TOS_Outline_PsychAssess_Final

Psychological Assessment
#BLEPP
Source: Cohen & Swerdlik (2018), Kaplan & Saccuzzo (2018), Groth & Wright (2016), Psych Pearls
- Ecological Momentary: “in the moment” evaluation
Hellow, future RPm! of specific problems and related cognitive and
behavioral variables at the very time and place that they
occur
Doubt is definitely going to eat you this review season. I
- Collaborative: the assessor and assesee may work as
just want you to know that it is very VALID to feel that
“partners” from initial contact through final feedback
way. But always remember to go back to the reason why - Therapeutic: therapeutic self-discovery and new
you are doing this. understanding are encouraged
- Dynamic: describe interactive approach to
May this reviewer help you pass the boards like it did to psychological assessment that usually follows the
me and to many people that I know <3 model: evaluation > intervention of some sort >
evaluation
We will be remembered o Psychological Test – device or procedure designed
to measure variables related to psychology
▪ Content: subject matter
Psychometric Properties and Principles (39)
▪ Format: form, plan, structure, arrangement,
Psychometric Properties essential in Constructing,
layout
Selecting, Interpreting tests
▪ Item: a specific stimulus to which a person
Psychological Testing - process of measuring responds overtly and this response is being
psychology-related variables by means of devices or scored or evaluated
procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior ▪ Administration Procedures: one-to-one basis or
- numerical in nature group administration
- individual or by group ▪ Score: code or summary of statement, usually
- administrators can be interchangeable without but not necessarily numerical in nature, but
affecting the evaluation reflects an evaluation of performance on a test
- requires technician-like skills in terms of ▪ Scoring: the process of assigning scores to
administration and scoring performances
- yield a test score or series of test score ▪ Cut-Score: reference point derived by judgement
- minutes to few hours and used to divide a set of data into two or more
Psychological Assessment - gathering and integration classification
of psychology-related data for the purpose of making ▪ Psychometric Soundness: technical quality
psychological evaluation ▪ Psychometrics: science of psychological
- answers referral question thru the use of different measurement
tools of evaluation ▪ Psychometrist or Psychometrician: refer to
- individual professional who uses, analyzes, and interprets
- assessor is the key to the process of selecting tests psychological data
and/or other tools of evaluation
- requires an educated selection of tools of evaluation,
skill in evaluation, and thoughtful organization and
integration of data
- entails logical problem-solving that brings to bear
many sources of data assigned to answer the referral
question
- Educational: evaluate abilities and skills relevant in
school context
- Retrospective: draw conclusions about psychological
aspects of a person as they existed at some point in time
prior to the assessment
- Remote: subject is not in physical proximity to the
person conducting the evaluation
The reviewers I made are FREE :D instead of selling it, you can share the drive link to others :D Let’s help each other <3
See u soon, future RPms! - Aly
#BLEPP
Ability or Maximal Performance Test – assess what Non-standardized/Unstructured – pursue relevant
a person can do ideas in depth
1. Achievement Test – measurement of the previous Semi-Standardized/Focused – may probe further on
learning specific number of questions
- used to measure general knowledge in a specific Non-Directive – subject is allowed to express his
period of time feelings without fear of disapproval
- used to assess mastery ▪ Mental Status Examination: determines the
- rely mostly on content validity mental status of the patient
- fact-based or conceptual ▪ Intake Interview: determine why the client came
2. Aptitude – refers to the potential for learning or for assessment; chance to inform the client about
acquiring a specific skill the policies, fees, and process involved
- tends to focus on informal learning ▪ Social Case: biographical sketch of the client
- rely mostly on predictive validity ▪ Employment Interview: determine whether the
3. Intelligence – refers to a person’s general potential candidate is suitable for hiring
to solve problems, adapt to changing environments, ▪ Panel Interview (Board Interview): more than
abstract thinking, and profit from experience one interviewer participates in the assessment
Human Ability – considerable overlap of ▪ Motivational Interview: used by counselors and
achievement, aptitude, and intelligence test clinicians to gather information about some
Typical Performance Test – measure usual or habitual problematic behavior, while simultaneously
thoughts, feelings, and behavior attempting to address it therapeutically
- indicate how test takers think and act on a daily basis o Portfolio – samples of one’s ability and
- use interval scales accomplishment
- no right and wrong answers o Case History Data – refers to records, transcripts,
Personality Test – measures individual dispositions and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form
and preferences that preserve archival information, official and
- designed to identify characteristic informal accounts, and other data and items relevant
- measured ideographically or nomothetically to an assessee
1. Structured Personality tests – provide statement, ▪ Case study: a report or illustrative account
usually self-report, and require the subject to choose concerning a person or an event that was
between two or more alternative responses compiled on the basis of case history data
2. Projective Personality Tests – unstructured, and the ▪ Groupthink: result of the varied forces that drive
stimulus or response are ambiguous decision-makers to reach a consensus
3. Attitude Test – elicit personal beliefs and opinions o Behavioral Observation – monitoring of actions of
4. Interest Inventories – measures likes and dislikes others or oneself by visual or electronic means while
as well as one’s personality orientation towards the recording quantitative and/or qualitative information
world of work regarding those actions
Other Tests: ▪ Naturalistic Observation: observe humans in
1. Speed Tests – the interest is the number of times a natural setting
test taker can answer correctly in a specific period ▪ SORC Model: Stimulus, Organismic Valuables,
2. Power Tests – reflects the level of difficulty of items Actual Response, Consequence
the test takers answer correctly o Role Play – defined as acting an improvised or
3. Values Inventory partially improvised part in a stimulated situation
4. Trade Test ▪ Role Play Test: assesses are directed to act as if
5. Neuropsychological Test they are in a particular situation
6. Norm-Referenced test o Other tools include computer, physiological devices
7. Criterion-Referenced Tests (biofeedback devices)
o Interview – method of gathering information Psychological Assessment Process
through direct communication involving reciprocal 1. Determining the Referral Question
exchange 2. Acquiring Knowledge relating to the content of
Standardized/Structured – questions are prepared the problem
#BLEPP
3. Data collection 6. Test Sponsors – institutions or government who
4. Data Interpretation contract test developers for various testing services
o Hit Rate – accurately predicts success or failure 7. Society
o Profile – narrative description, graph, table. Or other o Test Battery – selection of tests and assessment
representations of the extent to which a person has procedures typically composed of tests designed to
demonstrated certain targeted characteristics as a measure different variables but having a common
result of the administration or application of tools of objective
assessment Assumptions about Psychological Testing and
o Actuarial Assessment – an approach to evaluation Assessment
characterized by the application of empirically Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist
demonstrated statistical rules as determining factor o Trait – any distinguishable, relatively enduring
in assessors’ judgement and actions way in which one individual varies from another
o Mechanical Prediction – application of computer - Permit people predict the present from the past
algorithms together with statistical rules and - Characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and
probabilities to generate findings and behaving that generalize across similar situations,
recommendations differ systematically between individuals, and remain
Levels of Interpretation rather stable across time
Level I – there is a minimal amount of any sort of - Psychological Trait – intelligence, specific
interpretation intellectual abilities, cognitive style, adjustment,
- minimal concern with intervening processes interests, attitudes, sexual orientation and preferences,
- data are primarily treated in a sampling or correlate psychopathology, etc.
