13 HPGD1103 T7

Topic X Curriculum
7 Implementation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what is curriculum implementation;
2. Describe Lewin's change model;
3. Differentiate between the types of curriculum change;
4. Explain why people resist change;
5. Suggest ways of overcoming resistance to change; and
6. List the roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in the
implementation of a curriculum.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION W 147
'Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful'

The Education Ministry is to Homework that is interesting to
regulate homework assignment of pupils would not only make their
school pupils to make it more learning more meaningful and
interesting. Homework is clearly productive, but also facilitate
one key area in which things can teaching. When school children are
and should improve in the interest better motivated in their studies,
of all concerned. Homework teachers also find their task easier.
should have more quality than Students learn better and faster
quantity. It needs a finer focus with when their innate inquisitiveness is
less bulk, and in the process fired with more participatory
become more interesting to give observation and enquiry of the
students an added incentive to world about them. Good teachers
studying harder. Young people can make this vital difference.
have energy, imagination and a
natural curiosity that can help Pupils must constantly be
them to learn if properly chanelled. encouraged to do more than answer
Otherwise homework can become set questions, as it is essential to
a hindrance to the learning process. think their way to unrehearsed
answers. True learning is more than
Teachers should be guided to 'spotting exam questions'. It is more
learning rather than be fountains of important for pupils to experience a
infinite knowledge. They should sense of achievement in all aspects
present material in intellectually of study, which would give them a
stimulating ways, without spoon- feel of their own development and
feeding. Pupils need to know that growth. A more enlightened
learning is part of their own life approach to learning such as this
experience, not something separate may also apply to regular class
and removed from it. Teachers work besides homework.
should therefore avoid dishing out
homework mechanically as routine
chores, which would make studies
boring and brain-deadening.
Source: Adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005

148 X TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
X INTRODUCTION
In Topic 5 we discussed what was involved in
curriculum planning and in Topic 6 we looked at
different techniques of designing the curriculum
focusing on some curriculum design models. The
next stage in the curriculum development process
according to Tyler, Taba and Alexander & Saylor is
the implementation of the curriculum plan. The final
destination of any curriculum (whether it be a school,
college, university or training organisation) is the
classroom involving students, teachers, administrators and the community.
Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and sometimes the most
difficult phase of the curriculum development process. Those responsible for
implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as:
• Teachers are already overloaded ă how are they going to implement the new
ideas.
• Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in
examinations ă how are schools to incorporate suggested changes.
These are real concerns and made worse when persons implementing the
curriculum are not clear what is expected of them. How often have we heard
people say, 'the plan was good but implementation was poor'? On the other
hand, if a curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on the shelf then all
efforts in planning will be a sheer waste. A curriculum must be delivered and
that means it must be implemented in the classroom if it is to make an impact on
student learning. Good plans reaching the classroom are not properly
implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum
development projects, implementation is not been given due consideration; not
realising that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of
teachers not being properly trained and are required to implement changes in the
classroom within a short period of time.

ACTIVITY 7.1
Read the newspaper report at the beginning of the chapter and answer
the following questions.
1. What are some suggestions proposed for making homework fun
and meaningful?
2. Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not 'spoon-
feed' but rather be guides to learning? Why?
3. Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful and fun.
7.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION?

Implementation is an interaction between those who have created the
programme and those who are charged to deliver it. According to Ornstein and
Hunkins, 1998;
• implementation requires educators to shift from the current programme
which they are familiar with to the new or modified programme.
• implementation involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of
people.
• implementation can be seen as a process of professional development and
growth involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.
• implementation is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups
come to understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviours; often
involving using new resources.
• implementation involves change which requires effort and will produce a
certain amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organise
implementation into manageable events and to set achievable goals.
• implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and
open communication between administrators, teachers educators and where
risk-taking is encouraged.
Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum,
several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason
for the failure is the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both
experts outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful
implementation of curriculum requires understanding the power relationships,
the traditions, the roles and responsibilities of individuals in the school system.

