12 Phy Chapter 13 Notes

Chapter 13: Space Physics (8%)
TEXT BOOK
Syllabus (IG): Processes of satellite development (Scope: mission definition review,
preliminary design review, critical design review, safety review)
Types of satellite design reviews

Requirements Definition
⮚ Mission Design Review (MDR)
Conceptual Design(s)
⮚ Preliminary Design Review (PDR)
Detail Design
⮚ Critical Design Review (CDR)
Flight Readiness
⮚ Flight Readiness Review (FRR)
1. Mission Design Review

Overview of mission requirements
⮚ Evaluate and consolidate all requirements
Possible mission solution(s)
⮚ Proposal of bus hardware components
⮚ Present potential payload(s)
⮚ Mission orbit analysis
⮚ Initial power, mass, volume and link budgets
Timeline for project development
⮚ Determine critical milestones
Budget proposal
Space Physics /REC/ 1

⮚ Determine financial feasibility and constraints
Major challenge
⮚ Present and discuss potential problems & solutions foreseen
2. Preliminary Design Review

Conducted after preliminary design(s) effort
⮚ First opportunity of stakeholders to observe contractor’s hardware and software

design solution
⮚ Contractor must present and explain all design changes, since the initial technical
proposal (MDR)
Include all configuration items of project
⮚ Evaluate the design progress made
⮚ Evaluate the technical adequacy of design(s)
⮚ Evaluate the risk resolution on a technical, cost and schedule basis
⮚ Evaluate the performance to the requirements solution
Establish the physical and functional interfaces
⮚ Ensure consistency and technical adequacy of the top level design and test
approach
⮚ Focus on compatibility of the design requirements
Approval of pre‐design for final development
3. Critical Design Review

Presentation of Final Design
⮚ Contractor must present and explain the detail design of all configuration items for
cost, schedule and performance
⮚ Reviewers must critically evaluate the final design solution
⮚ Focus on new hardware development solutions
Risk Analysis and Mitigation Plan

⮚ Outline all technical and programmatic issues foreseen
⮚ Present the requirements compliancy table
Assembly, Integration and Test Plan
⮚ Step‐by‐step detailed procedure of satellite construction
Management Plan
⮚ List of people involved in the project and their contribution
⮚ Outline the financial budget available to complete the project
⮚ Present the project timeline and major milestones
⮚ List of long-lead items
4. Qualification/Flight Readiness Review

Qualification/Flight Test Plans
⮚ Environmental tests: Radio Frequency (RF), thermal, vacuum and vibration
⮚ Functional tests: Assembly, Integration and Testing (AIT) procedures
⮚ Explain purpose of all the planned tests
⮚ Motivate why it will be tested
Facilities and Resources
⮚ Specifications and people requirement
⮚ Hazards and risks – present all mitigation steps
Present the Test results
⮚ Assess results for qualification/flight acceptance (go/no go)
⮚ Present a way forward and proposed solutions for failed tests
Receive Certification
⮚ Safe to proceed at an acceptable risk

Design Review Package Contents
Typical DR package content:
⮚ Current Product Development Specification (PDS)
⮚ Applicable engineering data, i.e. calculations, simulations, test results, budgets, etc.
⮚ Competitive analysis of existing products
⮚ Drawings, schematics, layouts, breadboards, mock‐ups and prototypes
⮚ Project progress and timelines
⮚ Project risk analysis
⮚ Description of unusual requirements and design elements with associated high risk.
The Preliminary Design Review (PDR)
The Preliminary Design Review (PDR) is a technical assessment that establishes the allocated
baseline of a system to ensure a system is operationally effective. A PDR is conducted
before the start of detailed design work and is the first opportunity for the Government to
closely observe the Contractor’s hardware and software design. This review assesses the
allocated design documented in subsystem product specifications for each configuration item
in the system and ensures that each function, in the Functional Baseline, has been allocated to
one or more system configuration items.
Purpose of the Preliminary Design Review (PDR)
The PDR establishes the allocated baseline (hardware, software, human/support systems) and
underlying architectures to ensure that the system under review has a reasonable expectation
of satisfying the requirements within the currently allocated budget and schedule.

Fact sheet: Preliminary Design Review (PDR) Fact Sheet
When to conduct a Preliminary Design Review:

The PDR should be conducted when the allocated baseline has been achieved, allowing the
detailed design of hardware and software CIs to proceed. A rule of thumb is that 10 percent to
25 percent of product drawings and associated instructions should be complete and that 100
percent of all safety‐critical component (Critical Safety Items and Critical Application Items)
drawings are complete.
The PDR should be conducted when all major design issues have been resolved and work can
begin on detailed design. The PDR should address and resolve critical, system ‐wide issues
before detailed design begins.
For complex systems, a PDR may be conducted incrementally for each configuration item.
These incremental reviews lead to an overall system-level PDR. System-level performance is
supported by compliance with Interface Control Documents, but not assured. Interface
requirements make up each configuration item Allocated Specification. Completion of the
PDR should provide the following:
● An established system allocated baseline,
● An updated risk assessment for the Engineering, Manufacturing, and Development

(EMD) Phase,
● An updated Cost Analysis Requirements Description (CARD) or CARD-like

document based on the system allocated baseline,
● An updated program schedule including system and software critical path drivers, and

● An approved Life-Cycle Sustainment Plan (LCSP) updating program sustainment
development efforts and schedules.
A successful PDR is predicated on the determination that the subsystem requirements,
subsystem preliminary design, results of peer reviews, and plans for development, testing,
and evaluation form a satisfactory basis for proceeding into detailed design and test
procedure development.
Critical Design Review (CDR)