way o States – distinguish one person from another but
- no concern with underlying constructs are relatively less enduring
- found in large-scale selection testing - Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and
- for psychometric approaches behaving in a concrete situation at a specific moment
Level II in time
a. Descriptive Generalizations - Identify those behaviors that can be controlled by
b. Hypothetical Construct: the assumption of an inner manipulating the situation
state which goes logically beyond the description of o Psychological Traits exists as construct
visible behavior - Construct: an informed, scientific concept developed
Level III – the effort to develop a coherent and or constructed to explain a behavior, inferred from
inclusive theory of the individual life or a “working overt behavior
image” of the patient - Overt Behavior: an observable action or the product
- the clinician attempts full scale exploration of the of an observable action
individual’s personality, psychosocial situation, and o Trait is not expected to be manifested in behavior
developmental history 100% of the time
o Extra-Test Behavior – observations made by an o Whether a trait manifests itself in observable
examiner regarding what the examinee does and how behavior, and to what degree it manifests, is
the examinee reacts during the course of testing that presumed to depend not only on the strength of the
are indirectly related to the test’s specific content but trait in the individual but also on the nature of the
of possible significance to interpretation action (situation-dependent)
Parties in Psychological Assessment o Context within which behavior occurs also plays a
1. Test Author/Developer – creates the tests or other role in helping us select appropriate trait terms for
methods of assessment observed behaviors
2. Test Publishers – they publish, market, sell, and o Definition of trait and state also refer to a way in
control the distribution of tests which one individual varies from another
3. Test Reviewers – prepare evaluative critiques based o Assessors may make comparisons among people
on the technical and practical aspects of the tests who, because of their membership in some group
4. Test Users – uses the test of assessment or for any number of other reasons, are decidedly
5. Test Takers – those who take the tests not average
#BLEPP
Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States can o Despite best efforts of many professionals,
be Quantified and Measured fairness-related questions and problems do
o Once the trait, state or other construct has been occasionally rise
defined to be measured, a test developer consider In al questions about tests with regards to fairness, it is
the types of item content that would provide important to keep in mind that tests are tools ꟷthey can
insight to it, to gauge the strength of that trait be used properly or improperly
o Measuring traits and states means of a test entails Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit
developing not only appropriate tests items but Society
also appropriate ways to score the test and o Considering the many critical decisions that are
interpret the results based on testing and assessment procedures, we
o Cumulative Scoring – assumption that the more can readily appreciate the need for tests
the testtaker responds in a particular direction Reliability
keyed by the test manual as correct or consistent o Reliability – dependability or consistency of the
with a particular trait, the higher that testtaker is instrument or scores obtained by the same person
presumed to be on the targeted ability or trait when re-examined with the same test on different
Assumption 3: Test-Rlated Behavior Predicts Non- occasions, or with different sets of equivalent items
Test-Related Behavior ▪ Test may be reliable in one context, but
o The tasks in some tests mimics the actual unreliable in another
behaviors that the test user is attempting to ▪ Estimate the range of possible random
understand fluctuations that can be expected in an
o Such tests only yield a sample of the behavior that individual’s score
can be expected to be emitted under nontest ▪ Free from errors
conditions ▪ More number of items = higher reliability
Assumption 4: Test and Other Measurement ▪ Minimizing error
Techniques have strengths and weaknesses ▪ Using only representative sample to obtain an
o Competent test users understand and appreciate observed score
the limitations of the test they use as well as how ▪ True score cannot be found
those limitations might be compensated for by ▪ Reliability Coefficient: index of reliability, a
data from other sources proportion that indicates the ratio between the
Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error are part of true score variance on a test and the total
the Assessment Process variance
o Error – refers to something that is more than o Classical Test Theory (True Score Theory) – score
expected; it is component of the measurement on an ability tests is presumed to reflect not only the
process testtaker’s true score on the ability being measured
▪ Refers to a long-standing assumption that but also the error
factors other than what a test attempts to ▪ Error: refers to the component of the observed
measure will influence performance on the test test score that does not have to do with the
▪ Error Variance – the component of a test testtaker’s ability
score attributable to sources other than the trait ▪ Errors of measurement are random
or ability measured
o Potential Sources of error variance:
1. Assessors
2. Measuring Instruments
3. Random errors such as luck
o Classical Test Theory – each testtaker has true
score on a test that would be obtained but for the
action of measurement error
Assumption 6: Testing and Assessment can be
conducted in a Fair and Unbiased Manner
#BLEPP
▪ When you average all the observed scores ▪ The greater the proportion of the total variance
obtained over a period of time, then the result attributed to true variance, the more reliable the
would be closest to the true score test
▪ The greater number of items, the higher the ▪ Error variance may increase or decrease a test
reliability score by varying amounts, consistency of test
▪ Factors the contribute to consistency: stable score, and thus, the reliability can be affected
attributes
▪ Factors that contribute to inconsistency:
characteristics of the individual, test, or situation,
which have nothing to do with the attribute being
measured, but still affect the scores
o Goals of Reliability:
✓ Estimate errors
✓ Devise techniques to improve testing and reduce
errors
o Variance – useful in describing sources of test score
variability
▪ True Variance: variance from true differences
▪ Error Variance: variance from irrelevant random Test-Retest Reliability
sources Error: Time Sampling
Measurement Error – all of the factors associated - time sampling reliability
with the process of measuring some variable, other - an estimate of reliability obtained by correlating
than the variable being measured pairs of scores from the same people on two different
- difference between the observed score and the true administrations of the test
score - appropriate when evaluating the reliability of a test
- Positive: can increase one’s score that purports to measure an enduring and stable
- Negative: decrease one’s score attribute such as personality trait
- Sources of Error Variance: - established by comparing the scores obtained from
a. Item Sampling/Content Sampling: refer to variation two successive measurements of the same individuals
among items within a test as well as to variation and calculating a correlated between the two set of
among items between tests scores
- The extent to which testtaker’s score is affected by - the longer the time passes, the greater likelihood that
the content sampled on a test and by the way the the reliability coefficient would be insignificant
content is sampled is a source of error variance - Carryover Effects: happened when the test-retest
b. Test Administration: testtaker’s motivation or interval is short, wherein the second test is influenced
attention, environment, etc. by the first test because they remember or practiced
c. Test Scoring and Interpretation: may employ the previous test = inflated correlation/overestimation
objective-type items amenable to computer scoring of of reliability
well-documented reliability - Practice Effect: scores on the second session are
Random Error – source of error in measuring a higher due to their experience of the first session of
targeted variable caused by unpredictable fluctuations testing
and inconsistencies of other variables in measurement - Test Sophistication: items are remembered by the
process (e.g., noise, temperature, weather) test takers especially the difficult ones/items that we
Systematic Error – source of error in a measuring a got highlight confused
variable that is typically constant or proportionate to - Test Wiseness: might inflate the abilities of test
what is presumed to be the true values of the variable takers
being measured - test-retest with longer interval might be affected of
- has consistent effect on the true score other extreme factors, thus, resulting to low
- SD does not change, the mean does correlation
▪ Reliability refers to the proportion of total - lower correlation = poor reliability
variance attributed to true variance
#BLEPP
- Mortality: problems in absences in second session single trait (unifactorial)
(just remove the first tests of the absents) - Heterogeneity: degree to which a test measures
- intelligence, motor test, traits, reaction time (stable different factors (more than one factor/trait)
traits) - more homogenous = higher inter-item consistency
- Coefficient of Stability - KR-20: used for inter-item consistency of
- statistical tool: Pearson R, Spearman Rho dichotomous items (intelligence tests, personality tests
Parallel Forms/Alternate Forms Reliability with yes or no options, multiple choice), unequal
Error: Item Sampling (Immediate), Item Sampling variances, dichotomous scored
changes over time (delayed) - KR-21: if all the items have the same degree of
- established when at least two different versions of difficulty (speed tests), equal variances, dichotomous
the test yield almost the same scores scored
- has the most universal applicability - Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha: used when two
- Parallel Forms: each form of the test, the means, halves of the test have unequal variances and on tests
and the error variances, are EQUAL; same items, containing non-dichotomous items, unequal variances
different positionings/numberings - Average Proportional Distance: measure used to
- true score must be the same for two test evaluate internal consistencies of a test that focuses on
- Alternate Forms: simply different version of a test the degree of differences that exists between item
that has been constructed so as to be parallel scores
- test should contain the same number of items and the Split-Half Reliability
items should be expressed in the same form and Error: Item sample: Nature of Split
should cover the same type of content; range and - Split Half Reliability: obtained by correlating two
difficulty must also be equal pairs of scores obtained from equivalent halves of a
- if there is a test leakage, use the form that is not single test administered ONCE
mostly administered - useful when it is impractical or undesirable to assess
- Counterbalancing: technique to avoid carryover reliability with two tests or to administer a test twice
effects for parallel forms, by using different sequence - cannot just divide the items in the middle because it
for groups (e.g., G1 – listen to song before counseling, might spuriously raise or lower the reliability
G2 – counseling first, before listening to the song) coefficient, so just randomly assign items or assign
- can be administered on the same day or different odd-numbered items to one half and even-numbered
time items to the other half
- most rigorous and burdensome, since test developers - Spearman-Brown Formula: allows a test developer
create two forms of the test of user to estimate internal consistency reliability
- main problem: difference between the two test from a correlation of two halves of a test, if each half
- test scores may be affected by motivation, fatigue, or had been the length of the whole test and have the
intervening events equal variances
- means and the variances of the observed scores must - Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula: estimates how
be equal for two forms many more items are needed in order to achieve the
- Statistical Tool: Pearson R or Spearman Rho target reliability
Internal Consistency (Inter-Item Reliability) - multiply the estimate to the original number of items
Error: Item Sampling Homogeneity - Rulon’s Formula: counterpart of spearman-brown
- used when tests are administered once formula, which is the ratio of the variance of
- consistency among items within the test difference between the odd and even splits and the
- measures the internal consistency of the test which is variance of the total, combined odd-even, score
the degree to which each item measures the same - if the reliability of the original test is relatively low,
construct then developer could create new items, clarify test
- measurement for unstable traits instructions, or simplifying the scoring rules
- if all items measure the same construct, then it has a - equal variances, dichotomous scored
good internal consistency - Statistical Tool: Pearson R or Spearman Rho
- useful in assessing Homogeneity Inter-Scorer Reliability
- Homogeneity: if a test contains items that measure a
#BLEPP
Error: Scorer Differences o Domain Sampling Theory – estimate the extent to
- the degree of agreement or consistency between two which specific sources of variation under defined
or more scorers with regard to a particular measure’ conditions are contributing to the test scores
- evaluated by calculating the percentage of times that ▪ Considers problem created by using a limited
two individuals assign the same scores to the number of items to represent a larger and more
performance of the examinees complicated construct
- a variation is to have two different examiners test the ▪ Test reliability is conceived of as an objective
same client using the same test and then to determine measure of how precisely the test score assesses
how close their scores or ratings of the person are the domain from which the test draws a sample
- used for coding nonbehavioral behavior ▪ Generalizability Theory: based on the idea that a
- observer differences person’s test scores vary from testing to testing
- Fleiss Kappa: determine the level between TWO or because of the variables in the testing situations
MORE raters when the method of assessment is ▪ Universe: test situation
measured on CATEGORICAL SCALE ▪ Facets: number of items in the test, amount of
- Cohen’s Kappa: two raters only review, and the purpose of test administration
- Krippendorff’s Alpha: two or more rater, based on ▪ According to Generalizability Theory, given the
observed disagreement corrected for disagreement exact same conditions of all the facets in the
expected by chance universe, the exact same test score should be
o Tests designed to measure one factor (Homogenous) obtained (Universe score)
are expected to have high degree of internal ▪ Decision Study: developers examine the
consistency and vice versa usefulness of test scores in helping the test user
o Dynamic – trait, state, or ability presumed to be ever- make decisions
changing as a function of situational and cognitive ▪ Systematic Error
experience o Item Response Theory – the probability that a
o Static – barely changing or relatively unchanging person with X ability will be able to perform at a
o Restriction of range or Restriction of variance – if level of Y in a test
the variance of either variable in a correlational ▪ Focus: item difficulty
analysis is restricted by the sampling procedure used, ▪ Latent-Trait Theory
then the resulting correlation coefficient tends to be ▪ a system of assumption about measurement and
lower the extent to which item measures the trait
o Power Tests – when time limit is long enough to ▪ The computer is used to focus on the range of
allow test takers to attempt all times item difficulty that helps assess an individual’s
o Speed Tests – generally contains items of uniform ability level
level of difficulty with time limit ▪ If you got several easy items correct, the
▪ Reliability should be based on performance from computer will them move to more difficult items
two independent testing periods using test-retest ▪ Difficulty: attribute of not being easily
and alternate-forms or split-half-reliability accomplished, solved, or comprehended
o Criterion-Referenced Tests – designed to provide ▪ Discrimination: degree to which an item
an indication of where a testtaker stands with respect differentiates among people with higher or lower
to some variable or criterion levels of the trait, ability etc.
