Philippine Journal of Science

152 (6A): 2149-2166, December 2023

ISSN 0031 - 7683
Date Received: 10 May 2023

Effect of Locality and Axial Position on the Properties

of Iron Bamboo (Guadua angustifolia Kunt.) and Solid Bamboo
[Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees] Grown in the Philippines

Oliver S. Marasigan*, Elvina O. Bondad, Mario Angelo M. Mundin, and Shereyl A. Daguinod

Physics and Mechanics Section, Material Science Division,

Forest Products Research and Development Institute (FPRDI),
Department of Science and Technology (DOST), College, Los Baños, Laguna 4031 Philippines

This study investigated the effect of locality and axial position on the morphological, physical,
and mechanical properties of iron bamboo (Guadua angustifolia Kunt.) and solid bamboo
[Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees] from three locations in the Philippines: Laguna, Baguio
City, and Nueva Vizcaya. Morphological properties were assessed by measuring culm height,
internode length (IL), culm diameter (CD), and culm wall thickness (CWT), whereas physical and
mechanical properties were determined using ASTM D143-2019 and ISO 22157-2019. Results showed
significant differences in properties based on localities and axial position. Laguna's iron bamboo
had 75.29 and 11.87% higher CD and CWT than Baguio's, respectively. Laguna's solid bamboo
CD exceeded Nueva Vizcaya's by 38.76%, but Nueva Vizcaya's solid bamboo had a 9.13% higher
CWT than Laguna's. Iron bamboo's CD increased by 62.66%, and solid bamboo by 24.41% from
bottom to top. Conversely, their CWTs decreased by 47.70 and 55.18%, respectively. Baguio City's
iron bamboo exhibited greater relative density (RD), radial (RS), tangential (TS), longitudinal (LS),
and volumetric shrinkage (VS) – surpassing Laguna's by 30.50, 42.58, 15.40, 33.96, and 29.31%
respectively. However, its moisture content (MC) was 27.04% lower. Meanwhile, Laguna's solid
bamboo had an 8.00% higher RD but an 18.46% lower MC compared to Nueva Vizcaya. Notably,
solid bamboo from Nueva Vizcaya recorded the highest shrinkage properties. Both bamboo species
showed an increasing trend in RD from the bottom to the top but a decreasing trend in MC, RS,
TS, and VS. LS was highest in the top portion of iron bamboo and in the bottom portion of solid
bamboo. Baguio City and Nueva Vizcaya bamboo exhibited the highest static bending strength than
the bamboo from Laguna. In contrast, Laguna's culms showed significantly higher shear (SS) and
maximum compression strength (MCS) – 46.09 and 97.09% higher for iron bamboo, and 100 and
123.29% higher for solid bamboo, respectively. The presence of nodes did not significantly affect SS
and MCS in either species, but samples without nodes had higher strength than those with nodes. The
result indicates that iron and solid bamboo from Laguna is suitable for construction and engineered
bamboo applications, whereas bamboo from Baguio City and Nueva Vizcaya is recommended for
structural applications that require high strength but not necessarily large culms. The findings
highlight the versatility of Philippine-grown iron and solid bamboo as eco-friendly and sustainable
raw materials for the bamboo industry in green building practices.

Keywords: Dendrocalamus strictus, Guadua angustifolia, mechanical, morphological, physical