A Critical Design Review (CDR) is a multi-disciplined technical review to ensure that a
system can proceed into fabrication, demonstration, and test and can meet stated performance
requirements within cost, schedule, and risk. A successful CDR is predicated upon a
determination that the detailed design satisfies the Capabilities Development Document
(CDD). Multiple CDRs may be held for key Configuration Items (CI) and/or at each
subsystem level, culminating in a system-level CDR.
The CDR is conducted during the Engineering, Manufacturing, and Development (EMD)
phase and when the product baseline has been achieved and the CDR entrance criteria
detailed in the Systems Engineering Plan (SEP) have been met, allowing fabrication of
hardware and coding of software deliverables to proceed.
Purpose of the Critical Design Review (CDR)

The purpose of a CDR is to assess a system’s final design as captured in product
specifications for each Configuration Item in the system’s product baseline and ensure that
each configuration item has been captured in the detailed design documentation. The
resulting set of detailed drawings and specifications establish an initial product baseline, with
a final baseline incorporating any design changes resulting from System Demonstration
and Initial Operational Test and Evaluation (IOT&E).
The completion of CDR usually initiates the start of formal Configuration Management
(CM) by the Contractor of the Technical Baseline. Any changes to that baseline can only be
accomplished with the approval of the Government.
When to Conduct Critical Design Review (CDR):

The CDR should be conducted when the Product Baseline has been achieved, allowing
fabrication of hardware and coding of software deliverables to proceed. A rule of thumb is
that 75 percent to 90 percent of (manufacturing quality) product drawings, software design
specification(s), and associated instructions should be complete and that 100 percent of all
safety-critical components (Critical Safety Items and Critical Application Items) drawings are
complete.
A Critical Design Review (CDR) should:
● Determine that the detailed design of the configuration item under review satisfies
cost (for cost-type contracts), schedule, and performance requirements.
● Establish detail design compatibility among the configuration item and other items of
equipment, facilities, computer software, and personnel.
● Assess configuration item risk areas (on a technical, cost, and schedule basis).
● Assess the results of predictability analyses conducted on system hardware.
● Review preliminary hardware product specifications.
● Determine the acceptability of the detailed design, performance, and test

characteristics, and on the adequacy of the operation and support documents.
Completion of CDR should provide:
1. A system initial Product Baseline,

2. An updated risk assessment for Engineering, Manufacturing, and Development
(EMD).
3. An updated Cost Analysis Requirements Description (CARD) based on the system
product baseline.
4. An updated program development schedule including fabrication, test, and evaluation,
and software coding, critical path drivers, and
5. An approved Life-Cycle Sustainment Plan (LCSP) updating program sustainment
development efforts and schedules based on current budgets, test evaluation results,
and firm supportability design features.

Completed Critical Design Review (CDR) Reporting:
The Program Manager shall provide a Post-CDR Report to the Milestone Decision Authority
(MDA) that provides an overall assessment of design maturity and a summary of the system-
level CDR results which shall include, but not be limited to:
● The names, organizations, and areas of expertise of independent subject matter expert
participants and CDR chair,
● A description of the product baseline for the system and the percentage of build-to
packages completed for this baseline,
● A summary of the issues and actions identified at the review together with their
closure plans,
● An assessment of risk by the participants against the exit criteria for the EMD phase,
and
● Identification of those issues/risks that could result in a breach of the program

baseline or substantively impact cost, schedule, or performance.
Post-Critical Design Review (CDR) Assessment

The assessors will assess the design maturity and technical risks evident in the CDR. Program
Managers (PM) of these programs are required to invite DASD (SE) engineers to their
system-level CDRs and make available CDR artefacts. These will include all CDR briefings
and those artefacts that constitute the initial product baseline.
Difference between Preliminary Design Review (PDR) and Critical Design (CDR)
Review
Where a Preliminary Design Review (PDR) is conducted to ensure new technologies are
mature enough to be integrated into a product subsystem to form its allocated baseline.
A Critical Design Review (CDR) is focused on determining if a system can meet its stated
performance requirements within cost, schedule, and risk.
Sources
 https://bit.ly/3z9Y5hv
 https://acqnotes.com/acqnote/acquisitions/critical-design-review
 http://www.unisec.jp/mpj/pdf/Review_Meetings_Herman_Steyn.pdf

Additional resources
 https://space-for-space.com/total-solutions/
 https://www.inmarsat.com/en/insights/corporate/2017/the-making-of-a-satellite.html
 https://www.esa.int/Education/CubeSats_-_Fly_Your_Satellite
 http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1963NASSP..32.1007D
Activity
1. On a special mission to promote space technology in Bhutan, imagine that you are asked
to design a research satellite. Write a sequential narrative incorporating all the satellite
reviewing components to be presented to the mission task force.
2. Use the link https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/teach/activity/build-a-satellite/ to explore the
procedures to develop the artificial satellite.
Syllabus(IG) : Orbital Mechanics and Satellite Launch (Scope: Kepler’s laws, rocket
technology)
Orbital Mechanics
When a satellite, space shuttle, or some other object is orbiting a planet, it maintains a
circular orbit around the planet at a constant distance off the surface. Man-Made satellites
typically orbit between 200 and 400 miles. For example, the International Space Station (ISS)
orbits at 370 km, or 230 miles.
The ISS has an average velocity of 7.66 km/sec tangential to its orbit. An orbiting satellite is
close enough to be acted upon by Earth’s gravity. This force is constantly pulling the satellite
in toward the centre of the earth – it is a centripetal force and causes centripetal acceleration.
At this height, however, Earth’s gravity is only about 8.7 m/s2.

