Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Agriculture Notes (5-7)-1 (Word)
Agriculture Notes (5-7)-1 (Word)
AGRICULTURE
BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE
- Animal Science
- Agronomy
- Agricultural Economics
- Agricultural Engineering
- Soil Science
- Horticulture
- It provides food
- It provides employment
- It provides income
- It provides raw materials
- It provides foreign exchange
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PROBLEMS FACED BY FARMERS
PROBLEM SOLUTION
Operating costs are high e.g. fuel, salaries Forming co-operatives
for workers
Bad roads to markets Improving local infrastructure
Lack of skilled labour LEA and CEDA to intensify training and
mentoring of farmers
Stiff competition from neighbouring Improve marketing and storage facilities
countries for farmers
Lack of perennial rivers and reliable rainfall Build more to capture water during rainy
season
Incidence of pests and diseases Subsidized prices on chemicals for pests.
Extreme temperatures Use of net shading and growing drought
resistant crops
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
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Range management JC/ PSLE
FARM TOOLS
TOOLS: It is small, simple device or object that is used by a person to perform his/ her
work more easily.
IMPLEMENTS: are usually larger and heavier than tools. They need an animal or
tractor to do some work e.g. ploughs, harrows, cultivators, weeders and planters.
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PROBLEMS CAUSED BY THE USE OF TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES
ON
THE ENVIRONMENT
PROBLEM SOLUTION
Machines pollute the air and soil Service the machines regularly
Machines are heavy and they compact the Till the soil to loosen it
soil leading to problem of infiltration
Farm implements damage the soil Use farm implements when the soil is not
structure too dry and too wet
Farm implements destroy plants that Keep a border of natural vegetation
grows naturally in the area around ploughed field
Farm implements carry weeds and diseases Clean farm implements thoroughly before
from one farm to the other using them in a new place
Farm implements destroy animals that live Avoid burrows and nests of soil animals
under the soil
TYPES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
Traditional Biotechnology- these are early forms of using living organisms to produce
new commodities or modify existing ones.
Modern Biotechnology- this is the intentionally changing of genes, cells or living tissues
in a predictable manner to come up with new tissue or to generate changes in the
genetic makeup of an organism.
EFFECTS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
- They make production of food supply safer for consumers and the environment
and less expensive to produce.
- It produces crops which are less vulnerable to insects, diseases and weeds.
- They can help to develop crops than can be used to create new materials or
energy sources, provide more nutrients, treat diseases or serve as vaccines to
prevent diseases.
- There is potential for genes to move from genetically engineered crops into wild
plants.
- Pests may eventually develop resistance to pest resistant crops
- They may be a substantial reductions in traditional pesticide use and improved
conservation practices
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- Cutting stems to produce an individual tree - Spraying chemicals on crops
WEATHERING PROCESSES
WEATHERING- this is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces to form soil.
Types of weathering
1. Physical weathering- the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces without
changing the chemical composition of the rock. No change in chemical
composition means that there is no change in colour of the original rock.
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2. Chemical weathering- this is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces with
a change in chemical composition of the rock. Change in chemical composition
means that there is change in colour of the original rock.
Agents of chemical weathering; air [oxygen and carbon dioxide] and water.
a. Oxidation- this when metal combines with oxygen to form an oxide. Metals in
the rock combine with oxygen to form oxides. Red-coloured rocks contain
iron oxides [metal] which have been formed by the process of oxidation.
b. Carbonation- occurs in limestone. Carbonation is formed when rainwater
dissolves the carbon dioxide in air to form a weak acid called carbonic acid.
Rainwater + carbon dioxide = Carbonic acid.
When rain, containing carbonic acid falls on the rock with a lot of limestone, it will
react with limestone to form calcium carbonate.
All the reaction above causes the rock to be soft and breaks easily.