Implementors (whether they be teachers, principals, district education officers)

should be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum. They must be clear of
the purpose, the nature and the real and potential benefits of the innovation.
As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); "effective implementation of innovations

requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other
forms of people-based support" (p.391). Curriculum implementation requires
winning people over and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and
their efforts recognised. Some may argue that they should be given financial
rewards but there is evidence to suggest that external motivation contributes
minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their best talents when they are
internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being involved.
7.2 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A

CHANGE PROCESS
Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application of a
method, procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define
curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks
like when actually used in a school system. For example, a curriculum plan in
enhancing technology integration across the curriculum is introduced and you
would want to know whether what was intended in the plan is actually being
done in the classroom. Your aim for developing a curriculum is to make a
difference to learners. Simply, put, curriculum implementation is bringing about
change and hopefully improvement.
How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that the
curriculum brings about the desired changes? Before you can bring about
change, you need to know what change is. You may say whatÊs the big deal? We
all know what change is! You know how your job has changed. You know how
government policy changes. But what is change in relation to curriculum?
Basically, change is doing something differently. Change results from new
knowledge. However, the presence of new knowledge is not sufficient for
change. People generally are reluctant to change because they are comfortable
with what they are currently doing. So, to change, they must recognise the need
for change. People are more likely to recognise the need for change if they
understand change and how it works. DonÊt you agree?
Kurt Lewin (1951), considered to be the father of social psychology suggested a

model explaining change (see Figure 7.1). According to him, all persons are faced
with two competing forces:

(a) Driving Forces:

These are forces that that are driving or pushing you to do something and
change in a particular direction. They tend to initiate a change and keep it
going. In the workplace, pressure from your boss, financial incentives and
competition for promotion may be examples of driving forces.
(b) Restraining Forces:

These are forces restraining or preventing you from doing something and
changing. In the workplace, apathy, hostility, obsolete equipment may be
examples of restraining forces.
(c) Equilibrium:
When these two forces (driving and restraining) are equal, the status quo is
maintained. In other words, there is no effort towards change and so you
do the same thing you did before.
For example, in the school setting, the principal who is autocratic and
constantly pressures his or her staff which may bring about change in the
short run. In other words, the driving forces have overpowered the
restraining forces and when this happens, change is initiated. As long as the
driving forces are more powerful than the restraining forces, change will
continue. The methods used by the principal may lead to increased hostility
and antagonism and manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate
and reluctant to do more than is required. In other words, the restraining
forces have got stronger and change slows down.
Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the

power of the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces. This
has been termed as unfreezing whereby the powers of the restraining forces
are decreased to stimulate the driving forces. For example, the principal
could instead encourage more discussion and group problem solving in an
attempt to eliminate hostility and apathy. If there is fear among teachers
that they would not have the know-how to implement change it is best that
they be trained before implementing the new ideas.

Figure 7.1: Force Field Model (Kurt Lewin, 1951)
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What does curriculum implementation involve?

2. How does Kurt LewinÊs model explain curriculum change?
7.3 TYPES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

If you are responsible for implementing curriculum, it is important that you
understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a
challenging and exciting process. If you do not comprehend the complexities of
change you are likely to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion
and tension within the school or district. Curriculum change is a complex and
difficult process and requires careful planning, adequate time, funding, support
and opportunities for teacher involvement. McNeil (1990) categorised curriculum
change as follows:
(a) Substitution:
One element may be substituted for another already present. For example,
the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.
(b) Alteration:
This occurs when a change is introduced into existing material in the hope
that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example,
introducing new content such as road safety in the primary school

curriculum; use of new materials such as the graphing calculator in

mathematics teaching.
(c) Perturbations:
These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them within a
fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the timetable
or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.
(d) Restructuring:
These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school system.
For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.
(e) Value Orientation:

