Tamale Technical University (TaTU)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Single Variable Calculus (MAT 102)

Lecture Notes

By:

Salifu Tahiru Azeko, PhD, PE (Ing., Engr.)

PhD Materials Science and Engineering
Professional Affiliation:
Member, Ghana Young Academy of Arts and Science
Editorial Board Member, Journal of Materials Science: Advanced
Composite Materials, Singapore
Associate Member, American Society of Civil Engineers, USA
Contact:
Email: sazeko@tatu.edu.gh

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 COURSE OUTLINE

1. Differentiation
• concepts of function, limits and continuity
• Differentiation rules, application to graphing, rates, approximations, and extremum
problems.
2. Applications of Differentiation
• Definite and Indefinite Integration
• Fundamental theorem of calculus
3. Definite integrals and applications
• Applications to geometry: area, volume, and arc length
• Applications to science: average values, work and probability
4. Techniques of Integration
• Techniques of integration
• Approximation of definite integrals, improper integrals, and L’Hospital rule.

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 Concepts of Function, Limits and Continuity
Functions

Types of Functions

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Assignment

Limit of a Function

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Continuity of a Function

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8|Page
Rules of Differentiation

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Applications of Differentiation

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 INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES

The general solution of integrals of the form 𝑥 𝑛 and 𝑎𝑥 𝑛

𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1
The general solution of integrals of the form∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 and ∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐, where
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
n denote a fraction, zero, a positive or negative integer with the exception of -1 and a is a constant.

Example 1

Apply the general rule of integration in solving the following questions:

3𝑥 4+1 3
i. ∫ 3𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 = 4+1
+ 𝑐 = 𝑥5 + 𝑐
5
2 −2 2𝑥 −2+1
ii. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2+1
+𝑐
2𝑥 −1 −2
= +𝑐 = + 𝑐 , and
−1 𝑥
1
+1
1⁄2 𝑥2
iii. ∫ √𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1 +𝑐
+1
2
3
𝑥2 2
= 3 + 𝑐 = 3 √𝑥 3 + 𝑐
2

Note: A student can verify these results by differentiating the final answer to get back to the initial
question.

Important Information

a) The integral of a constant say k with respect to 𝑥 gives 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐. For example,

∫ 8𝑑𝑥 = 8𝑥 + 𝑐
b) When a sum of several terms is integrated the result is the sum of the integrals of separate
terms. For example,
∫(3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 5)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 5𝑑𝑥
3𝑥 2 2𝑥 3
= + − 5𝑥 + 𝑐
2 3

STANDARD INTEGRATION

The following are standard integration results for different functions. Always use these
results to integrate these familiar functions anywhere, anytime.
𝑎𝑥 𝑛+1
1) ∫ 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐 (except when 𝑛 = −1)
𝑛+1
1
2) ∫ cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
3) ∫ sin 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐

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 1
4) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
5) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 cot 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
6) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 cot 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
7) ∫ sec 𝑎𝑥 tan 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
8) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
1
9) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝑐

Example 2

Solve the following problems by applying the concepts of the general rules of integration

1. ∫ 5𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2. ∫ 2𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡

3 2𝑥 3 −3𝑥
3. ∫ (4 + 7 𝑥 − 6𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 (a) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥

5. ∫(1 − 𝑡)²𝑑𝑡

Exercise 1

1) ∫ 3√𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 3
2) ∫ (7) √𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
−5
3) ∫ 4 𝑑𝑡
9 √𝑡 3

INTEGRATION BY ALGEBRAIC SUBSTITUTION

For algebraic substitutions, we usually denote or let u be equal to 𝑓(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 is a
standard integral. This shows that the integrals of the forms:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑛
𝑘 ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑘 ∫ [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

(where k and n are constants) can both be integrated by substituting u for 𝑓(𝑥).