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3. Biological weathering- this is the breaking down of rocks through the activities of
living organisms.
a. Plants- trees with their roots grow in between the cracks of rocks, causing the
rock to widen up and break down the rocks.
b. Animals- animals which burrow through soil like earthworms, termites, mole rat
and yellow mongoose can help form soil.
c. Human activities like mining, cultivation, construction of buildings, railways and
roads reduce the size of rocks by breaking them up to smaller pieces.
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SOIL
- Rock particles
- Organic matter
- Living organisms
- Air
- Water
Importance of Soil
Mineral Water
Particles 25%
45%
Air
25%
2. Organic matter
About 5% of the soil volume consists of organic matter made up of decomposing
plants and animal and also living organisms. Soils with dark brown colour
indicate that it contains a lot of humus.
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3. Air
This occupies the space between the soil particles. It is made up of 25% soil
volume. Air mainly consists of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as
other small gases. Soils with large particles have more air spaces compared to
soils with smaller particles.
4. Water
Water occupies the space between rock particles making up 25% of soil volume.
After heavy rains there will be more water in the soil, while after a dry period
there will be much less.
SOIL FERTILITY
This is the ability of the soil to supply plants with the necessary nutrients (food)
for their healthy growth and development.
FERTILISERS
These are substances that are added to the soil or sprayed on leaves to provide
nutrients.
Organic fertilizers are decomposed animal and plant remains. Animal remains include;
farm yard manure; kraal manure, chicken manure, pig manure, etc. plant remains
include; green and compost.
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Disadvantages of organic fertilizers
FERTILISER APPPLICATION
Basal dressing
Top dressing
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CROP HUSBANDRY
1. Water- it is needed for dissolving substances in the seed called enzymes which are
needed for growth of the embryo.
2. Temperature- optimum or best possible temperature is needed to have good
germination. Each type of plant seed has a certain temperature range for it to
germinate.
3. Oxygen- for respiration to take place oxygen is needed and this will give the seed
energy for germination processes.
4. Seed viability- it is the ability of a seed to germinate and develop into a plant.
Seed viability is affected by age of seed, damage by either pests or diseases and
the amount of food available in the cotyledons and endosperm.
5. Light- though most crops do not require light for germination, there is some
which will not germinate in the absence of light.
1. Water- water occupies 80-90% of the plant mass. It is a solvent dissolving plant
nutrients. It is also required for making plant food through the process of
photosynthesis. Water transports dissolved food substances made in the leaves
during photosynthesis. The process is called translocation. It also helps in cooling
the leaves by allowing water vapour and air to move in and out the leaf through
stomata.
2. Sunlight- plants use sunlight to make its own food through the process of
photosynthesis.
𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Water + Carbon dioxide Carbohydrates + Oxygen
𝑏𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙
3. Air- it is a mixture of gases. Oxygen is used during respiration. Respiration is the
breaking down of stored carbohydrates using oxygen to release Carbon dioxide.
Carbohydrates + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + energy
The carbon dioxide released during respiration is used in photosynthesis or
released into the air.
4. Nutrient elements- although plants are able to make their own food, there is need
for plants to get nutrients from the soil. Lack of nutrient element will result in
deficiency disease. Farmers should make it a point that plants have correct
amounts of the different nutrient elements in the soil.
5. Temperature- plants cannot grow below a certain temperature. This is called
minimum temperature. Plants can also stop growing above a certain temperature
and this is maximum temperature.
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VEGETABLE CROPS
IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES
- Contain proteins that are necessary for growth and repairing worn out tissues
- Rich in carbohydrates which give us energy
- Vitamins and minerals are required by the body to regulate its metabolic
functions.
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- Essential for maintaining proper fluid balance, muscle function and heart
muscle function.
- Helps with digestion and excretion
EXOTIC VEGETABLES (Those that are obtained from outside the country)
- Spinach
- Potatoes
- Onions
- Carrot
- Cabbage
- Rape
- Choumoulier
- Amarathus (thepe)
- Okra (Delele
- Rothwe
- Morogo wa dinawa
- They can grow well in certain areas - They are not easily propagated or
grown.