These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school personnel.
For example, if the new teachers who join the school place more emphasis
on personal growth of students than academic performance, then the value
orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit
according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general
enough to help you plan change and arrange resources to bring about the
change. However, you should be aware that change is not synonymous
with improvement and you might decide that change should not be
undertaken.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. What are the FIVE types of curriculum change listed by McNeil?
Give examples of each category other than those given in the text.
2. Identify other types of curriculum change which you have come
across but do not fit into those given.
7.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many
barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. If you are given the job
of implementing a curriculum, whether it is in the school system, college,
university or training centre, you will encounter people resisting change. Keep
things as they are! Many people think that it is easier to keep things as they are.
We often hear people say, "If it is not broken, why fix it". People are happy with
the current situation in their institution and feel that the change suggested will
not meet the objectives of the school, college or training centre. The status quo
tends to be maintained when the persons introducing change are themselves not
clear as to the intent and what is required of the new programme. To make
matters worse, the implementation of the programme is poorly planned.
Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as

meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is no
extra financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view
new curriculum programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills and
competencies which will mean attending courses and seminars. It has also been
found that teachers or practitioners tend to reject pedagogical strategies or
teaching methods that are different from what they are currently using. They are
reluctant to change or modify their current instructional strategies and
understandings of classroom practice.
Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why people
resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome
resistance and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the task of
curriculum implementation must understand how people react to change and
how to encourage them to be receptive to change. The following are the main
reasons why people resist change (Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966).
(a) People resist because they do not understand ă They simply do not follow
what is being introduced. They do not understand where they are going.
They are not clear as to what is required of them.
Overcome:
The key is "communication". You have to explain to them "Why". You have
to answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions. Remember,
the effectiveness of communication is not the "message sent" but of the
"message received."
(b) People resist because of lack of ownership ă Individuals will not accept
change if they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them.
Unfortunately, most curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the
outside which may be at the national, state or district level.
Overcome:
You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside,
their view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design
stages of curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the
relevance of the new curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the
new skills needed for utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will

get them to feel that they are an important part of the curriculum
implementation process.
(c) People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes
ă It is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and
skills to cope with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are
incompetent. There is the likelihood that the implementation of the new
curriculum has been rushed or due to budgetary constraints, the training
period has been greatly reduced and teachers are not adequately equipped.
Overcome:
Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training of
teachers involved in implementing the new curriculum.
(d) People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits ă If teachers are

unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students
(in terms of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or
reward), they are likely to resist the suggested change.
Overcome:
Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum change are
rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their efforts
need to be given due recognition.
(e) People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change ă
Teachers find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change
handling their current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on change
activities, may run the risk of neglecting their current responsibilities.
Overcome:
Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-prioritise
their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this
means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
1. Why do people resist change?

2. Suggest other reasons why people resist change.

7.5 CASE STUDY: CURRICULUM REFORM AND

IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA
In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which
consisted of a national curriculum (80%) and flexibility given to the provinces in
adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC)
was aimed at the local situation and context while the national curriculum
focused on national development. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC)
transferred 20% of its authority to each provincial level (LCC).
Teachers, principals and supervisors were given autonomy to redesign the

curriculum to more closely match students' needs and interests. However, in
reality not all teachers took advantage of the opportunity. Teachers have not
responded in modifying the curriculum or experimenting with new instructional
techniques. Moreover, parents and interested groups in the locality have not been
invited to participate in the planning or management of the LCC program.
According to LCC policy, schools are supposed to reorganise the curriculum into
a new set of subjects. In some cases teachers have made connections between the
subject matter they disseminate to the world outside, but the basic curricular
foundations in junior secondary school has remained essentially the same as the
previous curriculum.
National Curriculum (80%) Local Content Curriculum (20%)

Pancasila and civic education Agriculture
Religion (Islam, Christianity, Catholicism, Environmental education
Hinduism, Buddhism) Computer and information
Indonesian language Local culture (dance, local language,
Reading and writing traditional games, etc
Mathematics English
Science & technology
Geography
National and World history
The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC
implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels,
the lack of training, teachers' attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and
lack of funding allocation.
• First, in the process of curriculum decentralization some decisions made at
the provincial level tend to not meet each district's needs and conditions.