Solved Problems

1. Integrate: ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
We let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 7; ≫ 𝑑𝑥 = 3 and by rearranging, we obtain 𝑑𝑥 = 3

By substituting the values into the parent function, we get

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 𝑑𝑢
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(3𝑥 + 7)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(cos( 𝑢)) 3

1
= ∫ 3 cos(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢, (this is a standard integral which can be solve)

1
= 3 sin 𝑢 + 𝑐

1
= 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥 + 7) + 𝑐 (by replacing u with (3𝑥 + 7))

2. Solve: ∫(2𝑥 − 5)7 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = (2𝑥 − 5) then = 2 and 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑢 1
Hence ∫(2𝑥 − 5)7 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢7 = ∫ 𝑢7 𝑑𝑢
2 2

1 𝑢8 1
= ( 8 ) + 𝑐 = 16 𝑢8 + 𝑐
2

Replacing 𝑢 with (2𝑥 − 5) gives:

1
∫(2𝑥 − 5)7 𝑑𝑥 = (2𝑥 − 5)8 + 𝑐
16

Exercise 2

1) ∫ 3𝑥(4𝑥 2 + 3)5 𝑑𝑥
1
2) ∫0 2𝑒 6𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
2 3𝑥
3) ∫0
√(2𝑥 2 +1)

INTEGRATION BY TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

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 Trigonometric Identities
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃; cot 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

1 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 = sin 𝜃

1 ℎ𝑦𝑝
cot 𝜃 = tan 𝜃; 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗

𝑎𝑑𝑗 ℎ𝑦𝑝
𝑐𝑜𝑡 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑜𝑝𝑝

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 = 1

1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

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 tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1 − tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 + tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
Solved Problems
𝜋
1. Evaluate ∫04 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Solution:

Since cos 2𝑡 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 − 1

1 1
Then 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 = (1 + cos 2𝑡) and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑡 = (1 + cos 8𝑡)
2 2

𝜋 𝜋
1
Hence ∫04 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 ∫04 2 (1 + cos 8𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝜋
sin 8𝑡 4
= [𝑡 + ]
8 0

𝜋
𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛8( ) sin 0
4
= [4 + ] − [0 + ]
8 8

𝜋
= or 0.7854
4

2. Determine:∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

Since cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

1 1
≫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 2 (1 − cos 2𝑥) and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑥 = 2 (1 − cos 6𝑥)

1
Hence ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 (1 − cos 6𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

1 sin 6𝑥
= 2 (𝑥 − )+𝑐
6

3. Find: ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

Since 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥, then 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 − 1 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 4𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 4𝑥 − 1

Hence 3 ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 4𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

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 tan 4𝑥
= 3( − 𝑥) + 𝑐
4

4. Evaluate
𝜋
31
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 2𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜋 2
6

Since 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃, then 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1 and 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 2𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝜃 − 1

Hence
𝜋
31
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 2𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜋 2
6

Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
1 3 1 −𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃 3
= ∫ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝜃 − 1)𝑑𝜃 = [ − 𝜃]𝜋
2 𝜋 2 2
6 6

𝜋 𝜋
−𝑐𝑜𝑡2 ( 3) 𝜋 −𝑐𝑜𝑡2 ( 6) 𝜋
= [( − )−( − )]
2 3 2 6

1
= [(− − 0.2887 − 1.0472)]
2
= −(−0.2887 − 0.5236)

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟗

INTEGRATION USING PARTIAL FRACTION

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 Factor in Terms in partial fraction decomposition
denominator
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 𝐴
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝐴1 𝐴 𝐴2
(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒌 + 2 +…+(𝑎𝑥+𝑏) , k=1,2,3,…
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2 𝑘

𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
𝑎𝑥 2+ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴1 𝑥+𝐵1 𝐴 𝑥+𝐵 𝐴 𝑥+𝐵
(𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄)𝒌 + (𝑎𝑥 22+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
2
+…+(𝑎𝑥 2𝑘+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)
𝑘
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 2 𝑘

Notice that the first and third cases are really special cases of the second and fourth cases
respectively. There are several methods for determining the coefficients for each term and we will
go over each of those in the following solved problems.