▪ As individual differences decrease, a traditional ▪ Dichotomous: can be answered with only one of
measure of reliability would also decrease, two alternative responses
regardless of the stability of individual ▪ Polytomous: 3 or more alternative responses
performance o Standard Error of Measurement – provide a
o Classical Test Theory – everyone has a “true score” measure of the precision of an observed test score
on test ▪ Standard deviation of errors as the basic measure
▪ True Score: genuinely reflects an individual’s of error
ability level as measured by a particular test ▪ Index of the amount of inconsistent or the amount
▪ Random Error of the expected error in an individual’s score
▪ Allows to quantify the extent to which a test
provide accurate scores
#BLEPP
▪ Provides an estimate of the amount of error
inherent in an observed score or measurement
▪ Higher reliability, lower SEM
▪ Used to estimate or infer the extent to which an
observed score deviates from a true score
▪ Standard Error of a Score
▪ Confidence Interval: a range or band of test
scores that is likely to contain true scores
o Standard Error of the Difference – can aid a test
user in determining how large a difference should be
before it is considered statistically significant
o Standard Error of Estimate – refers to the standard
Validity
error of the difference between the predicted and
o Validity – a judgment or estimate of how well a test
observed values
measures what it supposed to measure
o Confidence Interval – a range of and of test score
▪ Evidence about the appropriateness of inferences
that is likely to contain true score
drawn from test scores
▪ Tells us the relative ability of the true score within
▪ Degree to which the measurement procedure
the specified range and confidence level
measures the variables to measure
▪ The larger the range, the higher the confidence
▪ Inferences – logical result or deduction
o If the reliability is low, you can increase the number
▪ May diminish as the culture or times change
of items or use factor analysis and item analysis to
✓ Predicts future performance
increase internal consistency
✓ Measures appropriate domain
o Reliability Estimates – nature of the test will often
✓ Measures appropriate characteristics
determine the reliability metric
o Validation – the process of gathering and evaluating
a) Homogenous (unifactor) or heterogeneous
evidence about validity
(multifactor)
o Validation Studies – yield insights regarding a
b) Dynamic (unstable) or static (stable)
particular population of testtakers as compared to the
c) Range of scores is restricted or not
norming sample described in a test manual
d) Speed Test or Power Test
o Internal Validity – degree of control among
e) Criterion or non-Criterion
variables in the study (increased through random
o Test Sensitivity – detects true positive
assignment)
o Test Specificity – detects true negative
o External Validity – generalizability of the research
o Base Rate – proportion of the population that
results (increased through random selection)
actually possess the characteristic of interest
o Conceptual Validity – focuses on individual with
o Selection ratio – no. of hired candidates compared
their unique histories and behaviors
to the no. of applicants
▪ Means of evaluating and integrating test data so
that the clinician’s conclusions make accurate
statements about the examinee
o Face Validity – a test appears to measure to the
o Four Possible Hit and Miss Outcomes
person being tested than to what the test actually
1. True Positives (Sensitivity) – predict success
measures
that does occur
Content Validity
2. True Negatives (Specificity) – predict failure
- describes a judgement of how adequately a test
that does occur
samples behavior representative of the universe of
3. False Positive (Type 1) – success does not occur
behavior that the test was designed to sample
4. False Negative (Type 2) – predicted failure but
- representativeness and relevance of the assessment
succeed
instrument to the construct being measured
- when the proportion of the material covered by the
test approximates the proportion of material covered
in the course
#BLEPP
- Test Blueprint: a plan regarding the types of criterion measure that is not explained by predictors
information to be covered by the items, the no. of already in use; used to improve the domain
items tapping each area of coverage, the organization Construct Validity (Umbrella Validity)
of the items, and so forth - covers all types of validity
- more logical than statistical - logical and statistical
- concerned with the extent to which the test is - judgement about the appropriateness of inferences
representative of defined body of content consisting drawn from test scores regarding individual standing
the topics and processes on variable called construct
- panel of experts can review the test items and rate - Construct: an informed, scientific idea developed or
them in terms of how closely they match the objective hypothesized to describe or explain behavior;
or domain specification unobservable, presupposed traits that may invoke to
- examine if items are essential, useful and necessary describe test behavior or criterion performance
- Construct underrepresentation: failure to capture - One way a test developer can improve the
important components of a construct homogeneity of a test containing dichotomous items is
- Construct-irrelevant variance: happens when scores by eliminating items that do not show significant
are influenced by factors irrelevant to the construct correlation coefficients with total test scores
- Lawshe: developed the formula of Content Validity - If it is an academic test and high scorers on the entire
Ratio test for some reason tended to get that particular item
wrong while low scorers got it right, then the item is
obviously not a good one
- Some constructs lend themselves more readily than
others to predictions of change over time
- Method of Contrasted Groups: demonstrate that
- If the CVI is low, it is recommended to remove or
scores on the test vary in a predictable way as a
modify the items that have low CVR values to
function of membership in a group
improve the overall content validity of the test
- If a test is a valid measure of a particular construct,
- Zero CVR: exactly half of the experts rate the item as
then the scores from the group of people who does not
essential
have that construct would have different test scores
Criterion Validity than those who really possesses that construct
- more statistical than logical - Convergent Evidence: if scores on the test
- a judgement of how adequately a test score can be undergoing construct validation tend to highly
used to infer an individual’s most probable standing correlated with another established, validated test that
on some measure of interest – the measure of interest measures the same construct
being criterion - Discriminant Evidence: a validity coefficient
- Criterion: standard on which a judgement or showing little relationship between test scores and/or
decision may be made other variables with which scores on the test being
- Characteristics: relevant, valid, uncontaminated construct-validated should not be correlated
- Criterion Contamination: occurs when the criterion - test is homogenous
measure includes aspects of performance that are not - test score increases or decreases as a function of age,
part of the job or when the measure is affected by passage of time, or experimental manipulation
“construct-irrelevant” (Messick, 1989) factors that are - pretest-posttest differences
not part of the criterion construct - scores differ from groups
1. Concurrent Validity: If the test scores obtained at - scores correlated with scores on other test in
about the same time as the criterion measures are accordance to what is predicted
obtained; economically efficient - Sensitivity: percentage of true positives
2. Predictive Validity: measures of the relationship - Specificity: percentage of true negatives
between test scores and a criterion measure obtained o Multitrait-multimethod Matrix – useful for
at a future time examining both convergent and discriminant validity
- Incremental Validity: the degree to which an evidence
additional predictor explains something about the ▪ Multitrait: two or more traits
▪ Multimethod: two or more methods
#BLEPP
▪ The matrix or table that results from correlating distinct and potentially independent aspects of a
variables within and between methods ratee’s behavior
o Factor Analysis – designed to identify factors or o Fairness – the extent to which a test is used in an
specific variables that are typically attributes, impartial, just, and equitable way
characteristics, or dimensions on which people may o Attempting to define the validity of the test will be
differ futile if the test is NOT reliable
▪ Developed by Charles Spearman Utility
▪ Employed as data reduction method o Utility – usefulness or practical value of testing to
▪ Used to study the interrelationships among set of improve efficiency
variables o Can tell us something about the practical value of the
▪ Identify the factor or factors in common between information derived from scores on the test
test scores on subscales within a particular test o Helps us make better decisions
▪ Explanatory FA: estimating or extracting factors; o Higher criterion-related validity = higher utility
deciding how many factors must be retained o One of the most basic elements in utility analysis is
▪ Confirmatory FA: researchers test the degree to financial cost of the selection device
which a hypothetical model fits the actual data o Cost – disadvantages, losses, or expenses both
▪ Factor Loading: conveys info about the extent to economic and noneconomic terms
which the factor determines the test score or o Benefit – profits, gains or advantages
scores o The cost of test administration can be well worth it if
▪ can be used to obtain both convergent and the results is certain noneconomic benefits
discriminant validity o Utility Analysis – family of techniques that entail a
o Cross-Validation – revalidation of the test to a cost-benefit analysis designed to yield information
criterion based on another group different from the relevant to a decision about the usefulness and/or
original group form which the test was validated practical value of a tool of assessment
▪ Validity Shrinkage: decrease in validity after o Expectancy table – provide an indication that a
cross-validation testtaker will score within some interval of scores on
▪ Co-Validation: validation of more than one test a criterion measure – passing, acceptable, failing
from the same group o Might indicate future behaviors, then if successful,