• Second, was a lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in
the provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi and East
Java. Most of the local content subjects were taught by teachers who do not
have any specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional
culture and local languages.
• Third teachers' attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not
respond to the innovation because they do not have enough background
knowledge or skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have
necessary support from the government and provincial levels to develop
their knowledge and skills.
While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school
level are completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the
national curriculum. Finally, there was lack of funds to develop the LCC which
required regular meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject
development. This caused a lack of participation in LCC implementation.
Source: MinHo, Y., Clementina, A., & Erry, U. The reform of secondary education in
Indonesia during the 1990s: Improving relevance and quality through curriculum
decentralisation implementing the curriculum in Indonesia. Available at:
http://www.ginie.org/cstudies/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm
ACTIVITY 7.2
Refer to Case Study 7.5 and answer the following questions:
1. What are some of the reasons given for poor implementation of the
local curriculum content (LCC) in Indonesia?
2. To what extent is such flexibility given to teachers in your country?
7.6 INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM

IMPLEMENTATION
Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people.
Each is a 'key player' in the change process. Without the coordinated
involvement of these individuals the implementation of the curriculum
programme will encounter many problems. Among the key players identified
are: teachers, students, principals/headmasters, assistant principals, district
education officers, state education officers, curriculum developers, academics,
parents, interested political officials and lay citizens. In a centralised system, the

national curriculum is developed at the national level and passed on to the

individual districts and schools to be implemented.
7.6.1 Teachers
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies,
teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which
philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that
teachers influence students' learning. Better teachers foster better learning.
Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are
responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom.
The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their

knowledge of the programme. This means teachers need be trained and
workshops have to be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in
any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of
such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go
around. The most common approach is to have one-day workshops given by
experts with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy.
Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change
are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The
intrinsic factors are; professional knowledge, professional adequacy and
professional interest and motivation (see Table 7.1).
Hence, professional development of teachers is as an important factor

contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have
teacher education programmes required prospective teachers to study
curriculum development? Some view teachers as technicians and as such do not
include curriculum development in their teacher education programmes. [Did
you study curriculum development in your training as a teacher?] Certainly an
adequate teacher education programme should include curriculum development
(both the theory and the work of curriculum development) if teaching is to be a
profession and if educational opportunities for learners are really to be
improved.
Below are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development

opportunities for teachers who are implementing a new programme.
• Programme philosophy: It is important for teachers to understand both the
philosophy behind the programme as well as how the new programme may
impact students, parents, administrators and other stakeholders.

• Content: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which
they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught in a while, or is familiar but
presented in an unfamiliar way. For example, using a problem-solving
approach rather than a topical approach.
Table 7.1: Factors influencing the implementation of a curriculum in schools

Factors Description
Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general resources
Adequacy of resources
required for implementing a new curriculum.
Time available for preparing and delivering the requirements
of the new curriculum; e.g. teachers need enough time to
Time
develop their own understanding of the subject they are
required to teach.
Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum. Status of
the curriculum as viewed by staff, administrators and
School ethos
community; e.g. school administration recognises the
importance of the subject in the overall school curriculum.
Support for teachers from both within the school and
Professional support outside; e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum
professional support.
TeachersÊ own ability and competence to teach the
Professional adequacy
curriculum; i.e. confidence in teaching.
Knowledge and understandings teachers possess regarding
Professional
the new curriculum; e.g. different ways of teaching to foster
knowledge
student learning.
Professional attitude Attitudes and interest of teachers toward the new
and interest curriculum; e.g. keen to teach the subject.
Source: Adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ).

Available at http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html
• Pedagogy: Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new
programme's pedagogical approach. They may need to work on particular
teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such as teaching of values,
or perhaps to become familiar with a tool such as the internet.
• Components of the programme: Teachers will need opportunities to learn
about the components of the new programme early in the implementation
phase. For example, the new programme might place greater emphasis on
school-based assessment while teachers are more accustomed to national or
centralised assessment.