Solved Problems

1. Determine:

11 − 3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2+ 2𝑥 − 3

Solution:

11 − 3𝑥 2 5
∫ ≡ −
𝑥2+ 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 3)

This implies

11 − 3𝑥 2 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ { − } 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2+ 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 3)

= 2𝑙𝑛(𝑥 − 1) − 5𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐
(𝑥−1)2
Or 𝑙𝑛 {(𝑥+3)5} + 𝑐 ( by applying the laws of logarithms)

2. Find:

2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 35
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)

Solution:

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 2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 35 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
≡ + +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 3)
𝐴(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)+𝐵(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3)+𝐶(𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)
≡ (𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)

Since both equations have the same denominator, we equate the numerators and this gives:

2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 35 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐶(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)

Using the cover up rule; we let 𝑥 = −1.

≫ 2(−1)2 − 9(−1) − 35 ≡ 𝐴(−3)(2) + 𝐵(0)(2) + 𝐶(0)(−3)

≫ −24 = −6𝐴
−24
≫𝐴= =4
−6

when 𝑥 = 2.

≫ 2(2)2 − 9(2) − 35 ≡ 𝐴(0)(5) + 𝐵(3)(5) + 𝐶(3)(0)

≫ −45 = 15𝐵
−45
≫𝐵= = −3
15

If 𝑥 = −3. Then

2(−3)2 − 9(−3) − 35 ≡ 𝐴(−5)(0) + 𝐵(−2)(0) + 𝐶(−2)(−5)

≫ 10 = 10𝐶

≫𝐶=1

Thus;
2𝑥 2 −9𝑥−35 4 3 1
(𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)
≡ (𝑥+1) − (𝑥−2) + (𝑥+3)

Hence;

2𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 35 4 3 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≡ ∫ { − + } 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 + 3)

= 4𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 1) − 3𝑙𝑛(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐

(𝑥+1)4 (𝑥+3)
or 𝑙𝑛 { (𝑥−2)3
}+𝑐

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 3. Determine

𝑥2 + 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2

Solution:

The denominator and the numerator are of the same degree. Thus dividing out gives:

1
x + 3x + 2 x + 1
2 2

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2

3𝑥 − 1

𝑥 2 +1 3𝑥+1
Hence ≡ 1 + 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2

3𝑥−1
≡ 1 + (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)

Now

3𝑥 − 1 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2)
𝐴(𝑥−2)+𝐵(𝑥−1)
≡ (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2)

Equating numerators gives:

3𝑥 − 1 ≡ 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)

By applying the cover up rule;

Let 𝑥 = 1. Then 2 = −𝐴

≫A= −2

let 𝑥 = 2. Then 5 = 𝐵
3𝑥−1 −2 5
≫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2) ≡ (𝑥−1) + (𝑥−2)

𝑥2 + 1 2 5
≫ 2 ≡1− +
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 2)

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 𝑥 2 +1 2 5
Hence∫ 𝑥 2−3𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥 ≡ ∫ {1 − (𝑥−1) + (𝑥−2)} 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 − 2𝑙𝑛(𝑥 − 1) + 5𝑙𝑛(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑐
(𝑥−2)5
Or 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛 {(𝑥−1)2} + 𝑐

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Integration by parts follows the product rule of differentiation. From the product rule

differentiation, we obtain;

𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑣 +𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Where 𝑢 and 𝑣 are both functions of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
Rearranging the above expression gives: 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑢𝑣) − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥

Integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥 gives:

𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
∫𝑢 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑢𝑣)𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
≫ ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

≫ ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

Solved Problem

1. Determine:

∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Using the integration by parts formula

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥, from which = 1, i.e. 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 and let 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, from which 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥
∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥.
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Substitute the expressions of 𝑢, 𝑑𝑢 and 𝑣 into the ‘by parts’ formula as shown below.