▪ Co-Norming: norming more than one test from the test is working as it should
the same group o Taylor-Russel Tables – provide an estimate of the
o Bias – factor inherent in a test that systematically extent to which inclusion of a particular test in the
prevents accurate, impartial measurement selection system will improve selection
▪ Prejudice, preferential treatment o Selection Ratio – numerical value that reflects the
▪ Prevention during test dev through a procedure relationship between the number of people to be
called Estimated True Score Transformation hired and the number of people available to be hired
o Rating – numerical or verbal judgement that places
a person or an attribute along a continuum identified
by a scale of numerical or word descriptors known as
Rating Scale o Base Rate – percentage of people hired under the
▪ Rating Error: intentional or unintentional misuse existing system for a particular position
of the scale o One limitation of Taylor-Russel Tables is that the
▪ Leniency Error: rater is lenient in scoring relationship between the predictor (test) and criterion
(Generosity Error) must be linear
▪ Severity Error: rater is strict in scoring o Naylor-Shine Tables – entails obtaining the
▪ Central Tendency Error: rater’s rating would tend difference between the means of the selected and
to cluster in the middle of the rating scale unselected groups to derive an index of what the test
▪ One way to overcome rating errors is to use is adding to already established procedures
rankings o Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser Formula – used to
▪ Halo Effect: tendency to give high score due to calculate the dollar amount of a utility gain resulting
failure to discriminate among conceptually from the use of a particular selection instrument
#BLEPP
o Utility Gain – estimate of the benefit of using a regarding the likelihood of offer acceptance, and the
particular test distribution of applicant scores
o Productivity Gains – an estimated increase in work o Discriminant Analysis – shed light on the
output relationship between identified variables and two
o High performing applicants may have been offered naturally occurring groups
in other companies as well ▪ used by the researcher to analyze the research
o The more complex the job, the more people differ on data when the criterion or the dependent variable
how well or poorly they do that job is categorical and the predictor or the independent
o Cut Score – reference point derived as a result of a variable is interval in nature
judgement and used to divide a set of data into two ▪ enables the researcher to examine whether
or more classifications significant differences exist among the groups, in
Relative Cut Score – reference point based on norm- terms of the predictor variables
related considerations (norm-referenced), not fixed per ▪ identify two groups of people who represent two
se distinct categories of some trait
Fixed Cut Scores – set with reference to a judgement Reason for accepting or rejecting instruments and
concerning minimum level of proficiency required; tools based on Psychometric Properties
e.g., Board Exams Reliability
Multiple Cut Scores – refers to the use of two or more
cut scores with reference to one predictor for the
purpose of categorization
Multiple Hurdle – multi-stage selection process, a cut
score is in place for each predictor
Compensatory Model of Selection – assumption that
high scores on one attribute can compensate for lower
scores
o Angoff Method – setting fixed cut scores o Basic Research = 0.70 to 0.90
▪ low interrater reliability o Clinical Setting = 0.90 to 0.95
▪ requires expert judges to discuss the issues Validity
involved in determining a pass mark and to
evaluate the examination by using a well-defined
and rational procedure
o Known Groups Method – collection of data on the
predictor of interest from group known to possess
and not possess a trait of interest
▪ The determination of where to set cutoff score is
inherently affected by the composition of
contrasting groups
o IRT-Based Methods – cut scores are typically set
based on testtaker’s performance across all the items
on the test
▪ Item-Mapping Method: arrangement of items in
histogram, with each column containing items
with deemed to be equivalent value
▪ Bookmark Method: expert places “bookmark”
between the two pages that are deemed to separate
testtakers who have acquired the minimal
knowledge, skills, and/or abilities from those who
are not
o Method of Predictive Yield – took into account the
number of positions to be filled, projections
#BLEPP
Item Difficulty o 0 means 0% of the variance in the scores assigned by
the scorers was attributed to true differences and
100% to error
P-Value
o P-Value ≤ ∞, reject null hypothesis
o P-Value ≥ ∞, accept null hypothesis
Item Discrimination
Research Methods and Statistics (20)

Statistics Applied in Research Studies on tests and
Tests Development
Measures of Central Tendency - statistics that
indicates the average or midmost score between the
o The optimal boundary lines for the “upper” and
extreme scores in a distribution
“lower” areas of distribution of scores will demarcate
- Goal: Identify the most typical or representative of
the upper and lower 27% of distribution of scores
entire group
▪ 27% if normal
- Measures of Central Location
▪ 33% if platykurtic
Mean - the average of all the
o 0.27/n, wherein n = no. of students
raw scores
Inter-Item Reliability Index
- Equal to the sum of the
observations divided by
the number of
observations
- Interval and ratio data
(when normal
distribution)
- Point of least squares
- Balance point for the
distribution
- susceptible to outliers
Median – the middle score of the
Interrater Reliability Coefficient distribution
- Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
- for extreme scores, use
median
- Identical for sample and
population
- Also used when there
has an unknown or
undetermined score
- Used in “open-ended”
categories (e.g., 5 or
more, more than 8, at
least 10)
#BLEPP
- For ordinal data - equal to the square root
- if the distribution is of the average squared
skewed for ratio/interval deviations about the
data, use median mean
Mode - most frequently - Equal to the square root
occurring score in the of the variance
distribution - Distance from the mean
- Bimodal Distribution: if Variance - equal to the arithmetic
there are two scores that mean of the squares of
occur with highest the differences between
frequency the scores in a
- Not commonly used distribution and their
- Useful in analyses of mean
qualitative or verbal - average squared
nature deviation around the
- For nominal scales, mean
discrete variables Measures of Location
- Value of the mode gives Percentile or Percentile - not linearly
an indication of the shape Rank transformable, converged
of the distribution as well at the middle and the
as a measure of central outer ends show large
tendency interval
Measures of Spread or Variability – statistics that - expressed in terms of
describe the amount of variation in a distribution the percentage of persons
- gives idea of how well the measure of central in the standardization
tendency represent the data sample who fall below a
- large spread of values means large differences given score
between individual scores - indicates the
Range - equal to the difference individual’s relative
between highest and the position in the
lowest score standardization sample
- Provides a quick but - essential in creating
gross description of the normalized standardized
spread of scores scores
- When its value is based Quartile - dividing points between
on extreme scores of the the four quarters in the
distribution, the resulting distribution
description of variation - Specific point
may be understated or - Quarter: refers to an
overstated interval
Interquartile Range - difference between Q1 Decile/STEN - divide into 10 equal
and Q2 parts
Semi-Quartile Range - interquartile range - a measure of the
divided by 2 asymmetry of the
Standard Deviation - approximation of the probability distribution of
average deviation around a real-valued random
the mean about its mean
- gives detail of how Correlation
much above or below a Pearson R - interval/ratio +
score to the mean interval/ratio
#BLEPP
Spearman Rho - ordinal + ordinal ANOVA Mixed Design - 2 or more groups,
Biserial - artificial Dichotomous + measured more than 3
interval/ratio times
Point Biserial - true dichotomous + - e.g., Young Adults,
interval/ratio Middle Adults, and Old
Phi Coefficient - nominal (true dic) + Adults’ blood pressure is
nominal (true/artificial measured during
dic.) breakfast, lunch, and
Tetrachoric - Art. Dichotomous + Art. dinner
Dichotomous MANOVA - used to test the
Kendall’s - 3 or more ordinal/rank differences between the
Rank Biserial - nominal + ordinal means of multiple
Differences dependent variables
T-test Independent - two separate groups, across two or more
(Unpaired T-test) random assignment independent groups
- e.g., blood pressure of Non-Parametric Tests
male and female grad Mann Whitney U Test - t-test independent
students Wilcoxon Signed Rank - t-test dependent
T-Test Dependent - one group, two scores Test
(Paired T-test) - e.g., blood pressure Kruskal-Wallis H Test - one-way/two-way
before and after the ANOVA
lecture of Grad students Friedman Test - ANOVA repeated
One-Way ANOVA - 3 or more groups, tested measures
once Lambda - for 2 groups of nominal
- e.g., people in different data
socio-economic status Chi-Square
and the differences of Goodness of Fit - used to measure
their salaries differences and involves
One-Way Repeated - 1 group, measured at nominal data and only
Measures least 3 times one variable with 2 or
- e.g., measuring the more categories
focus level of board Test of Independence - used to measure
reviewers during correlation and involves
morning, afternoon, and nominal data and two
night sessions of review variables with two or
Two-Way ANOVA - 3 or more groups, tested more categories
for 2 variables Regression – used when one wants to provide
- e.g., people in different framework of prediction on the basis of one factor in
socio-economic status order to predict the probable value of another factor
and the differences of Linear Regression of Y - Y = a + bX
their salaries and their on X - Used to predict the
eating habits unknown value of
ANCOVA - used when you need to variable Y when value of
control for an additional variable X is known
variable which may be Linear Regression of X - X = c + dY
influencing the on Y - Used to predict the
relationship between your unknown value of
independent and variable X using the