ACTIVITY 7.3
According to Friendenberg, people who go into teaching tend to be

conformist in nature and reluctant to innovate. These people have
succeeded in the school system as it has existed. They have learned to
play it safe and to keep a low profile in a bureaucratic system run by
administrators who do not like to create waves. They have found
success and fulfilment as students and now as teachers in this system,
and for this reason many see no reason to change it.
Source: Friendenberg, E. ( 1965). Coming of age in America. New York: Random
House.
1. To what extent do you agree with FriedenbergÊs views about

teachers and curriculum change?
2. Is this characteristic of other professions?
7.6.2 Students
There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of
students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even
primary school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be
willing to participate in the programme. If students do not see the relevance of
the programme there is the likelihood that they will not be motivated to
participate or learn. However, it is still not clear how students should be
involved in the curriculum implementation phase even though they are the main
recipients of the programme. Students may be so entrenched in their thinking
and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may not be
enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given
notes by their teachers and the new programme requires them to make their own
notes. Some students may not know how to make notes and have to be taught
how to go about it. Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be
well received if they have been accustomed to being passive recipients to
information.
7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters

Principals or headmasters are important players the curriculum implementation
process in a school.
• They should understand the need for change as well as the steps that have to
be taken along the way.
• They should have in-depth knowledge about the planned change and of the
implementation process. They should be familiar with the goals and
components of the curriculum and be able to see a shift in teachers' role in the
classroom and the way in which teachers interact with students.
• They should be accessible and willing to communicate with others involved
in the process. Establishing a two-way information flow will give principals
or headmasters a chance to stay on top of issues that need to be addressed. It
will also allow attending to critical problems or concerns before they lead to
frustration or even anger among teachers. Lines of communication are best
set early to get out information to people as well to provide a platform in
which they can voice their concern. Information gathered from listening and
talking to people will also help principals or headmasters decide where to
focus and needs attention.
• They should be able to convince parents on the merits of the new curriculum
and how the new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful for
their children. For example, they may need to speak to parents and the
community on the new curriculum. It is important that they give the message
that they have thought carefully about the need for change, that the have
anticipated the issues that will arise and have a plan for addressing the
issues.
• They should keep in mind, that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected
challenges. For example, insufficient teachers in a particular subject area due to
resignation, unexpected introduction of programmes by the government,
sudden change of government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation
plan may be necessary which is adapted and revisited along the way.
• They must be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of
leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers such as; building on the
strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks; being positive about the
planned change and to use this optimism to motivate others.
7.6.4 Parents
Besides teachers, students and school administrators, parents also play an
important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a
subject being taught in way that is unfamiliar to them, they naturally have
questions about what is going on. When children bring homework from school
that parents feel unable to help with, they feel confused and lost. To be
successful, any new programme needs to be embraced by parents. One way of
reaching out to parents is to organise workshops for them focusing on the new
curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents better

understand the content and philosophy of the new programme. Parents need an
opportunity to share their concerns and voice their support in an open forum.
These workshops should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what
is really going on in the classroom.
Another approach in reaching out to parents is to make available information on

curriculum change on the internet. For example, the government of the province
of Alberta in, Canada has on its website a curriculum handbook for parents
containing information on subjects offered, programmes and courses available in
all schools. The information is updated each year as changes are made to the
curriculum (refer to http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/parents/handbooks).
Similarly, print-based newsletters can be made available to parents informing
them of the changes that are taking place with the introduction of the new
curriculum.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. What should principals or headmasters do to ensure the

successful implementation of any curriculum?
2. How should parents be involved in the curriculum
implementation process?
7.7 CASE STUDY: ENGLAND' NATIONAL

CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
The law requires that all schools in England provide for all pupils a balanced and
broadly based curriculum which provides for all pupils to learn and achieve;
promotes students' spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development;
prepares students for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult
life. The following subjects must be taught:
• English
• Mathematics
• Science
• Design and Technology
• Information and Communication Technology
• History

