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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS

1. Structuralism – an emphasis, identifies basic components, elements, structures.

2. Functionalism – a perspective, the purpose and function.

3. Behaviorism – a theory, based on observable behavior.

1. Classical behaviorism – altered behavior by natural conditioning
2. Operant behaviorism – altered behavior by reward and/or punishment

4. Cognitive Psychology – a branch of psych, study of perception, attention, memory, reasoning, & problem-
solving.

5. Psychoanalysis - a method of psych treatment. Mental & emotional problems are caused by unconscious
conflicts and repressed feelings.

6. Gestalt Psychology – a theory, seeing an object as a whole or pattern rather than processing its individual
details.

7. Humanism/Humanistic – it’s about self-concept. An individual’s potential for personal growth.

OTHER PERSPECTIVES:

8. Psychodynamic – role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, memories, etc.

9. Biological – biology & genetics

10. Socio-cultural – social & culture

11. Evolutionary – adaptation & survival

Other Takeaways:
Operant Conditioning is also known as Instrumental Conditioning
What makes Psychology a science? – it uses instrumental method
Psychology is subjective.
Free Association - used in psychoanalysis, aims to deepen your self-understanding by looking at whatever
thoughts, words, or images come freely to your mind

The four goals of psychology:

Describe
Explain
Predict
Control behavior & mental processes
RESEARCH METHODS:

1. Survey – quanti/quali
2. Interview – quali
3. Naturalistic Observation - quali
4. Case Studies - quali
5. Experiment - quanti
6. Neuroimaging - quanti
7. Correlational Research – quanti (non-experimental)

Notes:
Quantitative research – numerical data, statistical analysis
Qualitative research - broader research questions, detailed data (interviews), nonstatistical analyses
Phenomenological – subjective experience, structures of consciousness as experienced
Dependent Variable – effects/outcomes
Independent Variable – cause

- Experimental research is the manipulation of independent variables and measurements of dependent variables.
The goal of the experimental research is to provide more definitive conclusions.
- Research valid: Reliability & consistency

WORLD HISTORY & CONTRIBUTIONS

/Incomplete/

Plato – psychological outcomes are caused by nature

Aristotle – by nurturance

Wilhelm Wundt – established 1st psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879)

- founded Structuralism

William James – founded Functionalism (1890)

Sigmund Freud – founded Psychoanalysis & Psychodynamic Perspective (1856 – 1939)

Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler – Gestalt Psychology (1912)

Jean Piaget – Cognitive Development (1913)

John Watson – Behaviorism (1913)

Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers – Humanism (1950, 1970)

Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning

HISTORY IN PHILIPPINES

Virgilio G. Enriquez (1942-1994) – 1st Filipino Psychologist

- Father of Psychology

1st Philippine Psychology Laboratory (1938) – Angel de Blas at University of Sto. Thomas
 /INTRODUCTION-TO-PSYCHOLOGY-TEXTBOOK-BASED/

NERVOUS SYSTEM:

NS has 2 main parts:

1. Central Nervous System – brain & spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System – outside the brain & spinal cord

3 Major Parts of the Brain:

1. Cerebrum – brain processor (thinking, memory, learning, remembering, solving, etc.)
2. Cerebellum – movement, balance, coordination
3. Brain Stem – Vital functions (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc.)

Peripheral NS – “periphery” (nerves to hands, feet, etc.)

PNS has 2 parts:
1. Somatic NS – sensory, connect CNS with organs to function/command neural signals
2. Autonomic NS – “automatic” regulates vital functions
Autonomic NS has 2 types:
1. Sympathetic NS – activates during dangerous/stressful situation
2. Parasympathetic NS – relaxes body after stress or danger experience
PNS has 3 major types of nerves:
1. autonomic nerves
2. motor nerves
3. sensory nerves

Takeaways:
1. Our behavior is also influenced in large part by the endocrine system (glands/hormones).
2. Neurons made up of 3 major parts: cell body or soma (nucleus), dendrite (collects info.), axon
(transmit info.)
3. Myelin Sheath – part of neuron, insulator, fasten transmission
4. CNS – make up the brain & spinal cord
5. PNS – connect CNS to our muscles, skins, glands
6. Neurotransmitters - relay information
7. Serotonin – hormone/neurotransmitter for appetite, mood, sleep
8. Melatonin - sleep (circadian rhythm)
9. Dopamine – pleasure, satisfaction, motivation
10. Cortisol – stress hormone, increases glucose (sugar) in brain

BRAIN LOBES:

Major Brain Structures;

1. Brain Stem: Most essential (if removed, a patient cannot survive)
Medulla - area of the brain stem that controls heart rate & breathing.