dependent variable known variable Y
#BLEPP
Test for Normality – data are drawn from a - Entail lit reviews and experimentation, creation,
population that has normal distribution revision, and deletion of preliminary items
Kolmogorov-Smirnov More than 50 sample size II. Test Construction – stage in the process that entails
Shapiro-Wilk Less than 50 sample size writing test items, revisions, formatting, setting scoring
rules
- it is not good to create an item that contains numerous
ideas
- Item Pool: reservoir or well from which the items will
or will not be drawn for the final version of the test
- Item Banks: relatively large and easily accessible
collection of test questions
- Computerized Adaptive Testing: refers to an
interactive, computer administered test-taking process
wherein items presented to the testtaker are based in
part on the testtaker’s performance on previous items
o True Dichotomy – dichotomy in which there are - The test administered may be different for each
only fixed possible categories testtaker, depending on the test performance on the
o Artificial Dichotomy - dichotomy in which there are items presented
other possibilities in a certain category - Reduces floor and ceiling effects
o Levene’s Test – used to test if k samples have equal - Floor Effects: occurs when there is some lower limit
variance on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of
▪ P-Value > 0.05, variance not significantly respondents score near this lower limit (testtakers have
different from each other (therefore, low scores)
homogenous) - Ceiling Effects: occurs when there is some upper limit
▪ P-Value < 0.05, there is significant difference on a survey or questionnaire and a large percentage of
between variance respondents score near this upper limit (testtakers have
▪ Less sensitive to departures from normality high scores)
- Item Branching: ability of the computer to tailor the
content and order of presentation of items on the basis
of responses to previous items
- Item Format: form, plan, structure, arrangement, and
o Bartlett’s Test – also used to test if k samples have layout of individual test items
equal variance but much sensitive than Levene Test - Dichotomous Format: offers two alternatives for each
Methods and Statistics used in Research Studies and item
Test Construction - Polychotomous Format: each item has more than two
Test Development alternatives
o Test Development – an umbrella term for all that - Category Format: a format where respondents are
goes into the process of creating a test asked to rate a construct
I. Test Conceptualization – brainstorming of ideas 1. Checklist – subject receives a longlist of adjectives
about what kind of test a developer wants to publish and indicates whether each one if characteristic of
- stage wherein the ff. is determined: construct, goal, himself or herself
user, taker, administration, format, response, benefits, 2. Guttman Scale – items are arranged from weaker to
costs, interpretation stronger expressions of attitude, belief, or feelings
- determines whether the test would be norm- - Selected-Response Format: require testtakers to select
referenced or criterion-referenced response from a set of alternative responses
- Pilot Work/Pilot Study/Pilot Research – preliminary 1. Multiple Choice - Has three elements: stem
research surrounding the creation of a prototype of the (question), a correct option, and several incorrect
test alternatives (distractors or foils), Should’ve one
- Attempts to determine how best to measure a targeted correct answer, has grammatically parallel alternatives,
construct similar length, alternatives that fit grammatically with
#BLEPP
the stem, avoid ridiculous distractors, not excessively 2. Rank Order – respondents are presented with
long, “all of the above”, “none of the above” (25%) several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in
- Effective Distractors: a distractor that was chosen order or priority
equally by both high and low performing groups that 3. Constant Sum – respondents are asked to allocate a
enhances the consistency of test results constant sum of units, such as points, among set of
- Good distractors has been chosen frequently by low stimulus objects with respect to some criterion
scorers 4. Q-Sort Technique – sort object based on similarity
- Ineffective Distractors: may hurt the reliability of the with respect to some criterion
test because they are time consuming to read and can Non-Comparative Scales of Measurement
limit the no. of good items 1. Continuous Rating – rate the objects by placing a
- Cute Distractors: less likely to be chosen, may affect mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line
the reliability of the test bec the testtakers may guess that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to
from the remaining options the other
2. Matching Item - Test taker is presented with two - e.g., Rating Guardians of the Galaxy as the best
columns: Premises and Responses Marvel Movie of Phase 4
3. Binary Choice - Usually takes the form of a sentence 2. Itemized Rating – having numbers or brief
that requires the testtaker to indicate whether the descriptions associated with each category
statement is or is not a fact (50%) - e.g., 1 if your like the item the most, 2 if so-so, 3 if
- Constructed-Response Format: requires testtakers to you hate it
supply or to create the correct answer, not merely 3. Likert Scale – indicate their own attitudes by
selecting it checking how strongly they agree or disagree with
1. Completion Item - Requires the examinee to carefully worded statements that range from very
provide a word or phrase that completes a sentence positive to very negative towards attitudinal object
2. Short-Answer - Should be written clearly enough - principle of measuring attitudes by asking people to
that the testtaker can respond succinctly, with short respond to a series of statements about a topic, in terms
answer of the extent to which they agree with them
3. Essay – allows creative integration and expression 4. Visual Analogue Scale – a 100-mm line that allows
of the material subjects to express the magnitude of an experience or
- Scaling: process of setting rules for assigning belief
numbers in measurement 5. Semantic Differential Scale – derive respondent’s
Primary Scales of Measurement attitude towards the given object by asking him to
1. Nominal - involve classification or categorization select an appropriate position on a scale between two
based on one or more distinguishing characteristics bipolar opposites
- Label and categorize observations but do not make 6. Staple Scale – developed to measure the direction
any quantitative distinctions between observations and intensity of an attitude simultaneously
- mode 7. Summative Scale – final score is obtained by
2. Ordinal - rank ordering on some characteristics is summing the ratings across all the items
also permissible 8. Thurstone Scale – involves the collection of a
- median variety of different statements about a phenomenon
3. Ratio - contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero which are ranked by an expert panel in order to develop
point (even negative values have interpretation to it) the questionnaire
- Zero value does not mean it represents none - allows multiple answers
4. Interval - - has true zero point (if the score is zero, 9. Ipsative Scale – the respondent must choose
it means none/null) between two or more equally socially acceptable
- Easiest to manipulate options
Comparative Scales of Measurement III. Test Tryout - the test should be tried out on people
1. Paired Comparison - produces ordinal data by who are similar in critical respects to the people for
presenting with pairs of two stimuli which they are whom the test was designed
asked to compare - An informal rule of thumb should be no fewer than 5
- respondent is presented with two objects at a time and and preferably as many as 10 for each item (the more,
asked to select one object according to some criterion the better)
#BLEPP
- Risk of using few subjects = phantom factors emerge - Item-Validity Index: designed to provide an indication
- Should be executed under conditions as identical as of the degree to which a test is measure what it purports
possible to measure
- A good test item is one that answered correctly by high - The higher Item-Validity index, the greater the test’s
scorers as a whole criterion-related validity
- Empirical Criterion Keying: administering a large - Item-Discrimination Index: measure of item
pool of test items to a sample of individuals who are discrimination; measure of the difference between the
known to differ on the construct being measured proportion of high scorers answering an item correctly
- Item Analysis: statistical procedure used to analyze and the proportion of low scorers answering the item
items, evaluate test items correctly
- Discriminability Analysis: employed to examine - Extreme Group Method: compares people who have
correlation between each item and the total score of the done well with those who have done poorly
test - Discrimination Index: difference between these
- Item: suggest a sample of behavior of an individual proportion
- Table of Specification: a blueprint of the test in terms - Point-Biserial Method: correlation between a
of number of items per difficulty, topic importance, or dichotomous variable and continuous variable
taxonomy
- Guidelines for Item writing: Define clearly what to
measure, generate item pool, avoid long items, keep the
level of reading difficulty appropriate for those who
will complete the test, avoid double-barreled items,
consider making positive and negative worded items
- Double-Barreled Items: items that convey more than
one ideas at the same time
- Item Difficulty: defined by the number of people who - Item-Characteristic Curve: graphic representation of
get a particular item correct item difficulty and discrimination
- Item-Difficulty Index: calculating the proportion of - Guessing: one that eluded any universally accepted
the total number of testtakers who answered the item solutions
correctly; The larger, the easier the item - Item analyses taken under speed conditions yield
- Item-Endorsement Index for personality testing, misleading or uninterpretable results
percentage of individual who endorsed an item in a - Restrict item analysis on a speed test only to the items
personality test completed by the testtaker
- The optimal average item difficulty is approx. 50% - Test developer ideally should administer the test to be
with items on the testing ranging in difficulty from item-analyzed with generous time limits to complete
about 30% to 80% the test