Scientists designing the satellites must carefully calculate the velocity necessary to keep the
satellite orbiting. To keep the satellite from falling back to Earth, the horizontal velocity must
be large enough. The satellite must travel far enough horizontally that it follows the curve of
the planet.
Source
 https://bit.ly/3z2PLzV
Simulations
 https://rb.gy/b13jqg
Videos
 https://youtu.be/iQOHRKKNNLQ
Three basic properties of ellipses
The first property of an ellipse: an ellipse is defined by two points, each called a focus, and
together called foci. The sum of the distances to the foci from any point on the ellipse is
always a constant.
The second property of an ellipse: the amount of flattening of the ellipse is called the
eccentricity. The flatter the ellipse, the more eccentric it is. Each ellipse has an eccentricity
with a value between zero, a circle, and one, essentially a flat line, technically called a
parabola.
The third property of an ellipse: the longest axis of the ellipse is called the major axis, while
the shortest axis is called the minor axis. Half of the major axis is termed a semi major axis.
Knowing then that the orbits of the planets are elliptical, Johannes Kepler formulated three
laws of planetary motion, which accurately described the motion of comets as well.
Kepler's First Law: each planet's orbit about the Sun is an ellipse. The Sun's center is
always located at one focus of the orbital ellipse. The Sun is at one focus. The planet follows
the ellipse in its orbit, meaning that the planet to Sun distance is constantly changing as the
planet goes around its orbit.

Kepler's Second Law: the imaginary line joining a planet and the sons sweeps equal areas of
space during equal time intervals as the planet orbits. Basically, that planets do not move with
constant speed along their orbits. Rather, their speed varies so that the line joining the centre
of the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal parts of an area at equal times. The point of
nearest approach of the planet to the Sun is termed perihelion. The point of greatest
separation is aphelion, hence by Kepler's Second Law, a planet is moving fastest when it is at
perihelion and slowest at aphelion.
Kepler's Third Law: the squares of the orbital periods of the planets are directly
proportional to the cubes of the semi major axes of their orbits. Kepler's Third Law implies
that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases rapidly with the radius of its orbit. Thus
we find that Mercury, the innermost planet, takes only 88 days to orbit the Sun. The earth
takes 365 days, while Saturn requires 10,759 days to do the same. Though Kepler hadn't
known about gravitation when he came up with his three laws, they were instrumental in
Isaac Newton deriving his theory of universal gravitation, which explains the unknown force
behind Kepler's Third Law. Kepler and his theories were crucial in the better understanding
of our solar system dynamics and as a springboard to newer theories that more accurately
approximate our planetary orbits.
Source
 https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/resources/310/orbits-and-keplers-laws/
Videos:
 https://youtu.be/wjOOrr2uPuU
 https://youtu.be/zN6kCa6xi9k
Activity

1. Use the Space Station simulation below to observe how adjusting the initial radius of
a satellite in orbit affects its orbital period, as well as the overall shape of the orbit and
fill up the worksheet: https://bit.ly/2Ulq2Uu
2. Solve numerical problems related to orbital motion (Orbital velocity, escape velocity,
centripetal force, centripetal acceleration and gravitational force) and Kepler’s law.
Rockets and rocket launches
Since the invention of gunpowder in China more than seven centuries ago, humans have sent
cylinders soaring into the skies with the help of controlled explosions. These craft and their
engines, called rockets, have taken on many roles as fireworks, signal flares, and weapons of
war.
But since the 1950s, rockets also have let us send robots, animals, and people into orbit
around Earth and even beyond.
How does a rocket work?
As tempting as the logic may be, rockets don't work by “pushing against the air,” since they
also function in the vacuum of space. Instead, rockets take advantage of momentum, or how
much power a moving object has.
If no outside forces act on a group of objects, the group's combined momentum must stay
constant over time. Imagine yourself standing on a skateboard with a basketball in your
hands. If you throw the basketball in one direction, you and the skateboard will roll in the
opposite direction to conserve momentum. The faster you throw the ball, the faster you roll
backward.
Rockets work by expelling hot exhaust that acts in the same way as the basketball. The
exhaust's gas molecules don't weigh much individually, but they exit the rocket's nozzle very
fast, giving them a lot of momentum. As a result, the rocket moves in the opposite direction
of the exhaust with the same total oomph.
Rockets make exhaust by burning fuel in a rocket engine. Unlike airplanes' jet engines,
rockets are designed to work in space: They don't have intakes for air, and they bring along
their own oxidizers, substances that play the role of oxygen in burning fuel. A rocket's fuel

and oxidizer called propellants can be either solid or liquid. The space shuttle's side boosters
used solid propellants, while many modern rockets use liquid propellants.
What are the stages of a rocket launch?
Today's large, space-bound rockets consist of at least two stages, sections stacked in a shared
cylindrical shell. Each stage has its own engines, which can vary in number. The first stage of
Space X's Falcon 9 rocket has nine engines, while the first stage of Northrop Grumman's
Antares rocket has two.
A rocket's first stage gets the rocket out of the lower atmosphere, sometimes with the help of
extra side boosters. Because the first stage must lift the entire rocket, its cargo (or payload),
and any unused fuel, it's the biggest and most powerful section.
The faster a rocket goes, the more air resistance it encounters. But the higher the rocket goes,
the thinner the atmosphere gets. Combined, these two factors mean that the stress on a rocket
rises and then falls during a launch, peaking at a pressure known as max q. For the Space X
Falcon 9 and the United Launch Alliance Atlas V, max q occurs at 80 to 90 seconds after lift-
off, at altitudes between seven and nine miles.
Once the first stage has done its job, the rocket drops that portion and ignites its second stage.
The second stage has a lot less to transport, and it doesn't have to fight through the thick
lower atmosphere, so it usually has just one engine. At this point, rockets also let go of their