properties

*Corresponding author: oliver.marasigan@fprdi.dost.gov.ph

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INTRODUCTION
Guadua angutifolia Kunt. – commonly known as iron
bamboo – is a remarkable tropical species of bamboo
that is native to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Trinidad
and Tobago, and Venezuela. It is also introduced into
Argentina, Brazil, Galapagos, Guyana, Paraguay, and
Uruguay (POWO 2023). Towering to heights of 20–30 m,
its slender culms possess an average diameter of 12 cm,
boasting culm wall thicknesses (CWTs) spanning from
0.4–2.5 cm (Roxas 2012; Correal and Arbalaez 2010).
Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees – also known as male
bamboo or solid bamboo – is a native species from the regions
of India, Laos, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, and
Vietnam. It has also been introduced to neighboring Asian
countries like Bangladesh, China, Java, Madagascar, Sri
Lanka, and Taiwan (POWO 2023). This species features
culms that attain heights ranging from 6–20 m, accompanied
by diameters spanning from 2.5–12.5 cm (Roxas 2012).
These two bamboo species were initially introduced to
the Philippines for experimental purposes. However, they
have now spread to various bambusetas, plantations, and
gardens across different regions of the country (Roxas
2012). However, there is currently no available literature
regarding the exact extent of bamboo planting in the
nation. A survey conducted by Corpuz (2016) targeting
bamboo farmers revealed that there exists an approximate
total of 417.35 ha of iron bamboo in the Philippines,
primarily concentrated in the Mindanao region.
These two bamboo species are recognized to be included
among the Philippines' commercially important bamboo
species (Roxas 2012; Virtucio 2009). Yet, there is limited
information that impedes practical application. Acquiring
this knowledge could broaden bamboo`s utility in various
applications.
According to Villareal et al. (2020), iron bamboo exhibited
potential for applications in furniture and construction
endeavors – including posts, beams, trusses, and flooring.
Roxas (2012) similarly affirmed that iron bamboo holds
promise for building residences and other edifices due to
its impressive strength-to-weight ratio, energy absorption,
and flexibility.
Conversely, there exists limited knowledge regarding
the properties of solid bamboo found in the Philippines.
Nevertheless, research from Thailand (Sompoh et al.
2013) and India (Bhonde et al. 2014) has disclosed
that this type of bamboo possesses superior mechanical
properties compared to economically significant bamboo
varieties from the Philippines (Espiloy 1996; Razal et al.
2012). Solid bamboo can be used both as a reinforcement
material for sustainable construction and eco-friendly
buildings, as well as in various structural components.
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Properties of Iron Bamboo and Solid Bamboo
Furthermore, another crucial consideration in bamboo
production is the site-species matching. Plants alter their
development, physiology, and life history depending on
the environmental conditions such as climate, soil type,
and terrain (Gratani 2014). However, there is a lack of
adequate research addressing the impact of environmental
variations on the growth and properties of iron bamboo
and solid bamboo. According to Somboon (2001), the
growth of bamboo is influenced by environmental factors
such as elevation and temperature.
For example, Dendrocalamus asper – which grows
in upland areas with an elevation range of 644–892
meters above sea level (masl) – exhibits longer culm
length, thicker culm diameter (CD), and greater CWT.
Additionally, its physical and mechanical properties are
superior to those of low-land bamboo species (Parlucha
et al. 2022; Aguinsatan et al. 2019). Li et al. (2014) also
observed that Chinobambusa utilis, planted in the Jinfo
Mountains of China, experiences better growth at mid-
elevations compared to lower elevations. Moreover, the
growth of moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) at
an elevation of 1,400 masl surpasses that at 1,000 masl
(Chen et al. 2014).
Thus, this study was conducted to determine the properties
of iron bamboo and solid bamboo and to suggest potential
applications for these species. Furthermore, the research
also aims to compare the morphological, physical, and
mechanical properties of iron bamboo and solid bamboo
cultivated in various locations – including Baguio City,
Nueva Vizcaya, and Laguna. The outcomes will provide
valuable information for the bamboo plantation owners
and farmers to determine the most suitable areas for
cultivating these bamboo species. Additionally, these
findings will guide manufacturers in selecting raw
materials for processing across diverse locations.
METHODOLOGY
Sample Preparation and Testing
Mature culms of iron and solid bamboo ranging from
4–5 yr old were collected. Specifically, six culms of
each species were obtained from Laguna, Baguio City
(iron bamboo), and Nueva Vizcaya (solid bamboo)
(Appendix II, Figure I). The culms were collected from
different clumps and cut approximately 30 cm above
the ground, and the length of each culm was measured.
The culms were then divided into three equal portions
(bottom, middle, and top) (Appendix II, Figure II). The
collection sites were located at elevations of 1,570 masl
(Baguio City), 400 masl (Laguna), and 255.7 masl (Nueva
Vizcaya).
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Vol. 152 No. 6A, December 2023
Morphological Properties
The method of Razak et al. (2012) was used to measure
the length of the internodes. Moreover, the diameter of the
bamboo was determined by calculating the average of two
perpendicular measurements across opposing points on the
outer culm surface. To gauge the CWT, four measurements
were taken around the culm circumference, spaced at
90° intervals based on ISO 22157–2019 (Appendix II,
Figure III).
Physical Properties
The moisture content (MC) and relative density (RD)
were measured in accordance with ISO 22157-2019. A
culm ring 125 mm in height was split into two slats that
measured 25 mm × CWT × 125 mm using a sharp bolo.
From each slat, a sample with dimensions of 25 mm × 25
mm × CWT was prepared for MC and RD determination.
The other slat that measured 25 mm × CWT × 100 mm
was used to determine the shrinkage properties from
green to over-dry condition (Appendix II, Figure IV) in
accordance with ASTM D143 (2019), with adjustments
made to the sample size. The MC and RD were computed
using Equations 1 and 2 and shrinkage properties were
computed using Equation 3.
(1)
where: MC = moisture content (%); Wi = initial weight
(g); Wo = oven dry weight (g)
(2)
where: RD = relative density; Wo = oven dry weight (g);
Wd = weight of displaced water (g)
(3)
where: Sa = shrinkage from green to oven-dry conditions
(%); D i = initial dimension (mm); D o = oven-dry
dimension (mm)
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties were tested using the ISO
22157-2019. Static bending, maximum compression
(MCS), and shear strength (SS) were investigated
(Appendix II, Figure V). For the MCS and SS, two types
of samples were prepared – namely, samples with node
and without node. The 300-kN universal testing machine
was used for all testing. The testing machine operated
at a speed of 15 mm/min for static bending; whereas for
the MCS and SS tests, the testing speed was set to 0.6
mm/min.
Marasigan et al.: Effect of Locality and Axial Position on the
Properties of Iron Bamboo and Solid Bamboo
Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis was conducted using R Studio
version 4.2.1 (R Core Team 2022). To assess the
significance of mean differences, factorial analysis of
variance was employed for morphological properties,
physical properties, and static bending. For the examination
of compression strength and SS, a factorial analysis
encompassing four factors – namely, species, height
levels, locations, and presence or absence of nodes – was
applied. If the differences were found to be significant,
Tukey's honestly significant difference test was performed
to identify, which means were significantly different. The
properties were also analyzed for their correlation using
Pearson’s correlation analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Influence of Species and Localities on the Properties
of Bamboo
Morphological properties. Iron bamboo had a longer
average length (14.15 m) and a greater number of
internodes (14) than solid bamboo (10.83 m and 12
internodes, respectively). It also displayed longer
internodes (34.0 cm) and larger CD (72.80 mm)
compared to the solid bamboo (32.40 cm and 61.40 mm,
respectively). However, only the CD showed a significant
difference (p = <0.001). Although solid bamboo had a
thicker culm wall (8.76 mm) than iron bamboo (8.42 mm),
this difference was not statistically significant (Appendix
I, Table I). It was observed that the interaction between
species and localities was notable (p = <0.001), suggesting
that these factors also play a role in the variations of the
morphological characteristics of the bamboo.
Different morphological characteristics were observed
in various localities. The culms harvested from Laguna
were longer than those from Baguio (iron bamboo, 11.44
m) and Nueva Vizcaya (solid bamboo, 6.14 m), with
values of 16.85 and 15.52 m for iron and solid bamboo,
respectively. Additionally, the culms from Laguna had
more internodes (17 and 18, respectively) compared to
those from Baguio (12 internodes) and Nueva Vizcaya
(7 internodes). The iron bamboo from Laguna showed
greater values for CD (100.0 mm), internode length
(IL) (35.10 cm), and CWT (8.92 mm) than the bamboo
from Baguio (45.30 mm, 32.90 cm, and 7.92 mm,
respectively). The CD of the solid bamboo from Laguna
(73.30 mm) was greater than that of the culms from
Nueva Vizcaya (49.50 mm), but it had a shorter IL (30.90
cm) and thinner CWT (8.36 mm) (Appendix I, Table I).
However, only the CD of both bamboo types showed a
significant difference (p < 0.001).
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The results observed in iron bamboo collected from
Laguna agreed with those of Villareal et al. (2020).
Differences in elevation may be the cause of the variation
in morphological traits between the iron bamboo gathered
in Baguio City and that in Laguna. According to Parlucha
et al. (2022), the number of internodes and culm length
have both positive and negative correlations with elevation
and temperature. The length of the bamboo culm tends to
shorten as the temperature rises.
Temperature regulation is important for plant growth
and tissue development since temperature changes can
negatively affect a plant’s ability to photosynthesize,
causing morphological changes including a reduction in
plant size (Jiménez-Noriega et al. 2017). Moreover, Wen
et al. (1999) discovered that when the gradient of elevation
increased, the CD of Bashania spanostachya dropped.
It was anticipated that the culms taken from Nueva
Vizcaya would be longer, have more internodes, and have
greater diameters for the solid bamboo. The influence
of soil likely overwhelmed the influence of elevation
and temperature on the morphological characteristics of
solid bamboo. According to Parlucha et al. (2022), soil
nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations were higher at
higher elevations. The delayed breakdown of organic
waste at higher elevations caused by cold temperatures is
thought to be the source of elevated quantities of nitrogen
and phosphorus (Bonito et al. 2003). A positive link
between nitrogen and phosphorus content, culm length,
and internode number was also seen in the findings of
Parlucha et al. (2022). They also noticed a connection
between diameter and phosphorus level that was positive.
Bhonde et al. (2014) assert that solid bamboo grows
naturally in higher altitudes with well-drained soil, which
is congruent with the climatic circumstances present in
the Laguna region.
Based on the results, iron and solid bamboo grown in
Laguna have superior traits compared to those from
Baguio and Nueva Vizcaya. Laguna’s bamboo is more
suited for uses that call for straight, longer, and larger
culms like engineered bamboo products and construction
usage. A good raw material, it can enhance the quantity
of usable poles by having long, erect, and larger culms
(Razal et al. 2012). The effect of different environmental
conditions on bamboo growth – including elevation,
temperature, relative humidity, and soil – was not
completely examined in the current study. Future research
can however concentrate on this to learn more about the
growth and development of these bamboo.
Physical properties. The analysis revealed significant
differences in the physical properties between species.
Specifically, RD, MC, and shrinkage were found to exhibit
significant differences between these species (p < 0.0001).
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Properties of Iron Bamboo and Solid Bamboo
The results showed that solid bamboo significantly
performed better than iron bamboo in terms of MC, radial
shrinkage (RS), tangential shrinkage (TS), longitudinal
shrinkage (LS), and volumetric shrinkage (VS). On
the other hand, iron bamboo had a significantly higher
RD compared to solid bamboo (Appendix I, Table II).
Significant interaction (p < 0.05) was observed between
species and localities, indicating that these factors are also
contributing to the variations in the physical characteristics
of the bamboo.
The thicker CWT of solid bamboo was identified as a
probable cause of its higher MC. This was supported