- Optimal Difficulty Index Formula: [ (1+chance of
getting it correct)/2 ]
➢ Multiple choice: 0.625
➢ True or False (Binary): 0.75
➢ Three choices: 0.665
➢ Five choices: 0.6
Scoring Items/Scoring Models
1. Cumulative Model – testtaker obtains a measure of
the level of the trait; thus, high scorers may suggest
- Omnibus Spiral Format: items in an ability are high level in the trait being measured
arranged into increasing difficulty 2. Class Scoring/Category Scoring – testtaker
- Item-Reliability Index: provides an indication of the response earn credit toward placement in a particular
internal consistency of a test class or category with other testtaker whose pattern of
- The higher Item-Reliability index, the greater the responses is similar in some way
test’s internal consistency
#BLEPP
3. Ipsative Scoring – compares testtaker’s score on one ▪ Ceiling Effects: occurs when there is some upper
scale within a test to another scale within that same test, limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large
two unrelated constructs percentage of respondents score near this upper
IV. Test Revision – characterize each item according to limit (testtakers have high scores)
its strength and weaknesses ▪ Item Branching: ability of the computer to tailor
- As revision proceeds, the advantage of writing a large the content and order of presentation of items on
item pool becomes more apparent because some items the basis of responses to previous items
were removed and must be replaced by the items in the
▪ Routing Test: subtest used to direct or route the
item pool
- Administer the revised test under standardized testtaker to a suitable level of items
conditions to a second appropriate sample of examinee ▪ Item-Mapping Method: setting cut scores that
- Cross-Validation: revalidation of a test on a sample of entails a histographic representation of items and
testtakers other than those on who test performance was expert judgments regarding item effectiveness
originally found to be a valid predictor of some o Basal Level – the level of which a the minimum
criterion; often results to validity shrinkage criterion number of correct responses is obtained
- Validity Shrinkage: decrease in item validities that o Computer Assisted Psychological Assessment –
inevitably occurs after cross-validation standardized test administration is assured for
- Co-validation: conducted on two or more test using testtakers and variation is kept to a minimum
the same sample of testtakers ▪ Test content and length is tailored according to
- Co-norming: creation of norms or the revision of the taker’s ability
existing norms Statistics
- Anchor Protocol: test protocol scored by highly o Measurement – the act of assigning numbers or
authoritative scorer that is designed as a model for symbols to characteristics of things according to
scoring and a mechanism for resolving scoring rules
discrepancies
Descriptive Statistics – methods used to provide
- Scoring Drift: discrepancy between scoring in an
concise description of a collection of quantitative
anchor protocol and the scoring of another protocol
information
- Differential Item Functioning: item functions
Inferential Statistics – method used to make
differently in one group of testtakers known to have the
inferences from observations of a small group of people
same level of the underlying trait
known as sample to a larger group of individuals
- DIF Analysis: test developers scrutinize group by
known as population
group item response curves looking for DIF Items
o Magnitude – the property of “moreness”
- DIF Items: items that respondents from different
o Equal Intervals – the difference between two points
groups at the same level of underlying trait have
at any place on the scale has the same meaning as the
different probabilities of endorsing a function of their
difference between two other points that differ by the
group membership
same number of scale units
o Computerized Adaptive Testing – refers to an
o Absolute 0 – when nothing of the property being
interactive, computer administered test-taking measured exists
process wherein items presented to the testtaker are o Scale – a set of numbers who properties model
based in part on the testtaker’s performance on empirical properties of the objects to which the
previous items numbers are assigned
▪ The test administered may be different for each Continuous Scale – takes on any value within the
testtaker, depending on the test performance on range and the possible value within that range is infinite
the items presented - used to measure a variable which can theoretically be
▪ Reduces floor and ceiling effects divided
▪ Floor Effects: occurs when there is some lower Discrete Scale – can be counted; has distinct, countable
limit on a survey or questionnaire and a large values
percentage of respondents score near this lower - used to measure a variable which cannot be
limit (testtakers have low scores) theoretically be divided
#BLEPP
o Error – refers to the collective influence of all the Median – the middle score of the distribution
factors on a test score or measurement beyond those - Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
specifically measured by the test or measurement - Useful in cases where relatively few scores fall at the
▪ Degree to which the test score/measurement may high end of the distribution or relatively few scores fall
be wrong, considering other factors like state of at the low end of the distribution
the testtaker, venue, test itself etc. - In other words, for extreme scores, use median
▪ Measurement with continuous scale always (skewed)
involve with error - Identical for sample and population
Four Levels of Scales of Measurement - Also used when there has an unknown or
Nominal – involve classification or categorization undetermined score
based on one or more distinguishing characteristics - Used in “open-ended” categories (e.g., 5 or more,
- Label and categorize observations but do not make more than 8, at least 10)
any quantitative distinctions between observations - For ordinal data
- mode Mode – most frequently occurring score in the
Ordinal - rank ordering on some characteristics is also distribution
permissible - Bimodal Distribution: if there are two scores that
- median occur with highest frequency
Interval - contains equal intervals, has no absolute zero - Not commonly used
point (even negative values have interpretation to it) - Useful in analyses of qualitative or verbal nature
- Zero value does not mean it represents none - For nominal scales, discrete variables
Ratio - has true zero point (if the score is zero, it means - Value of the mode gives an indication of the shape of
none/null) the distribution as well as a measure of central tendency
- Easiest to manipulate o Variability – an indication how scores in a
o Distribution – defined as a set of test scores arrayed distribution are scattered or dispersed
for recording or study o Measures of Variability – statistics that describe the
o Raw Scores – straightforward, unmodified amount of variation in a distribution
accounting of performance that is usually numerical o Range – equal to the difference between highest and
o Frequency Distribution – all scores are listed the lowest score
alongside the number of times each score occurred ▪ Provides a quick but gross description of the
o Independent Variable – being manipulated in the spread of scores
study ▪ When its value is based on extreme scores of the
o Quasi-Independent Variable – nonmanipulated distribution, the resulting description of variation
variable to designate groups may be understated or overstated
▪ Factor: for ANOVA o Quartile – dividing points between the four quarters
Post-Hoc Tests – used in ANOVA to determine which in the distribution
mean differences are significantly different ▪ Specific point
Tukey’s HSD test – allows the compute a single value ▪ Quarter: refers to an interval
that determines the minimum difference between ▪ Interquartile Range: measure of variability equal
treatment means that is necessary for significance to the difference between Q3 and Q1
o Measures of Central Tendency – statistics that ▪ Semi-interquartile Range: equal to the
indicates the average or midmost score between the interquartile range divided by 2
extreme scores in a distribution o Standard Deviation – equal to the square root of the
▪ Goal: Identify the most typical or representative average squared deviations about the mean
of entire group ▪ Equal to the square root of the variance
Mean – the average of all the raw scores ▪ Variance: equal to the arithmetic mean of the
- Equal to the sum of the observations divided by the squares of the differences between the scores in a
number of observations distribution and their mean
- Interval and ratio data (when normal distribution) ▪ Distance from the mean
- Point of least squares o Normal Curve – also known as Gaussian Curve
- Balance point for the distribution o Bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically defined curve
that is highest at its center
#BLEPP
o Asymptotically = approaches but never touches the
axis
o Tail – 2 – 3 standard deviations above and below the
mean
▪ Mean < Median < Mode

o Skewed is associated with abnormal, perhaps
because the skewed distribution deviates from the
symmetrical or so-called normal distribution
o Kurtosis – steepness if a distribution in its center
Platykurtic – relatively flat
Leptokurtic – relatively peaked
Mesokurtic – somewhere in the middle
o Symmetrical Distribution – right side of the graph

is mirror image of the left side
▪ Has only one mode and it is in the center of the
distribution
▪ Mean = median = mode
o Skewness – nature and extent to which symmetry is
absent
▪ High Kurtosis = high peak and fatter tails
o Positive Skewed – few scores fall the high end of the
▪ Lower Kurtosis = rounded peak and thinner tails
distribution
o Standard Score – raw score that has been converted
▪ The exam is difficult
from one scale to another scale
▪ More items that was easier would have been
o Z-Scores – results from the conversion of a raw score
desirable in order to better discriminate at the
into a number indicating how many SD units the raw
lower end of the distribution of test scores
score is below or above the mean of the distribution
▪ Identify and describe the exact location of each
score in a distribution
▪ Standardize an entire distribution
▪ Zero plus or minus one scale
▪ Have negative values
▪ Requires that we know the value of the variance
to compute the standard error
o T-Scores – a scale with a mean set at 50 and a
standard deviation set at 10
▪ Fifty plus or minus 10 scale
▪ Mean > Median > Mode ▪ 5 standard deviations below the mean would be