fairings, the pointed cap at the rocket's tip that shields what the rocket is carrying, its payload,
during the launch's first phase.
Historically, most of a rocket's discarded parts were left to fall back down to Earth and burn
up in the atmosphere. But starting in the 1980s with NASA's space shuttle, engineers
designed rocket parts that could be recovered and reused. Private companies including Space
X and Blue Origin are even building rockets with first stages that return to Earth and land
themselves. The more that a rocket's parts can be reused, the cheaper rocket launches can get.
What are the different types of rockets?
Just as automobiles come in many shapes and sizes, rockets vary depending on the jobs they
do. Sounding rockets launch high in the air on ballistic arcs, curving into space for five to 20
minutes before they crash back to Earth. They're most often used for scientific experiments
that don't need a lot of time in space. For instance, NASA used a sounding rocket in
September 2018 to test parachutes for future Mars missions.
Suborbital rockets such as Blue Origin's New Shepard are strong enough to temporarily enter
space, either for scientific experiments or space tourism. Orbital-class rockets are powerful
enough to launch objects into orbit around Earth. Depending on how big the payload is, they
also can send objects beyond Earth, such as scientific probes (or sports cars).

Ferrying satellites to orbit or beyond requires serious power. For a satellite to remain in a
circular orbit 500 miles above Earth's surface, it must be accelerated to more than 16,600
miles an hour. The Saturn V rocket, the most powerful ever built, lifted more than 300,000
pounds of payload into low Earth orbit during the Apollo missions.
For now, Space X's Falcon Heavy and United Launch Alliance's Delta IV Heavy are the
world's most powerful rockets, but even bigger ones are coming. Once NASA's Space
Launch System gets past its delays and cost overruns, it will be the most powerful rocket ever
built. Meanwhile, Space X is building a test version of its Starship, the massive rocket
formerly known as the BFR (Big Falcon Rocket). Russia has also announced its goal of
launching a “super-heavy lift” rocket in 2028.
As some rocket makers go big, others are going small to service the growing boom in cheap
to build satellites no bigger than refrigerators. Rocket Lab's Electron rocket can lift just a few
hundred pounds into low-Earth orbit, but for the small satellites it's ferrying, that's all the
power it needs.
What is a launch pad?
A launch pad is a platform from which a rocket is launched, and they're found at facilities
called launch complexes or spaceports.

A typical launch pad consists of a pad and a launch mount, a metal structure that supports the
upright rocket before it launches. Umbilical cables from the launch mount provide the rocket
with power, cooling liquids, and top up propellant before launch. The structure also helps
shield the rocket from lightning strikes.
Different launch complexes have different ways of putting rockets on launch pads. At
NASA's Kennedy Space Center, the space shuttle was assembled vertically and moved to the
launch pad on a tank-like vehicle called a crawler. The Russian space program transports its
rockets horizontally by train to the launch pad, where they're then lifted upright.
Launch pads also have features that minimize damage from the rocket's launch. When a
rocket first ignites, valves lining the launch pad spray hundreds of thousands of gallons of
water into the air around the exhaust, which helps lessen the rocket's deafening roar.
Trenches beneath the launch pad also direct the rocket's exhaust out and away from the craft,
so the flames can't rise back up and engulf the rocket itself.
Where are rockets launched?
There are many launch sites around the world, each with different pros and cons. In general,
the closer a launch site is to the Equator, the more efficient it is. That's because the Equator
moves faster than Earth's poles as the planet rotates, like the outer edge of a spinning record.
Launch sites at higher latitudes more easily place satellites into orbits that pass over the poles.
Between 1957 and 2017, 29 spaceports sent satellites or humans into orbit. Many of the sites
are still active, including the only three facilities ever to launch humans into orbit. More
spaceports are on the way, both public and private. In 2018, the U.S.-New Zealand firm
Rocket Labs launched satellites into orbit from its own private launch pad on New Zealand's
Mahia Peninsula.
Source:
 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/rockets-and-rocket-launches-
explained
Videos:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-TGdF_YE1c
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ror4P1UAv_g
Activities
1. Develop the worksheet to explains the rocket launch and docking from the game links
https://rb.gy/sc8hn8 and https://iss-sim.spacex.com/
2. Open the simulation link Simulation - Uniform Circular Motion (aplusphysics.com) to
answer the given questions.
3. Build your own spacecraft! https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/build-a-spacecraft/en/
Syllabus (IG): Satellite subsystem and satellite Tracking or operation (Scope: command
and data-handling subsystem (CDHS), electrical power system (EPS), environmental control
and life-support subsystem (ECLSS), onboard computer (OBC), structures and mechanics,
satellite ground station, satellite tracking, satellite operation).
Satellite subsystems
The command and data handling subsystem is the brains of the satellite, controlling what the
spacecraft does, when it does it, and why it is doing it. It is responsible for data operations
and issuing commands to multiple systems aboard the spacecraft. It also controls the decision
making capabilities of the spacecraft, as all data that is needed for any function of the satellite
passes through this system. Without a command and data handling subsystem, the spacecraft
would not function at all.
In order to communicate with all of the various circuit boards and sensors, the Command and
Data Handling system makes use of multiple data buses. On MRS SAT, the central computer
communicates over two universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART) data buses.
Command & Data-handling Systems system:
● manages all forms of data on the spacecraft;
● carries out commands sent from Earth;
● prepares data for transmission to Earth;
● manages collection of solar power and charging of the batteries;
● collects and processes information about all subsystems and payloads;

● keeps and distributes the spacecraft time;
● calculates the spacecraft's position in orbit around Mars;
● carries out commanded manoeuvres; and,
● autonomously monitors and responds to a wide range of on-board problems that might
occur.
Refer notes of satellite subsystems from the file attached.
Sources
https://mars.nasa.gov/mro/mission/spacecraft/parts/command/
https://web.mst.edu/~mrsat/subsystems/command-and-data-handling.html#:~:text=The
%20command%20and%20data%20handling,multiple%20systems%20aboard%20the
%20spacecraft.
Additional resources:
● https://www.orbitaleos.com/satellite-subsystems/
Satellite Tracking
Satellite tracking is any activity in which the position or flight progress of an orbiting object
is monitored. Tracking is used for visual observation, active or passive radio communication,
or simply following the current location and ground track of the satellite.
Telemetry, Tracking, Command and Monitoring
The tracking, telemetry, command, and monitoring (TTC&M) subsystem provides essential
spacecraft management and control functions to keep the satellite operating safely in orbit.