∫𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢 𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥) (sin 𝑥) − ∫(sin 𝑥) (𝑑𝑥)

≫ ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − (− cos 𝑥) + 𝑐

= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑
This result may be checked by differentiating the right hand side, i.e. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝑐)

= [(𝑥)(cos 𝑥) + (sin 𝑥)(1)] − sin 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 (using the product rule).

2. Find:

∫ 3𝑡 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Solution:

Solving the expression by applying integration by parts,

𝑑𝑢
We let 𝑢 = 3𝑡, from which, = 3, i.e. 𝑑𝑢 = 3 𝑑𝑡 and let 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡, from which 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑡
1
∫ 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑒 2𝑡

Substituting into ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 gives:

1 1
∫ 3𝑡 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (3𝑡) ( 𝑒 2𝑡 ) − ∫ ( 𝑒 2𝑡 ) (3𝑑𝑡)
2 2
3 3
= 2 𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 − 2 ∫ 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡

3 3 𝑒 2𝑡
= 2 𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 − 2 ( )+𝑐
2

3 1
≫ ∫ 3𝑡 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑒 2𝑡 (𝑡 − 2) + 𝑐 (this can be checked by differentiating the final result).

3. Evaluate

33 | P a g e
 𝜋
2
∫ 2𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0

Solution:
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 2𝜃, from which, 𝑑𝜃 = 2, i.e. 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝜃 and let 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃, from which,

𝑣 = ∫ sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 = − cos 𝜃

Substituting into ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 gives:

∫ 2𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = (2𝜃)(− cos 𝜃) − ∫(− cos 𝜃)(2𝑑𝜃)

= −2𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 ∫ cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= −2𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 + 𝑐

Thus
𝜋
𝜋
2
∫ 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = [−2𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃]02
0

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= [−2 ( 2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 ] − [0 + 2 sin 0]

𝜋 𝜋
= (−0 + 2) − (0 + 0) = 2; Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 0 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 = 1

4. Evaluate:
1
∫0 5𝑥𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥, correct to 3 significant figures

Solution:
𝑑𝑢
Let 𝑢 = 5𝑥, from which 𝑑𝑥 = 5, i.e. 𝑑𝑢 = 5 𝑑𝑥 and let 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥, from which,

1
𝑣 = ∫ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 4 𝑒 4𝑥

Substituting into ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 gives:

𝑒 4𝑥 𝑒 4𝑥
∫ 5𝑥𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (5𝑥) ( ) − ∫ ( ) (5 𝑑𝑥)
4 4

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 5 5
= 4 𝑥𝑒 4𝑥 − 4 ∫ 𝑒 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5 5 𝑒 4𝑥
= 4 𝑥𝑒 4𝑥 − 4 ( )+𝑐
4

5 1
= 4 𝑒 4𝑥 (𝑥 − 4) + 𝑐

Hence

1 1
5 1
∫ 5𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑒 4𝑥 (𝑥 − )]
4𝑥
0 4 4 0

5 1 5 1
= [4 𝑒 4 (1 − 4)] − [4 𝑒 0 (0 − 4)]

15 5
= (16 𝑒 4 ) − (− 16)

= 51.186 + 0.313 = 51.499 = 51.5, correct to 3 significant figures.

Improper Integral

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40 | P a g e
 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRALS

1. Length of an arc

In this section we will be looking at how to compute the arc length of a function.

Arc Length Formula(s)

𝐿 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠

Where,

𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏

𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 if 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦), 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑

Solved Problems

1. Determine the arc length of an electrical wire with the function 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛(sec 𝑥) between 0 ≤
𝜋
𝑥≤4.

Solution:

In this case we will need to use the first ds since the function is in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). So, let’s get
the derivative out of the way.

𝑑𝑦 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2
= = tan 𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 sec 𝑥

Let’s also get the root out of the way since there is often simplification that can be done and there’s
no reason to do that inside the integral.