by the positive correlation recorded between MC and
CWT (Appendix I, Table III). Moreover, shrinkage
characteristics were favorably connected with MC in other
bamboo species (Villareal et al. 2020; Siam et al. 2019;
Nordahlia et al. 2011). The decrease in vascular bundle
concentration and rise in the proportion of parenchyma
cells in the culm cause a higher MC and shrinking, which
are the causes of this association between MC and CWT
(Villareal et al. 2020).
The high RD of iron bamboo can be attributed to its thin
CWT, as evidenced by the negative correlation between
these two properties (Appendix I, Table III). According
to Villareal et al. (2020), culms with thinner CWT have
higher RD and more vascular bundles. They also found
that RD is inversely connected with CD and favorably
correlated with IL. Similar correlations were also noted
in the present study, although the relationship between
RD and IL was not statistically significant (Appendix I,
Table III). In various species of erect bamboo, anatomical
properties such as fiber length, lumen diameter, and cell
wall thickness were found to negatively correlate with
the culm RD (Kamruzzaman et al. 2008; Nordahlia et
al. 2011; Siam et al. 2019). However, the impact of
these attributes on the RD of both bamboo types was not
examined in the current investigation.
The significantly high shrinkage value observed in solid
bamboo compared to iron bamboo can be attributed to its
low RD and high MC. This was supported by the positive
correlation between shrinkage and MC, as well as the
negative correlation between shrinkage and RD (Appendix
I, Table III). According to Villareal et al. (2020), bamboo
with low RD has considerable shrinkage because it has
a higher proportion of parenchyma cells, which are less
resistant to MC changes than fibers. Similar results
were obtained in research on various bamboo species
(Kamruzzaman et al. 2008; Nordahlia et al. 2011; Siam et
al. 2019). The present study found a negative correlation
between RS and VS to CD in both species (Appendix I,
Table III). Moreover, TS and the CD in solid bamboo
showed a negative correlation. On the other hand, the
high microfibril angle found in the S2 layers of the cells
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could be the cause of the high LS seen in solid bamboo
(Shmulsky and Jones 2019).
The influence of localities on the physical properties of
both bamboo types was significant (p < 0.001), except
for the LS of the iron bamboo (Appendix I, Table II).
The culm of iron bamboo from Baguio has a much lower
MC but a higher RD than that from Laguna. As opposed
to the culm from Nueva Vizcaya, the solid bamboo
harvested in Laguna had a greater RD but a lower MC.
The RS, TS, and VS of the bamboo culms from Baguio
and Nueva Vizcaya were noticeably greater than those
from Laguna. When compared to Laguna, the culm from
Nueva Vizcaya likewise showed a noticeable increase
in LS for solid bamboo. The two bamboo types’ distinct
physical distinctions can be attributed to their different
morphologies, which are impacted by localities.
Mechanical properties: static bending. The result
showed that the species caused variation in the static
bending properties. The solid bamboo exhibited higher
stress at the proportional limit (SPL) (38.40 MPa),
modulus of rupture (MOR) (76.60 MPa), and modulus
of elasticity (MOE) (18.90 GPa) than the iron bamboo
(34.60, 72.80, and 18.90 GPa, respectively) (Appendix
I, Table IV; Appendix II, Figure VI), although the
difference in mechanical properties was not statistically
significant (p > 0.05).
The high static bending strength of solid bamboo can
be attributed to its small CD and thin CWT. However,
a weak correlation was found between static bending
and CWT within and across species (Appendix I, Table
V). Except for the SPL of solid bamboo, a substantial
negative association between CD and static bending
was found. This finding accords with earlier research on
several bamboo species – including Guadua angustifolia,
Guadua rayada, Bambusa pervariabilis, Phyllostachys
pubescens, Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa vulgaris,
and Gigantochloa apus (Gnanaharan et al. 1994; Chung
and Yu 2002; Javadian et al. 2019; Nugroho et al. 2021).
The study found that the localities of harvest had a
significant impact on the static bending properties of both
bamboo species, except for solid bamboo SPL (Appendix
I, Table IV). Culms harvested in Baguio for iron bamboo
displayed 131.61% greater SPL, 104.49% higher MOR,
and 285.52% higher MOE than those in Laguna. The SPL,
MOR, and MOE of the solid bamboo culms from Nueva
Vizcaya were higher than those from Laguna by 29.69,
48.49, and 69.98%, respectively.
Differences in bamboo species' static bending can be
related to variations in their morphological and physical
characteristics. A possible explanation for the higher static
bending properties of the culms obtained from Baguio and
Nueva Vizcaya is that they had smaller CD, thicker CWT,
Marasigan et al.: Effect of Locality and Axial Position on the
Properties of Iron Bamboo and Solid Bamboo
and higher RD than those from Laguna. These findings
are corroborated by the observed positive and negative
correlations between CD, CWT, RD, and static bending
(Appendix I, Table V). Smaller culms typically have a
higher concentration of fibers and vascular bundles that
are more densely packed together, contributing to their
overall strength as opposed to bigger culms (Gnanaharan
et al. 1994).
Mechanical properties: maximum compression (MCS)
and shear strength (SS). Species and localities have a
significant impact on the MCS and SS of bamboo (p = <
0.001) (Appendix I, Table IV). The results of recent studies
have shown that solid bamboo has a higher average strength
(30.60 and 6.32 MPa) compared to iron bamboo (26.90
and 4.12 MPa) for both MCS and SS. The differences in
the morphological characteristics of the two varieties of
bamboo can be cited for this discrepancy. According to Liu
et al. (2021), MCS and SS are positively correlated with CD.
In contrast, a negative correlation between CWT, MCS, and
SS (Omaliko and Ubani 2021). Although the current study's
findings agree with those of the earlier research, there was
no noticeable association between CWT and either MCS
or SS (Appendix I, Table V). As bamboo's cross-sectional
area grows, its resistance to stresses increases, resulting in
a more even distribution of stress and strain throughout the
material (Omaliko and Ubani 2021).
In terms of localities, the MCS and SS of iron (33.10 and
6.12 MPa, respectively) and solid bamboo (45.90 and
10.20 MPa, respectively) obtained from Laguna showed
significantly higher values compared to those gathered
in Baguio City for iron bamboo (20.70 and 2.12 MPa,
respectively) and Nueva Vizcaya for solid bamboo (15.30
and 2.42 MPa, respectively) (Appendix I, Table IV). The
variability in strength properties across different localities
can be attributed to differences in the morphological
characteristics of the bamboo.
In both bamboo species, the presence of nodes had no
significant effect on the MCS and SS (p < 0.05) (Appendix
I, Table IV). However, the sample without a node showed
an increase in both parameters – as shown in Appendix I,
Table IV. The MCS and SS of the iron bamboo increased
by 11.68 and 9.78%, respectively, whereas those of the
solid bamboo increased only modestly by 3.70 and 1.59%,
respectively. This finding is consistent with research on
erect (Espiloy 1996; Jimenez et al. 2021) and climbing
bamboo species (Bondad et al. 2023) from earlier studies.
Due to variables – including short fiber, excessive lignin,
and a high concentration of truncated vascular bundles at
the nodal region – bamboo becomes weaker when nodes
are present (Liese 1998).
The study's findings indicate that bamboo types sourced
from Laguna are suitable for heavy construction
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purposes – including scaffolding, posts, beams, trusses,
and flooring. On the other hand, bamboo collected from
Baguio City and Nueva Vizcaya demonstrates higher
static bending strength, making it ideal for applications
that require substantial strength. It can be effectively
employed in building and housing projects that necessitate
culms with smaller diameters such as for crafting window
frames, cabinets, furniture frames, tool handles, wall
dividers, bamboo veneers, and flooring.
Influence of Axial Position on the Properties of
Bamboo
Morphological properties. The axial position of bamboo
has a significant impact on its morphological properties (p
< 0.0001) (Appendix I, Table I). According to this study,
bamboo's CD and CWT tend to decline from the bottom
to the top. The bamboo's IL rises concurrently from the
bottom to the top. Studies of Phyllostachys pubescens,
Phyllostachys edulis, Guadua angustifolia, and other
erect bamboo species in the Philippines have noted this
pattern, which is present in all bamboo species (Espiloy
1996; Villareal et al. 2020). It is important to note that the
lower portion of solid bamboo culm has a thick or almost
solid wall (Roxas 2012).
Bamboo culms' lower CD and CWT at the top can
be attributed to several things, including the fact that
the leaves and branches at the top are prioritized for
photosynthesis. Additionally, studies have revealed that
different species of bamboo frequently have internodes
that rise from the base to the top (Espiloy 1996; Villareal et
al. 2020) this is thought to be a result of the development of
the apical meristem. The plant can increase its internodes
and grow taller as resources are focused on the formation
of the apical meristem (Liese 1998).
Physical properties. The axial position has a significant
influence on the MC and RD of the bamboo (p < 0.0001)
(Appendix I, Table II). A variation in the LS was also
observed in solid bamboo. Towards the top of the culm,
the MC and RD display decreasing and ascending patterns,
respectively. Many bamboo species frequently exhibit a
decrease in MC toward the top, which is explained by an
increase in vascular bundle concentration (Razak et al.
2009, 2010; Nordahlia et al. 2011; Siam et al. 2019). On
the other hand, several bamboo species have been found to
have an increase in RD toward the top section (Razak et al.
2009, 2010; Nordahlia et al. 2011). A larger concentration
of vascular bundles, rising silica content, and thinning of
the CWT from the bottom to the top were proposed as
the causes of this pattern (Mohmod and Mustafa 1992).
The study's results are in line with previous research,
which also found a negative correlation between CWT
and RD. On the other hand, a positive correlation was
observed between the CWT and MC (Appendix I, Table
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Properties of Iron Bamboo and Solid Bamboo
III). However, in solid bamboo, these relationships were
not statistically significant.
The shrinkage properties of the two species, RS, TS,
and VS were found to decrease towards the top of the
culm (Appendix I, Table II). These findings accord with
findings from earlier research on other bamboo species
(Kamruzzaman et al. 2008; Nordahlia et al. 2011; Siam
et al. 2019; Villareal et al. 2020). According to Villareal
et al. (2020), significant differences in the RS, TS,
and VS of G. angustifolia were noted along the axial
position, and they were found to be positively correlated
with CWT and negatively correlated with the frequency
of vascular bundles. On the contrary, the present study
found a positive correlation between TS and CWT and a
negative correlation between RS, LS, VS, and CWT in
iron bamboo. Only the RS, however, was discovered to
be statistically significant. Shrinkage characteristics and
CWT had a weak positive correlation in solid bamboo
(Appendix I, Table III).
In contrast to iron bamboo, where LS was highest in
the top and bottom regions and lowest in the middle,
solid bamboo exhibited a declining trend toward the top
portion (Appendix I, Table II). These variations in LS at
various axial positions might be explained by variations
in the arrangement of microfibril angles at the S2 layer
(Shmulsky and Jones 2019).
Increased parenchyma cells at the base raise initial MC
and cause more shrinkage (Razak et al. 2012). Conversely,
a higher RD at the top results from a higher proportion
of shorter fibers and bundles, reducing shrinkage (Khabir
et al. 1995).
Mechanical properties. Statistical analysis revealed no
significant difference in static bending properties between
different sections of the culm for both bamboo species
(Appendix I, Table IV). However, an increasing trend of
SPL and MOE was observed towards the top of the culm
for both species. In contrast, in MOR, the highest strength
was found at the top portion of the culm, followed by the
bottom portion, with the weakest strength observed in the
middle portion (Appendix II, Figure VI).
Similar patterns of increasing SPL and MOE from bottom
to top were also observed in the previous studies on
bamboo (Siam et al. 2019; Correal and Arbalaez 2010).
Kamruzzaman et al. (2008) suggest that the increase in
strength towards the top portion of the bamboo culm
is associated with the decreasing CD towards the top
and vice versa. The results of the present study support
these findings. Negative correlations between CD and
static bending properties were observed in iron bamboo
and across species, although the negative relationship
observed in solid bamboo was not statistically significant
(Appendix I, Table V).
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Vol. 152 No. 6A, December 2023 Properties of Iron Bamboo and Solid Bamboo