2. Cerebellum: can live without it

- Connections with frontal & parietal cortex
Cerebellum has parts:
1. Thalamus: behavior and emotions
2. Limbic System: memory and emotions
Limbic system components:
1. Amygdala: fear or sympathetic NS
2. Hypothalamus: links NS with Endocrine System via Pituitary gland (body. Temp., hunger, sex, thirst)
3. Hippocampus: stores info in long term memory, if damaged, a person cannot build new memory.
Thalamus (center), Amygdala/Hippocampus/Hypothalamus (located at Temporal lobe)

5. Cerebrum: learning, remembering, and thinking, solving, skills, cognition, etc. And has 4 lobes:
Frontal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Occipital Lobe

LOBE DISORDERS:
FRONTAL LOBE – memory, thinking, planning, judgment
Frontotemporal disorders:
1. Behavioral Variant Frontotemporal Dementia (bvFTD) – leading to alterations in complex thinking,
personality & behavior.
2. Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA) - affects your ability to communicate & speech
3. Movement Disorders - slowed movement, stiffness, and balance problems
Other disorders: schizophrenia, depression, executive function disorder

PARIETAL LOBE – sensation, touch, taste

1. Agnosia - difficulties in recognizing objects, faces, or body parts.
2. Balint syndrome or Balint-Holmes Syndrome - difficulties with attention, spatial awareness, and the
ability to plan and execute movements. (optic ataxia, oculomotor apraxia, simultagnosia)
3. Gerstmann syndrome - numerical processing, writing, and other language-related functions.
(agraphia, acalculia, finger agnosia, left-right disorientation)

TEMPORAL LOBE – hearing, language, audition

1. Epilepsy – or focal seizures with impaired awareness, seizure
2. Alzheimer’s disease - most common type of dementia, progressive memory loss
3. Schizophrenia - auditory and visual information, hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking

OCCIPITAL LOBE – visual information

1. Blindness – visual dysfunction
2. Anton Syndrome - rare form of blindness that occurs without the person being aware of it, they may
deny their vision loss
3. Riddoch Syndrome – cannot see stationary objects, but moving objects only. Cannot perceive color
and shape.

Key terms (disorders):

1. Aphasia – difficulties in communicating or language
2. Apraxia – unpurposive/involuntary actions
3. Prosopagnosia – inability to recognize faces of familiar people
5. Anxiety - worry, nervousness, or unease
6. Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome – amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex affected the most
7. Hippocampal Sclerosis – kind of epilepsy (incurable by drug in most adults)
8. Temporal Lobectomy – removal of temporal lobe
9. Agraphia – inability/difficulty to write
10. Acalculia – inability/difficulty in dealing and solving numbers
11. Ataxia – coordination, balance, speech
12. Executive Dysfunction – affects ability to plan, organize, emotional troubles
13. Finger Agnosia - inability to name, move, or touch specific fingers identified by the examiner

Other takeaways:
1. Evolved over time and has three levels:
Brain Stem (oldest), Cerebellum (middle) Cerebrum/Cortex (newest)
2. Frontal lobe - are among the last areas of the brain to mature among the lobes
3. Parietal lobe – first area to mature among the lobes
4. Neuroplasticity: Brain changes
5. Neurogenesis: new neurons
6. Interneuron – most common and communicates with neuron
7. Somatic NS: command signals, controls
8. ANS: Automatic or vital functions
9. ANS: SNS (stress or fear response) & PNS (calm)
10. 3 specific nerves: sensory neuron, motor neuron, interneuron
11. Reflex – involuntary movement in response to a powerful stimulus (your body’s immediate reaction
after electrocuted)

SLEEPING AND DREAMING:

SLEEP STAGES:

1 Non-Rapid Eye Movement (nREM) - theta waves

1st Stage: Light Sleep, Wakefulness to Sleep, 5-10 minutes
2nd Stage: Body temp. decreases, heart rate & breathing slowing, spindles, 20 minutes
3rd Stage: Light to Deep Sleep, produces most growth hormones, sleep terrors (bedwetting,
sleepwalking, etc.)
2. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) – or paradoxical sleep, delta waves
4th Stage: Deepest level, muscles relaxed, brain become active again. Occurrence of dreams including
nightmares. Why do dreams only occur during REM?
- Brain waves during REM sleep are very similar to brain waves during wakefulness

- we process information outside consciousness

- In average, after 90 mins of NREM, REM begins (brain activity active again)
- 4-5 cycles per night (nREM to REM and REM to nREM)

1. Why do we sleep?
Evolutionary Theory
Restoration Theory
Health & Growth
Memory Consolidation

Notes:
1. biological rhythms - regularly occurring cycles of behaviors
2. circadian rhythm – daily waking, sleep cycle
3. suprachiasmatic nucleus – body’s biological clock
4. Pineal gland – produce melatonin: to sleep
5. Sleep spindles - bursts of rapid brain activity, theta waves

Sleep-Wake Disorders
1. Insomnia disorder - persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep.
2. Sleep apnea - pauses in breathing that last at least 10 seconds during sleep
3. Narcolepsy - extreme daytime sleepiness
accompanied by attacks of cataplexy, in which the individual loses muscle tone, resulting in a partial or
complete collapse.
Other sleep disorders:
4. Somnambulism or sleepwalking
5. Sleep terrors - involve loud screams and intense panic
6. Bruxism – grinding teeth during sleep
7. Restless legs syndrome – uncomfortable type of pain in legs
8. Periodic limb movement disorder – sudden involuntary limbs movement