2
√1 + (𝑑𝑦) = √1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = √𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = |sec 𝑥| = sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Note that we could drop the absolute value bars here since secant is positive in the range given.

The arc length is then,

𝜋
𝐿 = ∫04 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
= 𝑙𝑛|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|04

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 = 𝑙𝑛(√2 + 1)
3
2
2. Determine the arc length of an electrical circuit 𝑥 = 3 (𝑦 − 1)2 between 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4.

Solution:

Students often make mistakes in this type of problems. They usually treat the function in the form
𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦) and this makes life difficult for them since they solve for y to get the function into the
form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Sometimes it’s just easier to work with functions in the form 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦). In fact, if
you can work with the functions in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) then you can work with functions in the
form 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦). There really isn’t a difference between the two so don’t get excited about functions
in the form 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦).

Let’s compute the derivative and the root.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
= → √1 + ( ) = √1 + 𝑦 − 1 = √𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦

As you can see, keeping the function in the form 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦) is going to lead a very easy integral.
To see what would happen if we tried to work with the function in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) see the next
example.

The length, L is therefore;

4
2 34 14
𝐿 = ∫ √𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦2| =
1 3 1 3

3. Redo the previous example using the function in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) instead.

Solution:

In this case, the function in its derivative form would be,

2 1
3𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 −3
𝑦 = ( ) +1; ≫ =( )
2 𝑑𝑥 2
The root in the arc length would then be:

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 2
2
3𝑥 3 √(3𝑥 )3 + 1
𝑑𝑦 2 1 (2) +1 2
√1 + ( ) = 1 +
𝑑𝑥 2 =√ 2 = 1
√ 3𝑥 3 3𝑥 3 3𝑥 3
(2) (2) (2)

All the simplification work above was just to put the root into a form that will allow us to do the
integral.

Now, before we write down the integral we will also need to determine the limits. This particular
ds requires x limits of integration and we have got y limits. They are easy enough to get however.
Since we know x as a function of y all we need to do is plug in the original y limits of integration
and get the x limits of integration. Doing this gives,
3
2
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 (3)2

Not easy limits to deal with, but there they are.

Let’s now write down the integral that will give the length.

2
2 32 √(3𝑥 )3 + 1
(3) 2
3
𝐿=∫ 1 𝑑𝑥
0 3𝑥 3
(2)

That’s a really unpleasant looking integral. It can be evaluated however using the following
substitution.
2 1
3𝑥 3 3𝑥 −3
𝑢 = ( ) + 1; 𝑑𝑢 = ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑥=0→𝑢=1

By substituting, the integral becomes,

4
𝐿 = ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1

2 34
= 𝑢2 |
3 1

14
=
3

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So, we got the same answer as in the previous example. Although that shouldn’t really be all that
surprising since we were dealing with the same curve.

2. Surface Area

In this section we are going to look once again at solids of revolution. We first looked at them back
in Calculus I when we found the volume of the solid revolution. In this section we want to find
the surface area.

Surface Area Formulas

𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑠; rotation about x-axis

𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑠 rotation about y-axis

Where,

𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏

𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑠 = √1 + (𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 if 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦), 𝑐 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝑑

Solved Problems

1. Determine the surface area of the solid obtained by rotating 𝑦 = √9 − 𝑥 2 , −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

about the x-axis.

Solution:

The formula that we will be using is,

𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑠

Since we are rotating about the x-axis and we’ll use the first ds in this case because our function is
in the correct form for that ds and we won’t gain anything by solving it for x.

Let’s first get the derivative and the root taken care of.

44 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑥
= (9 − 𝑥 2 )−2 (−2𝑥) = − 1
𝑑𝑥 2 (9 − 𝑥 2 )2

𝑑𝑦 2 𝑥2 9 3
√1 + ( ) = √1 + =√ =
𝑑𝑥 9−𝑥 2 9−𝑥 2
√9 − 𝑥 2

Here’s the integral for the surface area,

2
3
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑦 𝑑𝑥
−2 √9 − 𝑥 2

There’s a problem however. The dx means that we shouldn’t have any y’s in the integral. So, before
evaluating the integral we’ll need to substitute in for y as well.