o Negative Skewed – when relatively few of the scores equal to a t-score of 0
fall at the low end of the distribution ▪ Raw score that fell in the mean has T of 50
▪ The exam is easy ▪ Raw score 5 standard deviations about the mean
▪ More items of a higher level of difficulty would would be equal to a T of 100
make it possible to better discriminate between ▪ No negative values
scores at the upper end of the distribution ▪ Used when the population or variance is unknown
#BLEPP
o Stanine – a method of scaling test scores on a nine- o Directional Hypothesis Test or One-Tailed Test –
point standard scale with a mean of five (5) and a statistical hypotheses specify either an increase or a
standard deviation of two (2) decrease in the population mean
o Linear Transformation – one that retains a direct o T-Test – used to test hypotheses about an unknown
numerical relationship to the original raw score population mean and variance
o Nonlinear Transformation – required when the ▪ Can be used in “before and after” type of research
data under consideration are not normally distributed ▪ Sample must consist of independent
o Normalizing the distribution involves stretching the observationsꟷthat is, if there is not consistent,
skewed curve into the shape of a normal curve and predictable relationship between the first
creating a corresponding scale of standard scores, a observation and the second
scale that is technically referred to as Normalized ▪ The population that is sampled must be normal
Standard Score Scale ▪ If not normal distribution, use a large sample
o Generally preferrable to fine-tune the test according o Correlation Coefficient – number that provides us
to difficulty or other relevant variables so that the with an index of the strength of the relationship
resulting distribution will approximate the normal between two things
curve o Correlation – an expression of the degree and
o STEN – standard to ten; divides a scale into 10 units direction of correspondence between two things
▪ + & - = direction
▪ Number anywhere to -1 to 1 = magnitude
▪ Positive – same direction, either both going up
or both going down
▪ Negative – Inverse Direction, either DV is up
and IV goes down or IV goes up and DV goes
down
▪ 0 = no correlation
Mean SD
Z-Score 0 1
T-Score 50 10
Stanine 5 2
STEN 5.5 2
IQ 100 15
GRE or SAT 500 100
o Hypothesis Testing – statistical method that uses a
sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a o Pearson r/Pearson Correlation
population Coefficient/Pearson Product-Moment Coefficient
Alternative Hypothesis – states there is a change, of Correlation – used when two variables being
difference, or relationships correlated are continuous and linear
Null Hypothesis – no change, no difference, or no ▪ Devised by Karl Pearson
relationship ▪ Coefficient of Determination – an indication of
o Alpha Level or Level of Significance – used to how much variance is shared by the X- and Y-
define concept of “very unlikely” in a hypothesis test variables
o Critical Region – composed of extreme values that o Spearman Rho/Rank-Order Correlation
are very unlikely to be obtained if the null hypothesis Coefficient/Rank-Difference Correlation
is true Coefficient – frequently used if the sample size is
o If sample data fall in the critical region, the null small and when both sets of measurement are in
hypothesis is rejected ordinal
o The alpha level for a hypothesis test is the probability ▪ Developed by Charles Spearman
that the test will lead to a Type I error o Outlier – extremely atypical point located at a
relatively long distance from the rest of the
coordinate points in a scatterplot
#BLEPP
o Regression Analysis – used for prediction Local Norms – provide normative information with
▪ Predict the values of a dependent or response respect to the local population’s performance on some
variable based on values of at least one tests
independent or explanatory variable o Age-Related Norms – certain tests have different
▪ Residual: the difference between an observed normative groups for age groups
value of the response variable and the value of the o Tracking – tendency to stay at about the same level
response variable predicted from the regression relative to one’s peers
line Norm-Referenced Tests – compares each person with
▪ The Principle of Least Squares the norm
▪ Standard Error of Estimate: standard deviation of Criterion-Referenced Tests – describes specific types
the residuals in regression analysis of skills, tasks, or knowledge that the test taker can
▪ Slope: determines how much the Y variable demonstrate
changes when X is increased by 1 point Selection of Assessment Methods and Tools and Uses,
o T-Test (Independent) – comparison or determining Benefits, and Limitations of Assessment tools and
differences instruments (32)
▪ 2 different groups/independent samples + Identify appropriate assessment methods, tools (2)
interval/ratio scales (continuous variables) 1. Test – measuring device or procedure
Equal Variance – 2 groups are equal - Psychological Test: device or procedure designed to
Unequal Variance – groups are unequal measure variables related to psychology
o T-test (Dependent)/Paired Test – one groups Ability or Maximal Performance Test – assess what
nominal (either matched or repeated measures) + 2 a person can do
treatments a. Achievement Test – measurement of the previous
o One-Way ANOVA – 3 or more IV, 1 DV comparison learning
of differences b. Aptitude – refers to the potential for learning or
o Two-Way ANOVA – 2 IV, 1 DV acquiring a specific skill
o Critical Value – reject the null and accept the c. Intelligence – refers to a person’s general potential
alternative if [ obtained value > critical value ] to solve problems, adapt to changing environments,
o P-Value (Probability Value) – reject null and accept abstract thinking, and profit from experience
alternative if [ p-value < alpha level ] Human Ability – considerable overlap of
o Norms – refer to the performances by defined groups achievement, aptitude, and intelligence test
on a particular test Typical Performance Test – measure usual or
Percentiles – an expression of the percentage of people habitual thoughts, feelings, and behavior
whose score on a tests or measure falls below a Personality Test – measures individual dispositions
particular raw score and preferences
Age Norms – average performance of different a. Structured Personality tests – provide statement,
samples of testtakers who were at various ages at the usually self-report, and require the subject to choose
time the test was administered between two or more alternative responses
Grade Norms – developed by administering the test to b. Projective Personality Tests – unstructured, and
representative samples of children over a range of the stimulus or response are ambiguous
consecutive grade levels c. Attitude Test – elicit personal beliefs and opinions
- Developmental Norms: developed on the basis of any d. Interest Inventories – measures likes and dislikes
trait, ability, skill, or other characteristics that is as well as one’s personality orientation towards the
presumed to develop, deteriorate, or otherwise be world of work
affected by chronical age, school grade, or stage of life - Purpose: for evaluation, drawing conclusions of
National norms – derived from a normative sample some aspects of the behavior of a person, therapy,
that was nationally representative of the population at decision-making
the time the norming study was conducted - Settings: Industrial, Clinical, Educational,
Subgroup Norms – normative sample can be Counseling, Business, Courts, Research
segmented by any criteria initially used in selecting
subjects for the sample
#BLEPP
- Population: Test Developers, Test Publishers, Test 6. Role Play – defined as acting an improvised or
Reviewers, Test Users, Test Sponsors, Test Takers, partially improvised part in a simulated situation
Society - Role Play Test: assesses are directed to act as if they
Levels of Tests are in a particular situation
1. Level A – anyone under a direction of a supervisor - Purpose: Assessment and Evaluation
or consultant - Settings: Industrial, Clinical
2. Level B – psychometricians and psychologists only - Population: Job Applicants, Children
3. Level C – psychologists only 7. Computers – using technology to assess an client,
2. Interview – method of gathering information thus, can serve as test administrators and very
through direct communication involving reciprocal efficient test scorers
exchange 8. Others: videos, biofeedback devices
- can be structured, unstructured, semi-structured, or Intelligence Tests
non-directive Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 5th Ed. (SB-5)
- Mental Status Examination: determines the mental [C]
status of the patient - 2-85 years old
- Intake Interview: determine why the client came for - individually administered
assessment; chance to inform the client about the - norm-referenced
policies, fees, and process involved - age scale and point-scale format
- Social Case: biographical sketch of the client - originally created to identify mentally disabled
- Employment Interview: determine whether the children in Paris
candidate is suitable for hiring - 1908 Scale introduced Age Scale format and Mental
- Panel Interview (Board Interview): more than one Age
interviewer participates in the assessment - 1916 scale significantly applied IQ concept
- Motivational Interview: used by counselors and - Standard Scores: 100 (mean), 15 (SD)
clinicians to gather information about some - Scaled Scores: 10 (mean), 3 (SD)
problematic behavior, while simultaneously - co-normed with Bender-Gestalt and Woodcock-
attempting to address it therapeutically Johnson Tests
- based on Cattell-Horn-Carroll Model of General
Issues addressed by Structured Interviews: Intellectual Ability
1. Criterion Variance: amount of error caused by - no accommodations for PWDs
vague guidelines for exclusion or inclusion in - 2 routing tests (task used to direct or route the
different categories examinee to a particular level of questions)
2. Information Variance: variability in amount and - w/ teaching items, floor level, and ceiling level
type of information derived from interviews with - provides behavioral observations during
clients administration
3. Portfolio – samples of one’s ability and - First ed lacks representativeness of the
accomplishment standardization sample
- Purpose: Usually in industrial settings for evaluation - first test to introduce the concept of an alternate item
of future performance - earlier versions employed Ratio IQ, which was
4. Case History Data – refers to records, transcripts, based on the concept of Mental Age