The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and the ground are usually separate from the
communications system links. TTC&M links may operate in the same frequency bands or in
other bands.
The satellite TTC&M subsystems comprise the antenna, command receiver, tracking and
telemetry transmitter, and possibly tracking sensors. Telemetry data are received from the
other subsystems of the spacecraft, such as the payload, power, attitude control, and thermal
control. Command data are relayed from the command receiver to other subsystems to
control such parameters as antenna pointing, transponder modes of operation, battery and
solar cell changes, etc. The elements on the ground include the TTC&M antenna, telemetry
receiver, command transmitter, tracking subsystem, and associated processing and analysis
functions. Satellite control and monitoring is accomplished through monitors and keyboard
interface. Major operations of TTC&M may be automated, with minimal human interface
required.
Sources
https://rb.gy/ntlb4l
Video
https://youtu.be/SmI5gx7ifS0
https://rb.gy/lrtrbr
https://rb.gy/girefj
Activity

Follow the procedure to locate the satellite and predict its sighting opportunity from your
location.
Procedure:
1. Download orbitron (apps) from the link http://www.stoff.pl/downloads.php and install
it on your device.
2. Visit the link https://www.celestrak.com/NORAD/elements/ to select the satellite of

your choice from the given list.
3. Highlight and copy one satellite from the given list along with two line element (TLE)
sets.
4. Save TLE in the notepad on your desktop in the form of a text file.
5. Open orbitron and load the TLE that you have saved earlier.

6. Click on the name of the satellite reflected on the right side to locate the position of
the satellite on the world map.
7. Grasp the location and distance of the satellite along with Sun and Moon by clicking
on the data button.
8. Insert your current location details (longitude and latitude) by clicking the location
button.
9. Set up the date to obtain the sighting opportunity of the satellite from your location by
clicking on prediction setup.
10. Obtain the schedule of sighting opportunities by clicking the prediction button.
Remember that no data on the screen indicates that the satellite is not able to sight
from your location.

11. You can save the information on the desktop to interpret the related data. you will get
a display as shown below.

Syllabus (IG): The Space Environment. (Scope: major hazards of the space environment,
living and working in space).
Satellite Disposal. (Scope: end of life of a satellite, disposal, space debris management)
Major hazards of the space environment

The most dangerous aspect of the space environment is the pervasive influence of charged
particles. Three primary sources for these particles are
• The solar wind and flares
• Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs)
• The Van Allen radiation belts
The Sun puts out a stream of charged particles (protons and electrons) as part of the solar
wind. During intense solar flares, the number of particles ejected can increase dramatically.
As if this source of charged particles wasn’t enough, we must also consider high-energy
particles from galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). GCRs are particles similar to those found in the
solar wind or in solar flares, but they originate outside of the solar system. GCRs represent
the solar wind from distant stars, the remnants of exploded stars, or, perhaps, shrapnel from
the “Big Bang” explosion that created the Universe. In many cases, however, GCRs are much
more massive and energetic than particles of solar origin. Ironically, the very thing that
protects us on Earth from these charged particles creates a third hazard, potentially harmful to
orbiting spacecraft and astronauts—the Van Allen radiation belts (high number of charged
particles trapped in the Earth's magnetic field.)

Other characteristics of the space environment, some anticipated and some unexpected, were
also experienced by these early probes. Such characteristics include a very hard (that is,
relatively very pure) vacuum, so-called zero gravity, high solar illumination levels, radiation,
and micrometeorite hazards.
The vacuum conditions encountered in space required the encapsulation of apparatuses and
passengers in a space vehicle or else the special and expensive design of equipment that
could work without an air environment. The cooling of electronics systems became a
problem, and moving parts required special lubricating systems because they otherwise
tended to stick together when operating in space.
The free fall of satellites in low Earth orbits created the condition commonly called zero
gravity. Technically, this term is a misnomer. The force of gravity in low Earth orbits is
scarcely diminished from that experienced at the Earth's surface; it is the motion of the
satellite that results in the effect of weightlessness. The term zero-G has passed into common
usage, however, and is going to remain. Because slight accelerations actually do occur even
on a satellite - due mainly to air drag and satellite motion - the more recent
term microgravity has generally been adopted as well.
Unfiltered solar radiation can cause illuminated portions of a spacecraft to rise to high
temperatures. Meanwhile, shaded portions of the craft will radiate their warmth into space
and cool below the freezing point of common fluids such as water and storable rocket fuels.
All such fluid containers and lines are commonly equipped with electrical heaters, while
overall temperatures are moderated by rotating the spacecraft along an axis perpendicular to
the spacecraft-Sun line. This is known as passive thermal control or, more colorfully,
"barbecue mode." Unmanned spacecraft to the inner planets must be equipped with parasols