WHY DO WE SLEEP?
1. Evolutionary Theory: homeostasis, circadian rhythm
2. Restoration Theory
3. Health and Growth
4. Memory Consolidation: formation of memories and learning

THEORIES OF DREAMING:
1. Road to the Unconscious
2. Information Processing
3. Activation-Synthesis Theory
Other sources:
Why do we need to dream? To help us take the sting out of our painful emotional experiences during
the hours we are asleep, so that we can learn from them and carry on with our lives.

- Help solve problems in our lives. Incorporate memories. Process emotions.

/Google-scholar/

CONSCIOUSNESS

5 Levels of Consciousness:
1. Conscious – sensing, perceiving, choosing
2. Preconscious – memories that we can access
3. Unconscious – memories we can’t access
4. Non-conscious – bodily functions without sensation
5. Subconscious - “inner child,” self-image formed in early childhood

Highest form of consciousness:

Lucid dreaming; out-of-body-experience; near death experience; mystical experience
Types of Extreme Anxiety:
1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder
2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
3. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
4. Panic Disorder
5. Social Anxiety Disorder

The 4 levels of anxiety are mild anxiety, moderate anxiety, severe anxiety, and panic level anxiety

Low blood sugar – prone to unconscious state

The Limbic System has Amygdala and Hippocampus

Cerebral Cortex creates Consciousness and Thinking

The key to the advanced intelligence of humans is not found in the size of our brains. What sets
humans apart from other animals is our larger cerebral cortex

The left cerebral hemisphere is primarily responsible for language and speech in most people,
whereas the right hemisphere specializes in spatial and perceptual skills, visualization, and the
recognition of patterns, faces, and melodies.

Corpus Callosum - “split-brain patient”

MOTIVATION

2 Types of Motives:
1. Intrinsic (Biological) – physiology/body motives
Example: reading about something because it's fun to learn.

2. Extrinsic (Psychosocial) – environment factors

Example: reading about something to receive praise from an instructor.

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

Frustration occurs when an anticipated desirable goal is not attained and the motive is blocked.
Frustration produces Aggression

Conflict occurs whenever a person must choose between contradictory needs, desires, motives, or
demands.
3 Basic Forms:
1. Approach-approach conflict
2. Approach-avoidance conflict
3. Avoidance-avoidance conflict

EMOTIONS
- subjective feeling
Basic Emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

Plutchik arranged these emotions in four pairs of opposite:

joy-sadness, acceptance-disgust, fear-anger, and surprise-anticipation.

The experience of emotions is a result of a series of neurophysiological activations in which

thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and the cerebral cortex are involved significantly.

Cerebral cortex - responsible for the higher-level processes of the human brain, including language,
memory, reasoning, thought, learning, decision-making, emotion, intelligence & personality.
The left frontal cortex is associated w/ positive feelings whereas the right frontal cortex w/ negative
feelings.

We tend to be more intelligent as our cerebral cortex is fully optimized.

THEORIES OF EMOTION:
1. James-lange theory - which suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to
events
2. Cannon-Bard theory - states that we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions such as
sweating, trembling and muscle tension simultaneously.
3. Schachter-Singer theory – a cognitive theory of emotion. Suggests that physiological arousal occurs
first, and then the individual must identify the reason behind this arousal in order to experience and
label it as an emotion.
4. Robert Lazarus - a thought must come before any emotion or physiological arousal.

Emotion or Facial Expression has biologically ties.

Vocal Channel: speech, pitch, tone, loudness of voice (paralanguage).

Non-vocal: facial expression, kinetic (posture, gesture), proximal

Facial expression Is most common channel of emotional communication.

Basic emotions are inborn and universal – Darwin

The major focus of emotion management techniques is the reduction of negative emotions and
enhancing positive emotions.

Arousal is a state in which you feel excited or very alert, for example as a result of fear, stress, or anger.

Self-actualization - an individual reaches his or her full potential.

The process of persistent behaviour directed towards a specific goal, which results from certain driving
forces, is called motivation.

Culture strongly influences the expression and interpretation of emotions.

Other concepts related to motivation are frustration and conflicts.

It is important to manage negative emotions because negative emotions act as an obstruction towards
viewing things clearly and taking rational decisions. For instance, anxious individuals find it difficult to
concentrate or to make decisions even for small matters.
ANATOMY

References:

Introduction to Psychology. Adapted by: College of Lake County Faculty: Martha Lally and Suzanne
Valentine-French (Textbook.pdf)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320621079_Emotions_Psychology
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320621079_Emotions Psychology
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/kepy109.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yy0QMiHMya4&list=LL&index=1

Retrieved by:
Al Kennifer D. Mula (gwapa)