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PROBLEMS FACED BY VEGETABLE GROWERS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM SOLUTION
Operating costs are high e.g. fuel, salaries Forming co-operatives
for workers
Bad roads to markets Improving local infrastructure
Lack of skilled labour LEA and CEDA to intensify training and
mentoring of farmers
Stiff competition from neighbouring Improve marketing and storage facilities
countries for farmers
Lack of perennial rivers and reliable rainfall Build more to capture water during rainy
season
Incidence of pests and diseases Subsidised prices on chemicals for pests.
Extreme temperatures Use of net shading and growing drought
resistant crops
Bulkiness and perishability of the products Refridgerate to increases shelf life
2. Soil type
Deep fertile loam soils are often most suitable for crop production than clay or sandy
soils.
Water is essential for growing crops. Although most crops get water from the rainfall,
this may not be enough and a reliable source of water for irrigation is needed e.g.
perennial rivers and boreholes.
4. Shade
Large trees shade the crops most of the day. But it should be noted that large trees
cause crops not get enough sunshine and this affects their growth rate.
5. Shelter
Protect crops from effects of strong winds by growing windbreaks around the field or
garden. Winds break down crops, increase evaporation and erode soil.
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6. Nearness to markets
Anywhere a buyer and seller meet to exchange goods. Having markets near to where
production is taking place help fruits and vegetables not to lose quality or go bad.
METHODS OF PLANTING
• Direct sowing- planting seeds directly into the soil, examples drilling,
broadcasting
• Indirect sowing- planting seeds in nurseries or seed trays and then transplant
them to more permanent plots.
DEPTH OF SOWING
The depth of sowing is determined by calculating 3-5 times the diameter of each
given seed.
PRACTICAL
a. pre-sowing activities
b. Sowing activities
FARM CHEMICALS
PESTICIDE- a chemical that is used to kill animals or insects that damage plants or
crops.
• Ensure anyone using agricultural chemicals is suitably trained to use both the
chemical and any equipment required for application.
• Only mix the quantity of chemical required for the task at hand.
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• Follow the manufacturer’s instructions on the label.
• Triple rinse equipment after chemical application and dispose of the rinse water
appropriately.
• Keep chemicals in their original containers and do not pour into smaller bottles.
• Store chemicals in a locked, well-ventilated shed with floors that will contain
spills.
• Store animal feeds, seeds and fertilisers separately from other chemicals.
The effects of chemical exposure depend on the type of chemical and the degree of
exposure. If chemicals are swallowed, absorbed through the skin or inhaled as a mist,
vapour or dust, some of the immediate effects can include:
• poisoning
• headache
• nausea
• vomiting
• diarrhoea
• pinpoint pupils
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• dizziness
• chemical burns
• birth defects
• diseases of the lungs, liver or kidneys
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STANDARD 6
SOIL PROFILE
Soil profile differs from one area to another in the following ways;
- Soil depth
- Number of horizons/ layers
- Characteristics of soil horizons/ layers
1. A horizon; Topsoil
- The most fertile layer where plants roots are found
- Dark in colour as it contains a lot of humus and nutrients
- Valuable for farmers because of its good fertility and soil structure 2. B horizon;
Subsoil
- Less fertile than topsoil
- Lighter in colour as it has less organic matter and nutrients
- Fewer micro- organisms in subsoil
- Less air spaces
- Less suitable for plant growth as roots cannot penetrate it
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3. C horizon; Partly weathered materials
- Composed of a mixture of partly weathered soil and large pieces of rock
- Continued weathering of materials will result I topsoil
4. D horizon; Bedrock
- Base layer of the soil profile where all the layers above have been formed from.
(it is the mother of all layers)
- Water accumulates in the bedrock to form underground pools called water table.
This water can be used by trees that have deep roots.