The surface area is then,

2
3
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
−2 √9 − 𝑥 2
2
= ∫ 6𝜋 𝑑𝑥
−2

= 24 𝜋

3
2. Determine the surface area of the solid obtained by rotating 𝑦 = √𝑥, 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 about the
y-axis. Use both ds’s to compute the surface area.

Solution:

Note that we’ve been given the function set up for the first ds and limits that work for the second
ds.

Solution 1:

This solution will use the ds listed above. We’ll start with the derivative and root.

𝑑𝑦 1 −2
= 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 3

4 4
𝑑𝑦 2 1 9𝑥 3 + 1 √9𝑥 3 + 1
√ 1 + ( ) = √1 + = √ =
𝑑𝑥 4 4 2
9𝑥 3 9𝑥 3 3𝑥 3

45 | P a g e
We’ll also need to get new limits. That isn’t too bad however. All we need to do is plug in the
given y’s into our equation and solve to get that that the range of x’s is 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8. The integral for
the surface area is then,

8 √9𝑥 43 + 1
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 3𝑥 3

2𝜋 8 1 √ 4
= ∫ 𝑥 3 9𝑥 3 + 1𝑑𝑥
3 1

Note that this time we didn’t need to substitute in for the x as we did in the previous example. In
this case we picked up dx from the ds and so we don’t need to do a substitution for x. in fact, if we
had substituted for x we would have put y’s into integral which would have caused problems.

Using the substitution

4 1
𝑢 = 9𝑥 3 + 1; 𝑑𝑢 = 12𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

The integral becomes,

𝜋 145
𝑆= ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
18 10

𝜋 3 145
= 𝑢2 |
27 10

𝜋 3 3
= (1452 − 102 ) = 199.48
27
Solution 2:

This time we’ll use the second ds. So, we’ll first need to solve the equation for x. we’ll also go
ahead and get a derivative and root while we’re at it.

𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑦3 = 3𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑥 2
√1 + ( ) = √1 + 9𝑦 4
𝑑𝑦

The surface area is then,

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 2
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋 𝑥√1 + 9𝑦 4 𝑑𝑦
1

We used the original y limits this time because we picked up a dy from the ds. Also note that the
presence of the dy means that this time, unlike the first solution, we’ll need to substitute in for the
x. doing that gives,
2
𝑆 = ∫ 2𝜋 𝑦 3 √1 + 9𝑦 4 𝑑𝑦 ; 𝑢 = 1 + 9𝑦 4
1

𝜋 145
= ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
18 10

𝜋 3 3
= (1452 − 102 )
27

= 199.48

Note that after the substitution the integral was identical to the first solution and so the work was
skipped.

3. Probability

We are going to look at the applications of integrals in probability. Suppose that we wanted to look
at the age of a person, the height of a person, the amount of time spent waiting in line, or maybe
the lifetime of a battery. Each of these quantities has values that will range over an interval of
integers. Because of this these are called continuous random variables. Continuous random
variables are often represented by X.

Every continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function, 𝑓(𝑥). Probability
density functions satisfy the following conditions.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥

∞
2. ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1

Probability density functions can be used to determine the probability that a continuous random
variable lies between two values, say 𝑎 and 𝑏. The probability is denoted by 𝑃(𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) and is
given by,
𝑏
𝑃(𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Let’s take an example of this.

Solved Problems

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 𝑥3
1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5000 (10 − 𝑥) for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 for all other values of 𝑥.

Answer each of the following questions about this function.

a) Show that 𝑓(𝑥) is a probability density function.

b) Find 𝑃(1 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 4)
c) Find 𝑃(𝑥 ≥ 6)

Solution:

(a) Show that 𝑓(𝑥) is a probability density function.

