The external anatomy of plants, the structure and

accompanying functions of each external organ

Monocotyledons vs Dicotyledons

Monocots Dicots
seed Embryo has one cotyledon
- -
Embryo has 2 cotyledons
L Parallel venation
- -
Reticulate (branched) venation
L -
Stomata top and bottom of leaf - Some only has stomata on one surface
I -Flower parts in multiples of 3 -
Flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5
R Fibrous root system
- -
Taproot system
S Flexible, green stems
- -
Flexible and green OR rigid and wooden
seed
1 seed leaf
-
-
2 seedleaves
S -
Vascular tissue scattered (stem) -
Vascular bundle arranged in a ring (stem)

seeds seeds

flowers flowers

leaves leaves

Stem cross section

cotyledons
 single
cotyledon

dicot

Additional resource
• https://rsscience.com/monocot-vs-dicot-plants/

The vascular systems Ge

The flowering plants have vascularRedsystems, which function like the blood vessels that can bring
water
Blue
and nutrients to every cell. Xylene transports water unidirectionally from the roots.
Phloem carries nutrients made from photosynthesis (typical from the leaves) to the parts of the
plant where need nutrients.
Vascular bundles are organized in two distinct ways - This is one of the features that separates
the flowering plants into two groups: monocots and dicots.

Vascular systems in Monocot

Monocot stems have vascular bundles scattered throughout the plant interior (some have a
hollow center). As the plant grows, monocot stems generate new vascular bundles for the new
tissue. The ground tissue is the tissue neither vascular nor dermal tissue in the monocot.

Vascular systems in Dicot

In the dicot stem, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring, with pith concentrated at the
core of the stem. As the plant grows, existing bundles grow larger. The cambium, specifically
in dicots, is the main growth tissue in the stem; it produces xylene inward and phloem outward.
In some mature woody dicots, the vascular bundles join together to form continuous rings
around the interior of the stem.
 Plant external structure (anatomy)

flower-carry sexual
out

reproduction in plants through

the formation of male B female
gametes -
form seeds

Seeds -

protect's
nourish the
embryo
or
young plant.

leaf-change sunlightinto energy

through photosynthesis. Primary food
making part of the plant. Absorb CO2
from the air's
release or into the air.

stem-support the
leaves, conduct
water and minerals to the leaves

and these products from

transport
the leaves to other parts of the

plant (roots).
Roots, absorb water and
conduction of these to the stem,
dissolve minerals is and

of reserve foods.
storage

Terminal bud-causes the shoot to grow

longer.
Auxilary bud-give rise to a shoot

that may be
vegetative branch)
or reproductive (flower).
Interode-blood vessels that
carry water, hormones, and
food from node to node.

Node-structure responsible for attaching the petiole to them stem.

Terminal bud scar-determine the age of a
twig or limb
by counting
the scars back from the tip.
 Stamen- male reproductive
organs flowering
of
plants -

transmits water is
nutrients

to the anther is positions it to

aid pollen dispersal

Anther-produce disperse pollen.

filament-carry nutrients to the anther for the development of the

anther pollen grains

is

Petal attract insects for to protect

pollination's the reproductive organs
Sepal-encloses is
protects the
developing reproductive structures.

defensive organ.
Stigma-female part of the plant - the part where the pollen lands is
starts the fertilization process.

Style-generates the pollen tube but also prevents incompatible pollen

from entering the
ovary.

Ovary -

prepare
the ovulesfor fertilization, protect
developing zygotes,
develop into a
seed-bearing fruit.
Pistil-female reproductive structure ofthe flower-support the pollination
process, which ultimately leads to fertilization.

External Anatomy of Plants

Parts of EVERY flowering plant

Leaves
• Variety shapes & sizes
Stems:
These are visible differences between
• Nodes & Internodes
plants: such as size, shape and colours
• Auxiliary & Terminal buds
of the roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
Roots
fruits and seeds
• Taproot & fibrous roots
Flowers
• Petals, sepals, stamens & carpel (pistil)
Seeds
• Variety of shapes & sizes
Fruits
• Variety of shapes, sizes, colour & taste
Reproduction cycle of plants -
don't have to know in depth

Remember that plants also have life/reproduction cycles

just as animals do.

Specific adaptations of plants

Xerophytes Hydrophytes
• Plants adapted to dry conditions • Plants adapted to very wet conditions
• Thick waxy layer • Big broad leaves
• Sunken stomata or under • Thin or no cuticle
• Small leaves (cactus) • Roots only for anchorage (Tap root)
• Wide shallow root system
• Ability to remain dormant until rain

Other Also look at plant that have air roots

• Bright flowers and their adaptations
• Sweet flowers
• Long Stems (rainforest)
• Seeds shaped to distribute in the wind
• Thorns for protection
• Poison

Internal tissue organisation in plants

Epidermis (protect)
• Boundary between plant and external environment
• Gaseous exchange and protection against water loss
• Specialised in root hairs and guard cells

Meristematic Tissue (growth)