to reflect away unwanted solar heat. Those sent to the outer solar system - or to the Moon's
surface, with its two-week-long nights - have often used radioisotope heaters.
Radiation effects on space flights also took some time to appreciate. Satellites in LEO are
protected by the magnetosphere from solar charged particles and from a large percentage of
the cosmic rays arriving from outer space. Vehicles operating at GEO or on interplanetary
missions, however, receive the full force of these radiations. Cosmic rays have been known to
penetrate integrated circuits in spacecraft autopilots and to alter data and commands. A space
version of static electricity has built up on other space vehicles during solar storms, resulting
in electrical sparks that caused severe problems in on-board electronics. Experienced design
of such systems has reduced the effects of these influences.
The danger from micrometeorites, on the other hand, has proved to be slight. Although
numerous impacts have been recorded - and, on at least one occasion, actually heard by an
orbiting crew - no spacecraft is known to have been seriously damaged by such particles.
Debris from other artificial satellites appears to be increasing as a significant danger,
however. By 1996 two satellites are believed to have been destroyed by collisions with
"space junk," and from time to time Space Shuttle missions have to change course to avoid
predicted near-misses with larger pieces of junk.
Source
 https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/space-environment/
Additional information
 https://go.nasa.gov/3rcAytt
 https://bit.ly/3bMHx61
 https://www.nasa.gov/analogs/nsrl/why-space-radiation-matters.
Video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snv1SnxcSbM&t=230s
Living and working in space

Morning Routine in Space
Astronauts living and working in space have the same hygiene needs as people on Earth.
They wash their hair, brush their teeth, shave and go to the bathroom. However, because of
the microgravity environment, astronauts take care of themselves in different ways.
Astronauts wash their hair with a rinse-less shampoo that was originally developed for
hospital patients who were unable to take a shower. Because of microgravity, the space
station toilet is more complex than what people use on Earth. The astronauts have to position
themselves on the toilet seat using leg restraints. The toilet basically works like a vacuum
cleaner with fans that suck air and waste into the commode. Each astronaut has a personal
urinal funnel that has to be attached to the hose's adapter. Fans suck air and urine through the
funnel and the hose into the wastewater tank.
Video
https://youtu.be/5WSlGRBTFNI
Eating in Space
Astronauts basically prepares variety of foods as per their desire. Some foods can be eaten in
their natural forms, such as brownies and fruit. Other foods require adding water, such as
macaroni and cheese or spaghetti. Of course, an oven is provided in the space station to heat

foods to the proper temperature. There are no refrigerators in space, so space food must be
stored and prepared properly to avoid spoilage, especially on longer missions. Condiments,
such as ketchup, mustard and mayonnaise, are provided. Salt and pepper are available but
only in a liquid form. This is because astronauts can't sprinkle salt and pepper on their food in
space. The salt and pepper would simply float away. There is a danger they could clog air
vents, contaminate equipment or get stuck in an astronaut's eyes, mouth or nose.
Astronauts eat three meals a day: breakfast, lunch and dinner. Nutritionists ensure the food
astronauts eat provides them with a balanced supply of vitamins and minerals. Calorie
requirements differ for astronauts. For instance, a small woman would require only about
1,900 calories a day, while a large man would require about 3,200 calories. An astronaut can
choose from many types of foods such as fruits, nuts, peanut butter, chicken, beef, seafood,
candy, brownies, etc. Available drinks include coffee, tea, orange juice, fruit punches and
lemonade.
As on Earth, space food comes in disposable packages. Astronauts must throw their packages
away when they have finished eating. Some packaging actually prevents food from flying
away. The food packaging is designed to be flexible and easier to use, as well as to maximize
space when storing or disposing of food containers.
Video
https://youtu.be/_4aWoZPEd2w
Sleeping in Space
After a long day at work, nothing is better than a good night's sleep! Just like on Earth, in
space a worker goes to bed at a certain time, then wakes up and prepares for work again.
There are a few differences though. Space has no "up" or "down," but it does have
microgravity. As a result, astronauts are weightless and can sleep in any orientation.
However, they have to attach themselves so they don't float around and bump into something.
Space station crews usually sleep in sleeping bags located in small crew cabins. Each crew
cabin is just big enough for one person.
Generally, astronauts are scheduled for eight hours of sleep at the end of each mission day.
Like on Earth, though, they may wake up in the middle of their sleep period to use the toilet,
or stay up late and look out the window. Different things such as excitement or motion
sickness can disrupt an astronaut's sleep pattern. During their sleep period, astronauts have
reported having dreams and nightmares. Some have even reported snoring in space.

Video
https://youtu.be/Q1vHmuUXOYw
Exercising in Space
Exercise is an important part of the daily routine for astronauts aboard the station to prevent
bone and muscle loss. On average, astronauts exercise two hours per day. The equipment
they use is different than what we use on Earth. Lifting 200 pounds on Earth may be a lot of
work. But lifting that same object in space would be much easier. Because of microgravity, it
would weigh much less than 200 pounds there. That means exercise equipment needs to be
specially designed for use in space so astronauts will receive the workout needed.
Video
https://youtu.be/irCmnn5vIRQ
Working in Space
Astronauts perform many tasks as they orbit Earth. The space station is designed to be a
permanent orbiting research facility. Its major purpose is to perform world-class science and
research that only a microgravity environment can provide. The station crew spends their day
working on science experiments that require their input, as well as monitoring those that are
controlled from the ground. They also take part in medical experiments to determine how
well their bodies are adjusting to living in microgravity for long periods of time.
Working on the space station also means ensuring the maintenance and health of the orbiting
platform. Crew members are constantly checking support systems and cleaning filters,
updating computer equipment: doing many of the things homeowners must do to ensure their
largest investment stays in good shape. Similarly, the Mission Control Center constantly
monitors the space station and sends messages each day through voice or email with new
instructions or plans to assist the crew members in their daily routines.
Video
https://youtu.be/JP5D0QK88Lw
Free Time in Space
Living in space is not just all work and no play. Astronauts like to have fun, too. If you're
staying on the International Space Station for a few months, it is certainly okay to look out
the window, play with your food or tease your crewmates once in a while. Fun is an essential
ingredient to the quality of life.
Astronauts need a break from their busy schedules when they are orbiting Earth. Days or