The variability in static bending across the axial position of blumeana, B. vulgaris, G. levis, Dendrocalamus asper,
bamboo can also be attributed to the differences in RD. As D. merrillianus, and Schizostachyum lumampao (Espiloy
presented in Table V of Appendix I, a positive correlation and Espiloy 1992).
was observed both within bamboo and across bamboo
species, respectively. However, a statistically significant In solid bamboo, a positive correlation was observed
correlation was only observed in iron bamboo and across between RD and both MCS and SS; whereas in iron
bamboo species. This agrees with findings from other bamboo, MCS and SS were negatively correlated with
studies on other erect bamboo species (Kamruzzaman et RD (Appendix I, Table V). In various erect bamboo
al. 2008; Siam et al. 2019; Wakchaure and Kute 2012; species, Omaliko and Ubani (2021) and Chaowana et al.
Espiloy and Espiloy 1992; Correal and Arbalaez 2010; (2015) also noted this positive correlation between RD
Javadian et al. 2019). and MCS. The unequal distribution of vascular bundles,
chemical composition, and cell structure across the height
Culms with large CD have thicker CWT, particularly at and localities of the bamboo culm was attributed to this
the bottom, reducing the proportion of cellulose fibers. association.
Conversely, the top part of the culm with lower CD has a
higher cellulose fiber density leading to greater RD, which
Possible Uses of Iron and Solid Bamboo
significantly impacts bamboo's mechanical properties. The
According to the study's findings, bamboo from Laguna
remarkable mechanical properties of bamboo improve as
is a viable option for use in heavy construction (e.g.
cellulose fiber quantity increases, leading to higher static
scaffolding, posts, beams and trusses, and flooring). This
bending strength and a greater RD.
is mostly due to the larger CD, higher culm height and
The large CD and thicker CWT may have contributed to IL, and high MOE strength, all of which fall within the
the higher MOR seen in the bottom portion. On the other range of characteristics needed for structural applications.
hand, the top portion's high MOR strength is probably Moreover, both iron and solid bamboo were listed as one
caused by its high RD and small CD. Similar results of the most used structural bamboo species around the
were also seen in Thyrsostachys oliveri, Phyllostachys world (Kaminski et al. 2016).
makinoi, Dendrocalamus asper, Dendrocalamus sericeus,
In addition to its suitability for heavy construction, the
Dendrocalamus membranaceus, and Dendrocalamus
bamboo collected from Laguna can be recommended for
asper (Chaowana et al. 2021). Espiloy and Espiloy
use in engineered bamboo products such as laminated
(1992) also observed higher MOR in the bottom portion
bamboo beams due to its long, upright, and wider culms.
of economically important species of bamboo in the
These qualities enable a more sustainable manufacturing
Philippines – namely, Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa
process by increasing the number of useable poles that can
vulgaris, Gigantochloa levis, Dendrocalamus asper,
be taken from each bamboo plant and enhancing bamboo
Dendrocalamus merrillianus, and Schizostachyum
slat recovery (Razal et al. 2012).
lumampao.
Although Baguio City and Nueva Vizcaya bamboo might
According to Chaowana et al. (2021), culms with higher
not be as ideal for uses that require larger culms, it can
CD and thicker CWT have larger cross-sectional areas and
still be used for other uses that demand high strength. It
are responsible for the increased MOR strength reported in
can be used, for instance, in building and housing projects
the bottom portion of the bamboo. According to Nugroho
that require culms with smaller diameters such as window
et al. (2021), the outside CD is a valid parameter for
frames, cabinet and furniture frames, tool handles, wall
estimating bamboo's MOR strength. It is important to
dividers, bamboo veneers, and flooring. Due to its small
note that during testing, bending failure mostly affects
CD, short culm height, shorter IL, and thick CWT, bamboo
the area where the small CD end is situated. On the other
from these locations is not advisable to be used to produce
hand, high RD at the top portion is thought to be the
engineered bamboo. These features can lead to a lower
cause of the high MOR strength seen in the top portion
recovery of bamboo slats.
of bamboo culms.
In fact, tropical South America's iron bamboo is regarded
A significant difference was only observed in the SS of
as one of the highest-quality bamboo species (Londoo et
solid bamboo along its culm (Appendix I, Table IV). A
al. 2002; Roxas 2012). It is a preferred option as a building
general increasing trend from the bottom to the top portion
material for low-cost homes and other construction
was observed for both MCS and SS, except for the SS of
projects due to its excellent structural properties. Its high
solid bamboo, which showed a significant peak in the
resistance-to-weight ratio provides strength and durability
middle portion. Similar increasing trends in MCS and SS
while remaining lightweight. This unique property also
towards the top portion were observed in mature culms
makes it ideal for constructing earthquake-resistant
of Gigantochloa atroviolacea, G. angustifolia, Bambusa
buildings due to its high capacity to absorb energy. Also,