Other statutory requirements are: Religious Education, Sex and Relationship

Education, and Careers Education (from Year 9). The core subjects: English,
Mathematics and Science will be given priority to ensure that they are secure.
Beyond this, each school can decide which subject to give more time to and,
within a subject, which aspects or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis
might apply across subjects, to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or to
individuals.
For example:
• A school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers
Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly video-
conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.
• A school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across
the curriculum. Teachers plan into their schemes of work where and how
they will teach literacy objectives in their subject.
• In an area of high-technology industries such as computing and
pharmaceuticals, school gives priority to Mathematics and Science to help its
students to make the most of local job opportunities. Scientists from local
companies visit the school as part of the science and engineering
ambassadors scheme, and year 9 students undertake project work to achieve
creativity in science and technology (CREST) awards.
Source: Department for Education and Skills. Key stage 3 national strategy: Designing the
key stage 3 curriculum. England: Author.
ACTIVITY 7.4
1. What flexibility is given to teachers in EnglandÊs secondary

school curriculum?
2. Do you agree with the flexibility given to schools in meeting
local needs? Give reasons.
3. Do you think such flexibility should be given to schools in your
country? Why?

7.8 IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM IN THE

CLASSROOM
The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the
classroom, decision making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to this
point curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level and
decision making was of a programmatic nature (though we did discuss briefly
the role of the teacher). Now classroom teachers will take over and make
decisions of a methodological nature. They will be answering question like:
• What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction?
• What topics or content will I have to cover?
• What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning and
achieve the objectives?
• How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have successfully
achieved the objective?
Figure 7.2: An example of an instructional model
Implementing instruction in the classroom includes specifying instructional or

learning goals (discussed in Topic 5), selecting content, selecting learning
experiences and choosing techniques or tasks to evaluate instruction (see Figure
7.2). Where and how does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? LetÊs look at
three examples of planning for instruction.

• Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the number of topics by the
number of weeks in the school year. For example, one topic may be
taught over two or three lessons. The sequence and subheadings of the
respective topic guides the presentation of content. He or she may
prepare some notes for students, ask some questions during class (which
may come from the textbook) and give group assignments to clarify
points in the topic or topics.
• Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over a number of
lessons using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources
may include the textbook, reference books, websites, magazines, etc. A
problem-solving approach is adopted where students look through
various sources of information to solve a problem.
• Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what he or she will cover. A
theme or issue is written on the blackboard and students are expected to
contribute their understanding and interpretation about the theme or
issue. While some may argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind,
might term it non-planning.
These three approaches may be extreme, but there are many teachers who fall
into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow
the plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional
objectives or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most
cases, teachers adopted an eclectic approach, i.e. they combine one or more
methods.
Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating what you

want students to know, to do and to value after having completed a lesson. Why
instructional objectives? [The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed
in Topic 1 and Topic 5]. Instructional objectives:
• make it clear to teachers what changes they want students to achieve.
• help in choosing the appropriate learning experiences to achieve the changes
or learning desired.
• inform students of what is expected of them.
• indicate what will be important in assessing the lesson.
In planning for instruction lesson plans are used. A lesson plan is "simply an
outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used
efficiently" (Peter, 1975. p.194). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson
plans and different students require different lesson plans. The following is
generic outline for a lesson plan which consists of: (see Figure 7.3):

(a) objectives
(b) pre-requisite knowledge
(c) learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities)
(d) instructional aids and resources
(e) assignment
(f) evaluation tasks or techniques
The teacher with less experience will have more details included in the lesson
plan. However, it is desirable for both experienced and inexperienced teachers to
prepare complete lesson plans to fully communicate their ideas. It is common
practice for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten lesson plans. As teachers
gain experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan has been
made, the teacher can begin to demonstrate his or her style and skills of teaching.

Date: When is the lesson to be conducted?

Time: Time when the lesson is to be conducted.
Duration: How long will the lesson take?
Grade Level: State what level.
Topic: From one topic two or lessons plans may be developed.