SOIL TEXTURE
- Coarse textured soils- these are soils which are well aerated and drains
easily.
- Fine textured soils- these are soils which are poorly aerated and do not
drain easily. Classification of soil textures
Name of rock Diameter in mm Texture
particle
Gravel 2.0- 20 Coarse
TYPES OF SOIL
- Loam
- Sand
- Clay
LOAM SOIL
- Moderately aerated
- Has medium sized particles
- Good water holding capacity
- Easily cultivated
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- Have moderately sized particles
- Moderately drained soil
- Good for plant growth with moderate plant nutrients
SAND SOIL
- Well aerated
- Low water holding capacity
- Not a fertile soil
- Not good for growing crops
- Contain less humus
- Easily eroded
- Easily cultivated when too wet or too dry
- Has big sized soil particles
CLAY SOIL
SUMMARY
Particle Aeration Erosion Water Cultivation; Workability Drainage Nutrients
size by wind/ holding wet and dry
water capacity
CLAY
LOAM
SAND
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Take soil samples,place in the filter and put inside the funnel over the measuring
cylinder. Pour some 10ml water and leave to drain. The following day meaure the
amount of water collected in the measuring cylinders. Make a conclusion,
CROP HUSBANDRY
FIELD CROPS
- this are usually grown in large area of land called field (tshimo)
- Depend mainly on rainfall (rainfed)
- They are both food and non-food crops
- Source of income
- Source of food
- Source of industrial raw materials
- Source of livestock feed
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
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- Source of proteins
- Source of carbohydrates
- Contain proteins that are necessary for growth and repairing worn out tissues
- Rich in carbohydrates which give us energy
- Vitamins and minerals are required by the body to regulate its metabolic
functions.
- Essential for maintaining proper fluid balance, muscle function and heart
muscle function.
- Helps with digestion and excretion
PROBLEMS FACED BY FIELD CROP GROWERS
PROBLEM SOLUTION
Operating costs are high e.g. fuel, salaries Forming co-operatives
for workers
Bad roads to markets Improving local infrastructure
Lack of skilled labour LEA and CEDA to intensify training and
mentoring of farmers
Stiff competition from neighbouring Improve marketing and storage facilities
countries for farmers
Lack of perennial rivers and reliable rainfall Build more to capture water during rainy
season
Incidence of pests and diseases Subsidised prices on chemicals for pests.
Extreme temperatures Use of net shading and growing drought
resistant crops
Bulkiness and perishability of the products Refridgerate to increases shelf life
A farmer had a 1 ha field to grow maize at the spacing of 90cm between rows and 45cm
between plants. Calculate the number of rows and plants. If each maize plant produced
2 cobs, and each cost P5.00 to sell, find income. If the farmer used 10 bags of fertiliser at
a cost of P205.00 each and the used 2 bags of P12.5kg seeds that were bought at P25.00
each, calculate the profit.
a. Moisture availability
- Sorghum is not usually irrigated and depends on rainfall.
- Farmers should make use of rainfall by;
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i. Planting early to make use of the rains ii.
Mulching to reduce evaporation
b. Weeds and weeds control
Once we know the history of pest and what type of damage it causes, it will be easier to
control it, e.g. aphids, stalkborer, etc.
d. Diseases and diseases control
e. Harvesting
- Harvested when it is fully matured.
- Signs of maturity in sorghum are;
➢ Grains harden and dry out
➢ Grains changes colour depending on the variety
➢ Leaves and stems begin to dry out and turn yellow- brown in colour.
