk
Cost − The cost of per character storage is much higher as compared to magnetic
tape.
Non-Portability − Portability of it is very less as compared to magnetic tape.
Limited size record − Duration of record which can be saved on it is limited by the
size of disk track or disk sector.
Non-human readable − Data stored on it is not in human-readable form, therefore
manual encoding is not possible at all.

3.Optical storage
A.Magneto Optical Disk
A magneto-optical disk is a rewritable disk that makes use of both magnetic disk
and optical technologies. It is similar to a magnetic diskette except for its larger
size. Magneto-optical disks are seldom manufactured and used due to the advent of
flash drives and DVD/CD drives, which are less expensive and have better writing
time and reliability
The magneto-optical disk has the following features:
It is capable of having high data intensity by means of a magnetic read/write head
and a laser.
Like diskettes, the magneto-optical disk allows multiple rewrites.
The driver for a magneto-optical disk can verify the information written to the disk
and will report any errors to the operating system. This often results in faster
reading but slower writing, although it helps make data storage more reliable.
The magneto-optical disk is a special removable disk.
The design of the drive allows the inserted disk to be exposed to the magnetic head
on one side and to the laser on the other side.
Its writing speed is faster than that of diskettes, but is slower than that of CD/DVD
drives.

Convenience and reliability are much better than those of diskettes, along with
high data capacity.

b.Holo-graphic Storage
What is Holographic Storage?
Holographic data storage is a high information storage volume technology that
empowers information storage by making holographic pictures of every data
instance on a bolstered medium. It depends on the comparable idea of optical
storage gadgets however it empowers the utilization of a single storage volume to
store a lot of information. It is also known as Three-Dimensional (3-D) Storage.
Holographic media is split into write-once (irreversible change), and rewritable
media (change is reversible). Rewritable holographic storage can be accomplished
through the photorefractive impact in crystals.
This memory framework comprises of the accompanying: a blue-green argon laser,
beam splitters, reflectors, an LCD board, lenses, lithium-niobite crystal, and a
charge-coupled device camera.
Applications of Holographic Data Storage: –
Data Mining : Data mining is the way toward finding patterns in a lot of
information. Data mining is utilized extraordinarily in enormous databases which
hold potential patterns which can’t be recognized by human eyes because of the
huge measure of information. Some present PC frameworks execute data mining,
however, the mass measure of capacity required is pushing the limits of the current
data storage system. The numerous advances in access times and data storage
capacity that holographic memory gives could surpass conventional storage and
accelerate data mining considerably. This would result in increasingly found
patterns in a shorter measure of time.
Petaflop Computing : A Petaflop is a thousand trillion gliding operations per
second. The quick access in the exceptionally big amount of information given by
holographic memory frameworks could be used in petaflop architecture. Plainly
advances are required in more than memory systems, however, the hypothetical
schematics do exist for such a machine. Optical capacity, for example, holographic
memory gives a feasible answer for the outrageous measure of information which
is required for petaflop computing.
Holographic memory can be utilized as expanded DRAM with 10ns access time,
Hard disk drives, CD ROMs of huge storage volume and rock mounted of
petabytes storage volume.