• Tips of roots and stems
• Undifferentiated
• Growth
Ground Tissue collenchyma
paranchyma
sclevenchyma
Parencyma Support
B Support

8.
Thin walls
Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
⑧ Dead supporting tissue
⑨
Support
⑧ Thickened secondary wall (hard)
⑧ Thickening of cell walls in

③ Non growing regions of plant

corners

Vascular bundles (transport)

Phloem sieve tubes and companion cells Xylem Trachieds & Vessels

Roots

Cross section of a dicot root Cross section of a monocot root

Stems
 Cross section of a Leaf

Water uptake and transport in plants

Notes from YouTube video
Transport of water in plants
1. Starts with water in soil
2. into the roots through the root hairs (help with water absorption) osmosis
3. Root cortex (stem)
4. into the xylem (water transporting to) capillary action
5. Leaves transpiration
6. Escapes into the surrounding through the small opening in the leaf known as stomata

Movement of water from soil to roots

I Root hair
 Root hair is a long epidermis cell with a tip - the tip is
the hair - the hair is an extension of the cell - not a
cellular structure
Functions of root hair cell - increases the surface area
for the absorption of water and mineral ions. Provide a
strong anchor for the plant
Epidermis layer contains a specialised cell known as root
hair cell
Cortical cells are parenchyma cells that are loosely
arranged - in between them there are inter cellular spaces - this layer represents the cortex
Endodermis - in between this endodermis is casporian strip
Main vessels of the plant - xylem

How water moves into the roots

⑮ Oil particles are covered by a thin layer of water which

is more hypertonic as compared to the root hair cell.

More hypertonic= there are more water molecules
therefore higher water potential
⑧ The water diffuses from the soil into the root hair down

is concentration gradient through a process called

osmosis
③
Osmosis - movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential to low water
potential through a partially permeable membrane
⑧ As the water moves into the root hair cell, the solution inside the root hair cell has become
more dilute (more hypertonic - higher water potential). There is now a concentration gradient
between the root hair cell and the adjacent root cell which is more hypotonic so water will
move from the root hair cell into the adjacent cell by osmosis.
⑧ This pattern will continue under until the water reaches the xylem vessel within the root.

How water is being transported along the xylem

vessel
8.
water can move continuously upward in the xylem
because of the two properties of the water molecule -
The cohesion force which is the attraction between
water molecules (this force will keep the water
molecules together) and the adhesion force which is the
force between The water molecule and the walls of the xylem (Will allow the water to stick to
the walls of the xylem). This is known as capillary action. By using this capillary action, The
water is able to crawl up a narrow tube and therefore the plant can force the water up from
the roots to the stem and to the rest of the plant in a continuous stream.

Movement of water from the leaves to the

atmosphere
We look at the different layers of the cells
in the leaf - top layer is called epidermis,
followed by mesophyll cells which are the
parenchyma cells (these cells are loosely
arranged And they are not as spongy as
mesophyll cells). In between the spongy
mesophyll cells, there are plenty airspaces.
Next is in lower epidermis (this has a small
opening known as stoma).
During the day, the heat from the Sun will cause the water to evaporate on the walls of the
spongy mesophyll cells. This water vapour will accumulate in the air spaces between the cells.
This will create a high concentration of water molecules in the air spaces as compared to the
atmosphere. The water vapour will diffuse out of the leaf through the stomata into the
atmosphere by the process known as diffusion. A combination of these two processes are known
as transpiration.

Because the uppermost cell losing water through transpiration, The water will move from the
xylem, along the chain of cells into the mesophyll cells by osmosis. This will create a pulling
force into the water column known as transpiration up - this will draw the water up the xylem.

Remember transpiration is the evaporation of water at the surface of mesophyll cells followed
by the loss of water vapour through diffusion so it is a combination of evaporation and diffusion

Water transport and mineral translocation

Recap:
 Water transport from root to leaf & Translocation of nutrients
• Adhesion
• Cohesion

Uptake and Transport

• Passive transport- little to no energy used (high to low concertation - diffusion)
• Active transport – high energy used (against concentration gradient (solutes) - osmosis)
• Absorption
⑧
Mostly active transport
Selective (only what needed)
⑦

Translocation
Transport of a dissolved substance within an organism – from source to sink, e.g. phloem.
⑧
Movement of phloem sap from where it is produced (source) to where it is needed (sink),
by means of active pressure flow

Tonicity of cells
Hypertonic cell
• less water in cell – more around it (hypotonic solution) – figure a

Hypotonic cell (hypertonic solution)

• more water in cell than around it

Isotonic (figure b)
• equilibrium
Tonicity is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient; the relative concentration
of solutes dissolved in solution which determine the direction and extent of H2O movement

Water moves toward areas of high salt or sugar concentration

 Types of solutions
Diffusion = movement of solute Notes from YouTube video
Tonicity demonstration

Osmosis = movement of water. Represents the diffusion of water across a semipermeable

membrane .
Tonicity = refers to the relative solute concentrations of two environments separated by a
semipermeable membrane. by comparing the tonicity of the solution - you can determine the
direction in which osmosis will occur.