First note that in the range 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10 is clearly positive and outside of this range we’ve defined
it to be zero.
∞
So, to show this is a probability density function we’ll need to show that ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1.

∞ 10
𝑥3
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (10 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞ 0 5000
10
𝑥4 𝑥5
= − |
2000 25000 0

=1

Note that change in limits on the integral. The function is only non-zero in these ranges and so the
integral can be reduced down to only the interval where the function is not zero.

(b) Find 𝑃(1 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 4)

In this case we need to evaluate the following integral.

4
𝑥3
𝑃(1 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 4) = ∫ (10 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
1 5000

4
𝑥4 𝑥5
= − |
2000 25000 1

= 0.08658

So the probability of X being between 1 and 4 is 8.658%.

(c) Find 𝑃(𝑥 ≥ 6)

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Note that in this case 𝑃(𝑥 ≥ 6) is equivalent to 𝑃(6 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 10) since 10 is the largest value that
X can be. So the probability that X is greater than or equal to 6 is,
10
𝑥3
𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 6) = ∫ (10 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
6 5000
10
𝑥4 𝑥5
= − |
2000 25000 6

= 0.66304

The probability is then 66.304%

Probability density functions can also be used to determine the mean of a continuous random
variable. The mean is given by,
∞
𝜇 = ∫ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞

2. It has been determined that the probability density function for the wait in line at a counter
is given by,

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0
𝑓(𝑡) = { 𝑡
0.1𝑒 −10 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≥ 0

Where t is the number of minutes spent waiting in line. Answer each of the following questions
about this probability density function.

(a) Verify that this is in fact a probability density function.

(b) Determine the probability that a person will wait in line for at least 6 minutes.
(c) Determine the mean wait in line

Solution:

(a) Verify that this is in fact a probability density function.

This function is clearly positive or zero and so there’s not much to do here other than compute the
integral.
∞ ∞ 𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 0.1𝑒 −10 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0

𝜇 𝑡
= lim ∫ 0.1𝑒 −10 𝑑𝑡
𝜇→∞ 0

49 | P a g e
 𝑡 𝜇
= lim (−𝑒 −10 )|
𝜇→∞ 0

𝜇
= lim (1 − 𝑒 −10 ) = 1
𝜇→∞

So it is a probability density function.

(b) Determine the probability that a person will wait in line for at least 6 minutes.

The probability that we’re looking for here is 𝑃(𝑥 ≥ 6).

∞ 𝑡
𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 6) = ∫ 0.1𝑒 −10 𝑑𝑡
0

𝜇 𝑡
= lim ∫ 0.1𝑒 −10 𝑑𝑡
𝜇→∞ 6

𝑡 𝜇
= lim (−𝑒 −10 )|
𝜇→∞ 6

6 𝜇 3
= lim (𝑒 −10 − 𝑒 −10 ) = 𝑒 −5 = 0.548812
𝜇→∞

So the probability that a person will wait in line for more than 6 hours is 54.8811%.

(c) Determine the mean wait in line.

Here’s the mean wait time.

∞
𝜇 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
−∞

∞ 𝑡
= ∫ 0.1𝑡𝑒 −10 𝑑𝑡
0

𝜇 𝑡
= lim ∫ 0.1𝑡𝑒 −10 𝑑𝑡
𝜇→∞ 0

𝑡 𝜇
= lim (−(𝑡 + 10)𝑒 −10 )|
𝜇→∞ 0

𝑢
= lim (10 − (𝑢 + 10)𝑒 −10 ) = 10
𝜇→∞

So, it looks like the average wait time is 10 minutes.

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L’Hospital’s Rule

Suppose we have one of the following scenarios:

𝑓(𝑥) 0 𝑓(𝑥) ±∞
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Where a can be any real number, positive or negative infinity. In these cases we have,

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
lim = lim ′
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)

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