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Vol. 152 No. 6A, December 2023
because of its exceptional flexibility, it can bear high
loads and pressure in a variety of building applications,
including flooring and wall panels.
Nevertheless, solid bamboo is also a superior raw material
in India for a variety of uses (Bhonde et al. 2014). This
bamboo, which makes up 53% of the bamboo grown in
India, is regarded as one of the sustainable and eco-friendly
building materials. It serves as both a reinforcing material
and a variety of structural elements in the building.
Despite bamboo's remarkable qualities, applications
can be difficult due to its relatively high dimensional
shrinkage. As a result, it is recommended to apply the
correct treatments and modifications to ensure remarkable
results when using it. Processes like heat treatment –
which can increase the bamboo's dimensional stability,
toughness, and resistance to biological deterioration – can
fall under this category. In addition, chemical treatments
like preservatives can be used to prevent insect attacks and
fungus formation. Proper treatment and modification of
bamboo can enhance its strength and durability, making
it an even more versatile and sustainable material for
various applications.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study offer useful information to the
bamboo industry about the acceptability of iron and solid
bamboo gathered from diverse locations as raw materials
for different products. The bamboo from Laguna may not
have the highest static bending strength, but because of
its generally straight, larger diameter, and longer culms, it
is nevertheless suggested for heavy construction and as a
source of designed bamboo. It should also be investigated
how these bamboo types might be used as reinforcement
materials for sustainable construction. On the other hand,
the bamboo from Baguio City and Nueva Vizcaya is still
appropriate for uses that require high strength but do not
always require a big diameter. The study also highlights
the significant impact of the localities and axial position
on bamboo properties and recommends the consideration
of recommended end-uses based on the properties of the
species for optimal utilization. Future research should
concentrate on how environmental conditions affect the
characteristics of bamboo, and verifying the characteristics
of the products made from these bamboo types is crucial
to confirming their use. The bamboo business may use the
knowledge from this study to make sound decisions about
the utilization of these bamboo types as a sustainable and
environmentally friendly alternative material.
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Properties of Iron Bamboo and Solid Bamboo
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to the Philippine
Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural Resources
Research and Development of the Department of Science
and Technology for providing the funding. Special
thanks are extended to the Wood Physics and Mechanics
Section for their contribution to preparing and testing the
specimens. The manuscript was improved thanks to the
editing, proofreading, and technical guidance given by Dr.
R. Cabangon from the Office of the Director, as well as
Ms. R. Araral and Ms. E. Barile from the Communication
Materials Production and Library Services. The assistance
of Ms. M. Odsey and Ms. C. Collado of the Ecosystems
Research and Development Bureau of the Department
of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR-ERDB)
at Baguio City and Ms. F. Oliva of DENR-ERDB at Los
Baños in the collection of bamboo samples is appreciated.
Note on Appendices
The complete appendices section of the study is accessible
at https://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph/.
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APPENDIX I