➢ During harvesting; cut out sorghum heads with a knife and use a combine
harvester under commercial farms.
f. Storage
- Store grains in sacks or metal tanks or by traditional storage e.g. letlole, sesigo,
etc - Stored grains should be added 1% Malathion to control storage weevils.
g. Marketing
- Sell sorghum grains to Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board (BAMB), it
can also be sold for cash to individuals or exchange for other goods.
h. Processing of sorghum
- It can be processed in milling industries to sorghum meal i. Production records
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FRUIT TREE PRODUCTION
INDIGENEOUS FRUIT TREES- These are trees that are native (local) to the area or
country. e.gmorula, raisin bush (moretlwa), snot apple tree (moruja), large sour plum
tree (moretloga), wild medlar tree (mmilo), baobab tree (mowana), monkey orange tree
(mogorogorwane), etc
EXOTIC FRUIT TREES- These are trees that are imported from other countries and
have been grown for some particular time, e.g. plum tree, apple tree, pear, orange,
lemon, guava, grapes, etc.
1. Nutritional value
- They contain large amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals
- They help in digestion as they contain fibre which is a laxative
- They add variety of colours, textures and tastes to our food
- They contain a lot of water as fresh and very little fat
2. Economic importance
- Source of income
- Source of foreign exchange
- Source of raw materials
- Source of employment
- They increase the value of land especially areas which are hilly or stony which
are not suitable for arable farming
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ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
DOMESTICATED ANIMALS
- Cattle
- Goat
- Sheep
- Pig
- Rabbit
- Chicken
WILD ANIMALS
- Gemsbok (Kukama)
- Springbok (Tshepe)
- Eland (Phofu)
- Buffalo (Nare)
- Red lechwee (Letswee)
- Kudu (Tholo)
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Advantages of protecting wild animals
- They provide meat and hides, horns, hair, ivory and other products
- Tourism could develop in areas where there are game animals
- Development of tourism brings about an improvement in the infrastructure of
the area
- Provision of services to tourists such hotels, tour guides, food and transport,
creates jobs for local people and improves standard of living.
- Game animals eat a variety of grasses than cattle.
- They are more resistant to local diseases and pests.
- They cause less trampling and loosening of the soil than cattle.
Disadvantages
DISEASES OF ANIMALS
- Animal stands by itself and lags behind the herd when moved
- No or poor appetite
- Teeth grinding
- Diarrhea
- Heartwater
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- Rabies
- Anthrax
- Botulism
- Lumpy skin
- Pulpy kidney
- Newcastle
- Marek’s disease
- Fowl pox
- Coccidiosis
i. Restrictions
- Restrict importation of live animals and animal products from other countries
- Restrict movement of animals within the country- dividing the country into
different zones ii. Destruction of infected animals iii. Destruction of infected
materials e.g. bones, hides etc iv. Disinfection of infected buildings, vehicles and
utensils
- Controlling ticks
- Domestic animals from farm to farm, e.g. dogs carrying bones infected
PARASITES OF ANIMALS
INTERNAL PARASITES EXTERNAL PARASITES
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- Roundworms (nematodes) - Ticks
- Tapeworms - Tsetseflies
- Liver flukes - Mosquitoes
- Fleas
- Mites
- lice
Cattle
- Source of food
- Source of income
- Source of employment
- Provide useful products
Chicken
- Source of food
- Source of income
- Source of employment
- Provide useful products thus feathers used to stuff pillows
Goats/ Sheep
- Source of food
- Source of income
- Source of employment
- Provide useful products
- Easy to keep
- They hardy- withstand local conditions
- Multiply quickly
Ostriches
- Source of food
- Source of income
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- Source of employment
- Provide useful products thus feathers used as feather dusters
Rabbits
BREEDS OF ANIMALS
ANIMAL BREED
Beef cattle - Tswana
- Brahman
- Charolais
- Afrikander
- Bonsmara
- Tuli
- Hereford
- Simmental
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Sheep - Tswana
- Blackhead Persian
- Dorper
- Merino
- Ile de France
- Damara
- Karakul
Broiler chicken - Plymouth
- Cornish Game
- Light Sussex
- New Hampshire
- Rhode Island Red
Layer chicken - White leghorn
- Isa brown
- Hyline
- Black Australorp
STANDARD 7
SOIL
SOIL STRUCTURE
This is an arrangement of rock particles in the soil or the way that the particles hold
together in the soil.