even months of straight work are certain to cause stress among space workers. That is why
flight planners on Earth schedule time each day for astronauts to relax, exercise and have
some fun. Station crew members even manage to have fun while working. Experiments in
space sometimes involve ordinary toys and how microgravity affects them.
A popular pastime while orbiting Earth is simply looking out the window. Inside the
International Space Station, crew members have numerous windows they can look out.
Astronauts often comment on their fascination and awe as they look at Earth spin beneath
them with its multiple shades and textures. Sunsets and sunrises are also very spectacular,
occurring every 45 minutes above Earth's atmosphere.
Aboard the space station, crew members have many opportunities to relax and play. Like
most people who work full time, astronauts get weekends off. On any given day, crew
members can watch movies, play music, read books, play cards and talk to their families.
They have an exercise bike, a treadmill and various other equipment to help keep their bodies
in shape. During their off time, they certainly take time out to play games and generally have
a good time.
Video
https://youtu.be/FRQDrF_V1wY
Satellite Disposal
There are thousands of satellites in Earth orbit, of varying age and usefulness. At some point
they reach the end of their lives, at which point they become floating junk. What do we do
with it?
This is an interface designed to allow a future robotic spacecraft to the safe disposal through
burn-up in the Earth’s atmosphere once its operational life has ended. Thinking about
methods to retire satellites is important, because without proper disposal they become another
source of space debris – fragments of old spacecraft, satellites and rockets now orbiting Earth
at thousands of miles per hour. These fragments travel so fast that even a piece the size of a
coin has enough energy to disable a whole satellite. There is a risk that over the next few
years there will be other, perhaps more damaging collisions.

The soft capture mechanism was installed to prevent more space debris. Engineers worldwide
are devising ingenious ways to try to limit the amount of debris orbiting the planet – for good
reason. Predictions show that if we don’t tackle the problem of space debris then many of our
most useful orbits will become too choked with flying fragments for satellites to safely
occupy them.
Spacecraft Disposal may be the last part of a satellite’s life in space, but it’s important that
disposal of old satellites is discussed and accounted for in the mission planning phase. A
certain amount of fuel or propellant must be pre-allocated to push the finished satellite into a
higher or lower orbit. Final orbit planning, instrument deactivation, and satellite disposal
must be fully planned even before the satellite is launched. When a satellite has completed its
mission and there is no more use for it, the mission control center sends a series of commands
to shut down the instruments on-board and decommission the satellite. Once that series of
commands is sent, the satellite receives the uplink, executes those commands to deactivate its
instruments, and moves into its final orbit for disposal.
Gravity plays a big part in mission operations and spacecraft disposal. Gravity is strong
around the Earth, and satellites are placed at a specific distance away to fulfil their respective
missions; not too far, not too close. The gravity of the Earth will constantly be pulling down
everything in orbit slowly over time.
When it’s time to dispose of a satellite, it needs to either be pushed further away into space,
or it needs to be brought down into the Earth’s atmosphere so it can burn up. Let’s discuss
both methods…
For disposal, a satellite can be pushed up with propellant into something called a
“supersynchronous” or “graveyard” orbit. Raising the orbit of a decommissioned satellite to
this very high altitude means it will be far away from any other on-going missions and won’t
be a danger. The Earth’s gravity will still be pulling on it, but the orbit decay time is hundreds
or thousands of years.
Another disposal method is lowering the satellite orbit into the Earth’s atmosphere. Objects
entering the Earth’s atmosphere are usually burned up in the incredible heat. But just in case
a satellite won’t be totally burned up, the mission operators often target the final dumping site
of the surviving debris in the South Pacific Ocean, far away from populated areas.
Some satellites, like NASA’s Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, are in much higher orbits
than other low Earth orbiting satellites. These orbits are called “geostationary” orbits and are
good for communications and data relay functions. It makes much more sense to place these
satellites into a supersynchronous orbit for their disposal, because they are not as strongly
affected by the Earth’s gravity as those in lower Earth orbit due to their greater distance from
the Earth.
Skylab was NASA’s first space station in orbit around the Earth and operated during the
1970’s. NASA anticipated that some pieces of Skylab would survive the re-entry due to its
size. And in 1979, Skylab broke up during re-entry with many pieces hitting parts of eastern
and southern Australia. If a significant portion of a satellite is expected to land on the Earth
somewhere, the mission planners ensure that debris will impact the ocean or the surface in
sparsely populated regions.
In 2011, UARS, the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite re-entered Earth’s atmosphere
after failing to burn up properly. This satellite was approximately the size of a school bus and
broke up into multiple pieces after re-entry. Fortunately, the odds of space debris ever hitting
a human being are incredibly small. But this is another example of why properly planned
mission disposal is essential. Spacecraft Disposal is a brief but critical part of a successful
mission for NASA. This training module concludes the story of Space Operations.
Source
 https://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/stem-on-station/dayinthelife
 https://go.nasa.gov/3xJm5rq
Additional information
 https://bit.ly/36GAdWs
 https://www.hindawi.com/journals/mpe/2015/382340/
 https://bit.ly/3il9Omv
Video
https://youtu.be/xgGm5odlIh4

Activity
Do you have what it takes to be an astronaut? Use the given link
https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/do-you-have-what-it-takes-to-be-an-astronaut/zfsf2sg to explore
more on it.
Syllabus (IG): Space Law and Regulations. (Scope: international space treaties, registration
convention, frequency regulations, international governing bodies such as international
telecommunications union [ITU], united nations office for outer space affairs [UNOOSA]).
Space laws and regulations

Space law is based upon a series of international treaties, agreements, and UN resolutions
governing the use and exploration of outer space. The treaties work to prevent the
militarization of space, prohibit claims of sovereignty over celestial objects, and outline
the liabilities of space-faring entities for damages to the surface of the Earth as well as to
other objects in outer space. Another international treaty obligates spacefarers to provide
assistance to astronauts who are in distress, and to register with the U.N. objects
launched into outer space. A frequent theme underlying most of the treaties is the concept of
space as the Province of All Mankind. Certain aspects of these agreements mirror similar
concepts from maritime law and treaties.