Table I. Morphological properties of iron and solid bamboo collected bamboo from different localities and height levels.
Culm diameter (mm) Internode length (cm) Culm wall thickness (mm)
Factors
Iron bamboo Solid bamboo Iron bamboo Solid bamboo Iron bamboo Solid bamboo
Localities
[A] Laguna 100.00a 73.30a 35.10a 30.90a 8.92a 8.36a
(± 25.45) (± 12.85) (± 5.79) (± 5.72) (± 1.88) (± 3.22)
[B] Baguio and Nueva 45.30b 49.50b 32.90a 33.90a 7.92a 9.16a
Vizcaya (± 14.90) (± 3.73) (± 5.36) (± 6.37) (± 2.81) (± 2.11)
Height levels
92.00a 66.20a 27.70b 27.90b 10.80a 11.70a
Bottom
(± 35.55) (± 15.61) (± 3.92) (±3.19) (± 2.21) (± 1.92)
78.40b 66.20a 36.20a 36.00a 7.86b 7.91b
Middle
(± 30.33) (± 16.44) (± 3.13) (± 4.64) (± 1.66) (± 1.67)
48.10c 51.80b 38.00a 33.40a 6.64b 6.64b
Top
(± 23.83) (± 7.29) (± 3.06) (± 7.17) (± 1.03) (± 1.28)
Average 72.80a 61.40b 34.00a 32.40a 8.42a 8.76a
(± 34.69) (± 15.00) (± 5.61) (± 6.15) (± 2.41) (± 2.71)
Note: values inside the parenthesis are standard deviations; means with the same letter are not significantly different; [a, b] highest, lowest value