What is a solution?
A solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution. Water in most cases is the solvent

Isotonic
Iso = same, tonic = strength
A solution is isotonic to a cell if it has the same concentration of solutes (and water) as the
cell. Equal amount of solutes inside and outside the cell = same strength. Equal amounts of
water enter and exit the cell, so the size stays constant. Normal in and out of water- water is
going to freely go in and out. Normal conditions for an animal cell - isotonic solution. If you
put a plant cell in a isotonic solution - water will move in and out freely (flaccid cell) - not
ideal for the plant.

Hypertonic
Hyper = more, tonic = strength
A solution is hypertonic if it has more solutes (less water) than a cell. A more concentrated
solution. Example salt. More water exits a cell, causing the cell to shrivel or even die. The water
is exiting the cell and trying to dilute the hypertonic solution on the outside to make both the
inside and outside of the cell equal. Water leaves the cell to dilute the solution on the outside.
If you put plant cells in a hypertonic solution , The water will rush out and it will plasma lise
(plasmolysis) - same principle as shrivelling.
 Hypotonic
Hypo = less, tonic = strength
A solution is hypotonic if it has fewer solutes (more water) than a cell. more solute on the
inside. More water enters a cell, causing the cell to swell (like a hippo) or even burst. More
solute in the cell therefore water is going to want to rush into the cell to make the solution
equal. Plants work differently -they get filled up with water and they don't burst . The cell
wall holds it and there is a increase in turgor pressure (cell called turgid). The more the
pressure the better it can reach for some light.

To demonstrate how toxicity affects a cell, we place some red blood cells into a beaker
containing pure water. In this case, the solute concentration ( tonicity ) is greater inside the
cells than in the solution (surrounding water). In other words, the contents of the cells are
hypertonic in relation to the hypotonic content of the beaker. because of this, osmotic pressure
results in the diffusion of water across the membrane and into the cells. Over time, if enough
water enters the cells, The cell membranes may burst. This is called lysis.
Now we place the red blood cells in a beaker containing a solution of salt, such as sodium
chloride. Since the contents of the beaker are hypertonic in relation to the interior of the cells,
The water within the cells will diffuse across the membrane and into the contents of the
beaker. this causes crenation or shrinking of the cells.
If the red blood cells are placed in a beaker whose contents match the tonicity within the
cells, then there is no net gain or loss of water. The environments within the beaker and inside
the cells are said to be isotonic, or the same. The tonicity of the solution is the same as the
tonicity in the cells

Photosynthesis & Cellular respiration

Photosynthesis
3. Take note of the products needed for photosynthesis to

take place, as well as the new products produces by this

process
 Cellular respiration
. Take note of the products needed for cell
respiration to take place, as well as the new
products produces by this process

The two complimentary processes

③ Take note that the one process is the reverse of the

other
⑪ Very important to have a balanced equation

Photosynthesis vs Cellular respiration

The waste product of photosynthesis is used in cellular respiration and the waste product of
cellular respiration is used for fuel in photosynthesis
Plants get their energy using a process called photosynthesis. In order for photosynthesis to
take place, a plant needs water (e.g. rainstorm), carbon dioxide (found in the atmosphere) and
sunlight.
Plants have small openings called stomata on their surfaces, Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
enter these tiny openings and travel to the chloroplast. Photosynthesis occur at these
chloroplasts which are small organelles that plants have. The plants take the CO2 + water and
energy from the sun and in a chemical reaction create sugar in the form of glucose and then
some oxygen which it releases into the atmosphere. Sugar created in the chemical reaction is
called photosynthesis used by the plant to create energy.
Photosynthesis - the process by which plants and other items make food. it is a chemical
process that uses sunglight to turn CO2 and water into sugars that the cell use as energy
Cellular respiration is important because living organisms including plants generate energy for
their daily activities using cellular respiration
Cellular respiration takes place at the mitochondria
Mitochondria -the power plant for cells
At the mitochondria, the sugar combines with oxygen to produce CO2, water, and energy in the
form of ATP.

Cycle repeats

Experiment: test leaf for starch

Leaves of plants produce glucose through photosynthesis
The excess glucose is then converted into starch which is the reserved food material in
plants.
Need leaf, boiling water, alcohol, iodine solution, test tube.
Take a leaf from a plant that has been exposed to sunlight for several hours
Place the leaf in boiling water - this will kill the leaf, disrupt the cell membrane and soften
the cell walls allowing the iodine to enter the calls and react.
Put the leaf in a test tube and cover it with alcohol
Keep the test tube in the boiling water
The chlorophyll slowly dissolves into the alcohol
Nate that alcohol tums green
Removal of chlorophyll will help us observe the colour change of iodine clearly
Place the bleached leaf in a Petri dish
Pour iodine solution over it
Note the colour of the leaf changes to dark green. This is because iodine combines with
starch present in the leaf and forms a violet colour complex. This shows that starch is
present in leaves