The Outer Space Treaty
The treaty is the foundation of international space law for signatory nations (108 in 2019).
The treaty presents principles for space exploration and operation:
● Space activities are for the benefit of all nations, and any country is free to explore
orbit and beyond.
● There is no claim for sovereignty in space; no nation can “own” space, the Moon or
any other body.
● Weapons of mass destruction are forbidden in orbit and beyond, and the Moon, the
planets, and other celestial bodies can only be used for peaceful purposes.
● Any astronaut from any nation is an “envoy of mankind,” and signatory states must
provide all possible help to astronauts when needed, including emergency landing in a
foreign country or at sea.
● Signatory states are each responsible for their space activities, including private
commercial endeavors, and must provide authorization and continuing supervision.
● Nations are responsible for damage caused by their space objects and must avoid
contaminating space and celestial bodies.

“Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”
The Rescue Agreement

Signatories agree to take all possible actions to help or rescue astronauts in need, and if
applicable, return them to the nation from which they launched. Additionally, signatories
agree to help return to the sponsoring nation any space objects that land on Earth outside of
the country from which they were launched.
“The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of
Objects Launched into Outer Space”
The Moon Agreement
The Agreement states that celestial bodies can only be used for peaceful purposes, that they
should not be contaminated, that the UN should always be made aware of any station on a
non-Earth body, and that if resource mining on the Moon becomes feasible, an international
regime must be established to govern how those resources are obtained and used. The United
States is not a signatory of the Moon Agreement.
“The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”
The Liability Convention
Signatories take full liability for any damage caused by their space objects and agree to
standard procedures for adjudicating damage claims.
“The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects”
The Registration Convention
Expanding a space object register, the Convention empowers the UN Secretary-General to

maintain a register of all space objects.
“The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space”
Sources

 https://www.spacefoundation.org/space_brief/international-space-law/
 https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/bringing-space-law-into-21st-century
 https://www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/navigating-space-law-regulations-and-
legal-principles-cosmos-28605
 https://bit.ly/3wF5SSx
 https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/
stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf
Videos
 https://youtu.be/Cm_fDzknbAQ
 https://youtu.be/1CKLG6oI-xA
Activity:
1. After undergoing all the satellite reviewing components, imagine that you have
developed the plan to launch a research satellite from Bhutan. Critically evaluate on how
the satellite launch will be abided by the International Space Treaties. (Highlight on the
launch approval, and disposal after end of satellite life).

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Chapter 13: Space Physics (8%)

Types of satellite design reviews

⮚ Mission Design Review (MDR)

⮚ Preliminary Design Review (PDR)

⮚ Critical Design Review (CDR)

⮚ Flight Readiness Review (FRR)

1. Mission Design Review

⮚ Evaluate and consolidate all requirements

Possible mission solution(s)

⮚ Proposal of bus hardware components

⮚ Present potential payload(s)

⮚ Mission orbit analysis

⮚ Initial power, mass, volume and link budgets

Timeline for project development

⮚ Determine critical milestones

Space Physics /REC/ 1

⮚ Present and discuss potential problems & solutions foreseen

2. Preliminary Design Review

⮚ First opportunity of stakeholders to observe contractor’s hardware and software

⮚ Evaluate the design progress made

⮚ Evaluate the technical adequacy of design(s)

⮚ Evaluate the risk resolution on a technical, cost and schedule basis

⮚ Evaluate the performance to the requirements solution

Establish the physical and functional interfaces

Approval of pre‐design for final development

3. Critical Design Review

⮚ Focus on new hardware development solutions

Risk Analysis and Mitigation Plan

Space Physics /REC/ 2

⮚ Present the requirements compliancy table

Assembly, Integration and Test Plan

⮚ Step‐by‐step detailed procedure of satellite construction

⮚ List of people involved in the project and their contribution

⮚ Outline the financial budget available to complete the project

⮚ Present the project timeline and major milestones

⮚ List of long-lead items

4. Qualification/Flight Readiness Review

⮚ Environmental tests: Radio Frequency (RF), thermal, vacuum and vibration

⮚ Functional tests: Assembly, Integration and Testing (AIT) procedures

⮚ Explain purpose of all the planned tests

⮚ Motivate why it will be tested

Facilities and Resources

⮚ Specifications and people requirement

⮚ Hazards and risks – present all mitigation steps

Present the Test results

⮚ Assess results for qualification/flight acceptance (go/no go)

⮚ Present a way forward and proposed solutions for failed tests

⮚ Safe to proceed at an acceptable risk

Space Physics /REC/ 3

⮚ Current Product Development Specification (PDS)

⮚ Competitive analysis of existing products

⮚ Drawings, schematics, layouts, breadboards, mock‐ups and prototypes

⮚ Project progress and timelines

⮚ Project risk analysis

The Preliminary Design Review (PDR)

Purpose of the Preliminary Design Review (PDR)

Space Physics /REC/ 4

When to conduct a Preliminary Design Review:

● An established system allocated baseline,

● An updated risk assessment for the Engineering, Manufacturing, and Development

● An updated Cost Analysis Requirements Description (CARD) or CARD-like

Space Physics /REC/ 5

Critical Design Review (CDR)

Purpose of the Critical Design Review (CDR)