Table II. Physical properties of iron and solid bamboo from different localities and height levels.
Shrinkage properties (%)
Moisture content
Relative density
(%)
Radial Tangential Longitudinal Volumetric
Factors
Iron Solid Iron Solid Solid Solid Solid
Iron bamboo Solid bamboo Iron bamboo Iron bamboo Iron bamboo
bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo

Location

[A] Laguna 0.50b 0.52a 115.00a 118.00b 8.89b 7.88b 8.15b 6.38b 0.31a 0.25b 16.30b 13.70b
(± 0.07) (± 0.08) (± 28.24) (± 36.67) (± 3.00) (± 2.72) (± 1.44) (± 1.55) (± 0.20) (± 0.15) (±3.29) (± 3.83)

[B] Baguio and 0.68a 0.48b 87.60b 142.00a 13.70a 19.20a 9.51a 14.20a 0.22a 0.58a 21.90a 30.60a
Nueva Vizcaya (± 0.05) (± 0.05) (± 10.65) (± 21.91) (± 3.71) (± 4.59) (± 4.85) (± 2.91) (± 0.41) (± 0.93) (± 5.82) (± 5.74)

Height levels

0.55b 0.48b 112.00a 141.00a 11.90a 13.90a 9.19a 10.50a 0.266a 0.587a 20.00a 22.40a
Bottom
(± 0.11) (± 0.07) (± 27.55) (± 35.59) (± 4.55) (± 7.25) (± 2.51) (± 4.46) (± 0.39) (± 0.88) (± 5.76) (± 10.18)

0.60a 0.51ab 99.90ab 128.00ab 11.20a 13.60a 8.77a 10.30a 0.236a 0.434ab 18.90a 22.30a
Middle
(± 0.12) (± 0.08) (± 26.87) (± 31.51) (± 3.44) (± 6.40) (± 2.12) (± 4.73) (± 0.19) (± 0.69) (± 4.09) (± 9.58)

0.63a 0.52a 92.10b 122.00b 10.80a 13.10a 8.54a 10.10a 0.296a 0.212b 18.40a 21.80a
Top
(± 0.09) (± 0.05) (± 16.40) (± 27.50) (± 4.35) (± 6.83) (± 5.39) (± 4.59) (± 0.36) (± 0.32) (± 6.33) (± 9.67)

0.59a 0.50b 101.00b 130.00a 11.30b 13.50a 8.83b 10.30a 0.27b 0.41a 19.10b 22.10a
Average
(± 0.11) (± 0.07) (± 25.36) (± 32.42) (± 4.14) (± 6.79) (± 3.63) (± 4.57) (± 0.32) (± 0.68) (± 5.48) (± 9.75)

Note: values inside the parenthesis are standard deviations; means with the same letter are not significantly different; [a, b] highest, lowest value

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Table III. Pearson correlation of the morphological and physical properties of the bamboo.
Properties CD IL CWT RD MC RS TS LS
Iron bamboo
ns
IL –0.187 –
CWT 0.555* –0.601* –
ns
RD –0.820* 0.075 –0.452* –
ns
MC 0.647* –0.190 0.400* –0.903* –
ns
RS –0.564* 0.020 –0.336* 0.628* –0.489* –
ns ns ns ns ns ns
TS –0.113 –0.046 0.066 0.169 –0.114 0.447 –
ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
LS 0.205 0.006 –0.053 –0.194 0.085 –0.114 –0.185 –
ns ns ns
VS –0.485* 0.001 –0.240 0.557* –0.430* 0.944* 0.716* –0.153
Solid bamboo
ns
IL –0.143 –
ns
CWT 0.200 –0.487* –
ns ns ns
RD 0.216 –0.105 –0.147 –
ns ns ns
MC –0.278 0.195 0.109 –0.975* –
ns ns
RS –0.745* 0.267 0.048 –0.556* 0.644* –
ns ns
TS –0.746* 0.281 0.063 –0.519* 0.605* 0.976* –
ns ns ns
LS –0.190 –0.132 0.251 –0.395* 0.435* 0.517* 0.490* –
ns ns
VS –0.756* 0.278 0.050 –0.543* 0.631* 0.996* 0.990* 0.499*
All species
ns
IL –0.124 –
CWT 0.374* –0.541* –
ns
RD –0.432* 0.063 –0.310* –
ns ns
MC 0.145 –0.035 0.233* –0.901* –
ns ns ns
RS –0.538* 0.143 –0.065 –0.074 0.343* –
ns ns
TS –0.348* 0.139 0.075 –0.273* 0.464* 0.871* –
ns ns ns
LS –0.042 –0.113 0.170 –0.310* 0.384* 0.418* 0.420* –
ns ns ns
VS –0.485* 0.151 –0.018 –0.143 0.391* 0.982* 0.947* 0.421*
[IL] internode length; [CWT] culm wall thickness; [CD] culm diameter; [MC] moisture content; [RS] radial shrinkage; [TS] tangential shrinkage; [LS] longitudinal
shrinkage; [VS] volumetric shrinkage