Objectives:
(a) Cognitive
1. Mastery and understanding of the content (e.g. able to give three
characteristics, able to give reasons).
(b) Affective
2. The affective outcomes desired (e.g. express an opinion, take a
position, empathise with the issue discussed).
Pre-Requisite Knowledge:
1. List all skills and content knowledge needed prior to teaching this
lesson.
Instructional Aids and Resources:

1. The instructional aids that will be used (e.g. maps, pictures, video-
clip).
2. Show how they will be used.
Learning Experiences:
1. Set induction: how the lesson will begin (e.g. review previous lesson).
2. The teaching strategy used (e.g. inductive approach).
3. Questions posed (to increase understanding and thinking).
4. What students will be required to do (e.g. listen, manipulate data).
5. How students interact with the instructional aids.
6. Closure: ask students questions and summarise lesson.
Assignment:
1. Learning activity students are required to do after the lesson (e.g.
refer to newspaper article).
Evaluation Techniques:
1. How will student learning be assessed? (e.g. oral questioning).
2. What criteria or rubric will be used to evaluate the lesson?
Figure 7.3: Generic components of a lesson plan

• Curriculum implementation is an interaction between those who have

created the programme and those who are charged to deliver it.
• Implementation is the carrying out of something or the practical application

of a method, procedure or desired purpose.
• According to Lewin change is determined by driving forces and restraining

forces. To bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of the
restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces.
• People resist change because they lack understanding, competencies,

ownership, incentives and time.
• Curriculum change can take the following forms: substitution, alteration,

perturbations, restructuring and value orientation.
• The factors influencing curriculum implementation in schools are: adequacy

of resources, time, school ethos, professional support, professional
knowledge, professional attitude and interest.
• An instructional model consists of the following four components: learning

objectives, content, learning experiences and assessment tasks.
• Principals and headmasters play an important role in the successful

implementation of curriculum.
Curriculum implementation Resistance to change

Force field model • National curriculum
• Restraining forces • Local curriculum
• Driving forces • Curriculum in the classroom
• Lesson plan
Forms of Curriculum change • Role teachers
• Role of students

1. Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary

School Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School
Integrated Curriculum (KBSM)?
2. Describe how the teaching of science and mathematics in English
was implemented in your school?
3. "New curriculum often fail to become established in schools
because the importance and complexity of the implementation
phase is not understood." Discuss.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter. Buffalo: State

University of New York Press.
Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher's involvement in the curriculum endeavour.
Chapter 3: Teacher's concerns about curriculum issues.
Chapter 7: Implications for teacher education and staff development.
[Available at eBrary].
Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principle and
issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
Bennie, K. & Newstead, K. (2004) Obstacles to implementing a new curriculum.
http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf
Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic future: A
classroom teacherÊs perspective.
http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm

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Topic X Curriculum

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'Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful'

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION?

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Implementors (whether they be teachers, principals, district education officers)

As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); "effective implementation of innovations

7.2 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A

Kurt Lewin (1951), considered to be the father of social psychology suggested a

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(a) Driving Forces:

(b) Restraining Forces:

Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the

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Figure 7.1: Force Field Model (Kurt Lewin, 1951)

1. What does curriculum implementation involve?

7.3 TYPES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

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curriculum; use of new materials such as the graphing calculator in

(e) Value Orientation:

7.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as

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(d) People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits ă If teachers are

1. Why do people resist change?

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7.5 CASE STUDY: CURRICULUM REFORM AND

Teachers, principals and supervisors were given autonomy to redesign the

National Curriculum (80%) Local Content Curriculum (20%)

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7.6 INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM

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national curriculum is developed at the national level and passed on to the

The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their

Hence, professional development of teachers is as an important factor

Below are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development

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Table 7.1: Factors influencing the implementation of a curriculum in schools

Source: Adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ).

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According to Friendenberg, people who go into teaching tend to be

1. To what extent do you agree with FriedenbergÊs views about

7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters

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Another approach in reaching out to parents is to make available information on

1. What should principals or headmasters do to ensure the

7.7 CASE STUDY: ENGLAND' NATIONAL

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Other statutory requirements are: Religious Education, Sex and Relationship

1. What flexibility is given to teachers in EnglandÊs secondary

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7.8 IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM IN THE

Figure 7.2: An example of an instructional model

Implementing instruction in the classroom includes specifying instructional or

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating what you

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Date: When is the lesson to be conducted?

Topic: From one topic two or lessons plans may be developed.

Instructional Aids and Resources:

Figure 7.3: Generic components of a lesson plan