It depends on the proportion of sand, silt and clay particles, organic matter and water in
the soil.
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1. Single grain
- No aggregates
2. Crumb
3. Platy
- Aggregates are closely packed with small air spaces between them.
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4. Blocky 5. Prismatic
SOIL EROSION
This is the removal of soil from one place to another. This is through wind and water.
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a. Water erosion
- Splash erosion
- Sheet erosion
- Rill erosion
- Gully erosion
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b. Wind erosion
Agents of soil - something that transport soil from one place to another.
Causes of soil erosion – something that results in the soil erosion happening.
- Water
- Wind
WATER
a. Running water – the flowing water becomes an agent when it flows fast and takes
or carries soil as it moves down a steeply slope or valley.
b. Ice- this is when glaciers move across the land and carry soil particles with them.
c. Wave action- wave has a lot of energy and as it crashes on the land, they can
erode the soil and rocks along the coast.
WIND
- Strong winds can pick up soil particles and blow them across the land. The action
can form some sand dunes.
The causes expose the soil and make it loose so that it can easily be eroded away by the
agents of soil erosion.
a. Removal of vegetation
c. Overgrazing- this process removes vegetation. Large numbers of livestock eat all
the vegetation leaving the soil bare and their hooves loosen the soil. These makes
soil erosion to occur.
d. Poor soil structure and texture- sandy soils are easily eroded than clay or loam
soils. Single grain soils are more easily eroded than crumb soils.
- Make soils to be shallow and be less suitable for plants growth many nutrients
will be eroded.
- Mulching
- Planting of windbreaks
- Contour ridges (bunds) - ridges of soil made to hold the water back.
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ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
ANIMAL PRODUCTION
- Good environmental control as cattle is kept cool during hot weather and warm
during cold weather.
- Control cattle against predators and thieves
- Prevents animals from going astray
- Improve control over disease and parasites because animals are under clean
environment to live in.
- Facilitates management activities such as AI, dehorning, castration, vaccination,
dipping and isolation of sick animals.
- Good ventilation
- The floor not slippery
- Material able to absorb heat
- Housing
- Provision of water
- Identification of animals
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DISEASES OF CATTLE
Cause: Virus
Symptoms
Treatment
- No known treatment
HEART WATER
Cause: Rickettsia
Symptoms
Treatment
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Control and Prevention
PARASITES OF CATTLE
ROUNDWORMS
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Mature female roundworm lays
eggs inside intestins
- Loss of appetite, weight, weakness and poor growth leading to less meat and
milk.
- Diarrhoea leading to dehydration
- Feeds on blood causing anaemia (shortage of blood)
- Causes death
Methods of control
LIVER- FLUKES
Lifecycle of liver-flukes
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Liver-
Larva leaves
snail and Eggs passed out
settles on with dung
grass
Each egg
larva attaches hatches into
itself on the mobile larva
snail and which swim
reproduces around in
while inside itwater looking for water snail
Methods of control
- Keep cattle away from wet pastures; like swamps, marshy areas or near ponds
- drain wet areas to control snails as a way of cutting the life-cycle
- give drugs or medicines which can kill adult flukes, larvae and eggs
External parasites of beef cattle (lives on the outside body of the host)
1. TICKS
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Eight-legged and male
Adult ticks
female
nymphs develop mate while on
into adult ticks the same host
Six-legged
larvae develop Female drops to
into eight- the ground after
legged nymphs suckling blood
whilst on the and lays eggs
same host
Life-cycle of mite
2nd stage Adult female
nymph and male
grows into mites mate
an adult whilst on the
host
1st stage
Female mite
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nymph lays eggs. Eggs
develops into hatch into
2nd stage larvae
nymph
Larva develops
into
1st stage nymph
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- Sale to other farmers and sale by barter (exchange in kind) - Direct sale to BMC
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