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Table IV. Mechanical properties of iron and solid bamboo bamboo from different localities and height levels.
Stress at the Maximum
Modulus of rupture Modulus of elasticity
proportional limit compression strength Shear strength (MPa)
(MPa) (GPa)
Factors (MPa) (MPa)
Iron Solid Iron Solid Iron Solid Iron Solid Iron Solid
bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo bamboo
Location
[A] 11.80b 32.70a 34.80b 61.70b 7.41b 13.80b 33.10a 45.90a 6.12a 10.2a
Laguna (± 4.32) (± 11.16) (± 8.68) (± 16.42) (± 1.94) (± 2.61) (± 10.01) (± 9.45) (± 2.40) (± 2.41)
[B] Baguio
57.30a 44.10a 111.00a 91.40a 28.50a 23.90a 20.70b 15.30b 2.12b 2.42b
and Nueva
(± 24.71) (± 13.42) (± 99.86) (± 20.07) (± 8.10) (± 9.82) (± 2.41) (± 2.58) (± 0.29) (± 0.62)
Vizcaya
Presence of node
With node – – – – – – 25.60a 30.00a 3.93a 6.27a
(± 8.27) (± 16.29) (± 2.48) (± 4.32)
Without – – – – – – 28.20a 31.10a 4.31a 6.37a
node (± 10.61) (± 17.62) (± 2.80) (± 4.32)
Height levels
31.20a 29.90a 72.50a 71.80a 16.50a 16.00a 25.00a 28.40a 3.56a 5.44b
Bottom
(± 27.47) (± 10.89) (± 68.99) (± 20.49) (± 11.14) (± 5.00) (± 9.24) (± 15.92) (± 1.96) (± 3.01)
31.80a 42.20a 68.80a 78.20a 16.70a 20.50a 26.30a 30.70a 4.03a 6.99a
Middle
(± 23.00) (± 16.48) (± 50.82) (± 26.20) (± 10.11) (± 8.56) (± 7.93) (± 17.47) (± 2.57) (± 4.89)
40.70a 43.20a 77.10a 79.60a 20.70a 20.00a 29.40a 32.60a 4.77a 6.52ab
Top
(± 36.31) (± 18.81) (± 74.67) (± 24.83) (± 15.28) (± 8.00) (± 11.04) (± 17.59) (± 3.19) (± 4.74)
34.60a 38.40a 72.80a 76.60a 18.00a 18.90a 26.90b 30.60a 4.12b 6.32a
Average
(± 28.93) (± 16.09) (± 24.13) (± 23.52) (± 12.18) (± 11.74) (± 9.53) (± 16.85) (± 2.63) (± 4.29)
Note: values inside the parenthesis are standard deviations; means with the same letter are not significantly different; [a, b] highest, lowest value

Table V. Pearson correlation of the morphological, physical, and mechanical properties of the bamboo.
Iron bamboo Solid bamboo All species
Properties
SS MCS SPL MOR MOE SS MCS SPL MOR MOE SS MCS SPL MOR MOE
ns
CD 0.470* 0.430* –0.710* –0.830* –0.80* 0.699* 0.729* –0.328 –0.530* –0.531* 0.363* 0.396* –0.637* –0.754* –0.712*
ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns
CWT –0.014 –0.002 –0.257 –0.188 –0.268 –0.266 –0.180 –0.189 –0.011 –0.108 –0.146 –0.110 –0.211 –0.108 –0.188
ns ns ns ns ns ns
MC 0.145 –0.013 –0.544* –0.543* –0.601* –0.528* –0.621* –0.247 –0.193 –0.013 –0.116 –0.315* –0.304* –0.297* –0.253*
ns ns ns ns ns
RD –0.448* –0.348* 0.720* 0.792* 0.796* 0.457* 0.567* 0.317 0.250 0.068 –0.131 0.048 0.516* 0.558* 0.496*

[CD] culm diameter; [CWT] culm wall thickness; [MC] moisture content; [RD] relative density; [SS] shear strength; [MCS] maximum compression strength; [SPL]
stress at the proportional limit; [MOR] modulus of rupture; [MOE] modulus of elasticity

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APPENDIX II

Figure I. Collection site of the bamboo used in the study: iron bamboo in Baguio City and Laguna plus solid bamboo in
Nueva Vizcaya and Laguna.

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Figure II. The sampling scheme used in the study.

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Figure III. Measurement for culm wall thickness (A) and culm diameter (B) (ISO 22157-2019).

Figure IV. Measurement for the shrinkage properties of the bamboo culms.

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Figure V. Compression strength (A), shear strength (B), and static bending (C) properties determination of bamboo culms.

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Figure VI. Stress-strain curve of Iron bamboo from [A] Baguio City and [B] Laguna. Solid bamboo from [C] Nueva Vizcaya and [D] Laguna.

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