and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form - 1960 revision had consisted of single form and the
that preserve archival information, official and use of Deviation IQ
informal accounts, and other data and items relevant - Ratio IQ: testtaker’s mental age divided by chronical
to an assessee age, multiplied by 100
5. Behavioral Observation – monitoring of actions of - Deviation IQ: reflects a comparison of the
others or oneself by visual or electronic means while performance of the individual with the performance of
recording quantitative and/or qualitative information others of the same age in the standardization sample
regarding those actions - SB-4 had Point Scale, which was the test was
- Naturalistic Observation: observe humans in natural organized into subtests by category of item, not by age
setting
#BLEPP
at which most testtakers are presumed capable of
responding in the way that is keyed as correct WAIS-IV Subtests:
1. Verbal Comprehension
SB5 Scales: 2. Perceptual Reasoning
1. Verbal 3. Working Memory
2. Nonverbal 4. Processing Speed
3. Full Scale IQ (FSIQ)
WISC-IV Subtests:
SB5 Factors: 1. Verbal Comprehension
1. Fluid Reasoning (FR) 2. Visual Spatial
2. Knowledge (KN) 3. Fluid Reasoning
3. Qualitative Reasoning (QR) 4. Working Memory
4. Visual-Spatial Processing (VS) 5. Processing Speed
5. Working Memory (WM)
Successive Five-Level Interpretative Procedures:

Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS-IV, WPPSI- Level I. Interpret the FSIQ
IV, WISC-V) Level II. Interpret index scores and CHC groupings
[C] Level III. Interpret subtest variability
- WAIS (16-90 years old), WPPSI (2-6 years old), Level IV. Qualitative/Process Analysis
WISC (6-11) Level V. Analysis Intrasubtest variability
- individually administered
- norm-referenced Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)
- Standard Scores: 100 (mean), 15 (SD) [B]
- Scaled Scores: 10 (mean), 3 (SD) - 4-90 years old
- addresses the weakness in Stanford-Binet - CPM, 5-11 years old; SPM, 6-16 yrs old & 17 yrs
- could also assess functioning in people with brain old and older; APM, 12+ yrs old
injury - nonverbal test
- evaluates patterns of brain dysfunction - used to measure general intelligence & abstract
- measure abilities that are likely to be lowered by reasoning
brain damage - multiple choice of abstract reasoning
- useful in assessment of Alzheimer’s Disease - group test
- WAIS (1955), WAIS-R (1981), WAIS-III (1997), - IRT-Based
WAIS-IV (2008) - Colored Progressive Matrices: Used to assess the
- the latest edition has updated norms, improved floor degree to which children and adults can think clearly,
and ceilings, improved psychometric properties, or the level to which their intellectual abilities have
reduced testing time, and co-normed with Weschler deteriorated
Individual Achievement Test-II) - Standard Progressive Matrices: more difficult that
- time-honored verbal versus performance IQ was CPM
eliminated (they do not purely measure but typically - Advanced Progressive Matrices: geared towards
combine a number of different abilities) adults and teenagers of advanced intelligence
- WISC (1949), WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991), Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT)
WISC-IV (2003) [ B]
#BLEPP
- Nonverbal instrument to measure your analytical and - Multiple-aptitude battery that measures developed
reasoning ability in the abstract and novel situations abilities and helps predict future academic and
- Measures individual intelligence in a manner occupational success in the military
designed to reduced, as much as possible, the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II
influence of culture (KABC-II)
- Individual or by group - Alan & Nadeen Kaufman
- Aids in the identification of learning problems and - 2 ½ yrs to 12 ½ yrs old
helps in making more reliable and informed decisions - for assessing cognitive development in children
in relation to the special education needs of children - evaluate preschoolers, minority, and children with
Purdue Non-Language Test learning disabilities
[B]
- Joseph Tiffin, Alin Grubner & Kay Inaba Global Test Scores:
- 13 yrs old and above 1. Sequential Processing Scales
- Designed to measure mental ability, since it consists 2. Simultaneous Processing Scales
entirely of geometric forms, assess the fluid 3. Achievement Scales
intelligence 4. Mental Processing Composite
- mainly abstract reasoning Differential Aptitude Scale – Fifth Edition (DAT-
- determine the underlying logic of pattern and devise V)
a solution [B]
- 5 designs, two parallel forms, 48 items - Harold G. Raven, John M. Oldfield, and John C.
- Culture-fair Raven
- Self-Administering - 14 to 65 years old
Panukat ng Katalinuhang Pilipino (PKP) - assess an individual’s aptitudes across various
- Aurora R. Palacio domains, including verbal reasoning, numerical
- 16 yrs old and above ability, abstract reasoning, mechanical reasoning,
- Basis for screening, classifying, and identifying space relations, spelling, language usage, and clerical
needs that will enhance the learning process speed and accuracy
- In business, it is utilized as predictors of - provide insights into an individual’s relative
occupational achievement by gauging applicant’s strengths and weaknesses in these areas to guide
ability and fitness for a particular job educational and career decisions
- Essential for determining one’s capacity to handle - norm-referenced
the challenges associated with certain degree General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB)
programs - U.S. Employment Services
- measures fluid, crystallized, and generalized - measure of wide range of aptitudes and is used in
intelligence such areas as occupational selection, rehabilitation,
and vocational counseling
Subtests:
1. Vocabulary Aptitude Scores:
2. Analogy G – General Intelligence
3. Numerical Ability V – Verbal Aptitude
4. Nonverbal Ability N – Numerical Aptitude
Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) S – Spatial Aptitude
- Eldon Wonderlic P – Form Perception
- Adults Q – Clerical-Perception
- Assessing cognitive ability and problem-solving K – Motor Coordination
aptitude of prospective employees F – Finger Dexterity
- Multiple choice, answered in 12 minutes M – Manual Dexterity
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT-II)
(ASVAB) [C]
- Most widely used aptitude test in US - 16 yrs old – 89 yrs old
#BLEPP
- measures episodic verbal learning and memory and - Louis Thurstone
demonstrates sensitivity to a range of clinical - Adults
conditions
Otis-Lennon Ability Test (OLSAT) Four Job-Related Tasks assessed by TMA Test:
[C] 1. Adjusting to new situations
- Otis, A.S. & Lennon, R.T. 2. Learning new skills quickly
- designed to assess general mental ability or 3. Understanding complex or subtle relationships
scholastic aptitude of pupils 4. Thinking flexibly
- identify gifted children Personality Tests
Philippine Aptitude Classification Test (PACT) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
- Ma. Lourdes M. Franco (MMPI-2)
- 14 yrs to 15 yrs old [C]
- developed to measure student’s abilities and help - Starke Hathaway and J. Charnley McKinley
students decide on the course they will take after high - 16 years old and older
school - Multiphasic personality inventory intended for used
- assumes that aptitudes are required in different with both clinical and normal populations to identify
combinations and in varying degrees for successful sources of maladjustment and personal strengths
performance in different post-secondary courses - Help in diagnosing mental health disorders,
Flanagan Industrial Tests distinguishing normal from abnormal
- Flanagan, J.C. - elicits a wide range of self-descriptions scored to
- used for personnel selection programs, based on give a quantitative measurement of an individual’s
identified job elements level of emotional adjustment and attitude toward test-
taking
Job Elements - should be administered to someone with no guilt
1. Arithmetic feelings for creating a crime
2. Assembly - individual or by groups
3. Components - Original MMPI had 13 scales, whilst the latest ver
4. Coordination (MMPI-II) maintained the original 10 scales
5. Electronics - MMPI (1939),
6. Expression - most important approach taken during construction
7. Ingenuity of the MMPI was Empirical Criterion Keying
8. Inspection (development, selection, and scoring of items within
9. Judgment and Comprehension the scales was based on some external criterion of
10. Mathematics and Reasoning reference)
11. Mechanics
12. Memory Patterns Clinical Scales:
13. Planning 1. Hypochondriasis (Hs) – present multiple, vague,
14. Precision and chronic physical problems
15. Scales 2. Depression (D) – depressed mood, low self-esteem,
16. Tables lethargy, and feelings of guilt
17. Vocabulary 3. Hysteria (Hy) – develop physical symptoms in
Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Test (W-GCTA) reaction to stress and can be dependent, naïve,
- Goodwin Watson & Edward Glaser infantile, and narcissistic
- 20 yrs old to 64 yrs old 4. Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) – associated with
- designed to assess a person’s critical thinking antisocial behavior
abilities and is widely used across legal practices 5. Masculinity/Femininity (Mf) – interests more
- assesses ability for critical thinking, creating traditionally viewed as feminine or masculine
conclusions, analyzing strong and weak arguments, 6. Paranoia (Pa) – suspicious, aloof, guarded, and
recognizing assumptions, and evaluating arguments overly sensitive
Thurstone Test of Mental Alertness (TMA)
#BLEPP
7. Psychasthenia (Anxiety, Depression, OCD) (Pt) – - Very High = person is indiscriminately answering
tense, anxious, ruminative, obsessive, phobic, and “true” to the items
rigid 7. Variable Response Inconsistency (VRIN or VRIN):
8. Schizophrenia (Sc) – withdrawn, moody, and random true or false
confused - expected to be answered in a consistent manner if
9. Hypomania or Mania (Ma) – sociable and the person is approaching the testing in a valid manner
optimistic, though can be manipulative and grandiose - if a person answers in the opposite direction, then it
10. Social Introversion (Si) – introverted, withdrawn, indicates an inconsistent response and is, therefore,
submissive, over-controlled, tense, inflexible (high scored as 1 raw score point on the VRIN Scale
scorers) - High VRIN = indiscriminate responding, profile
should be considered invalid and should not be
Validity/Dissimulation scales: understand how interpreted
genuine a test taker’s answers are 8. Infrequency-Psychopathology Scale (Fp): reveal
1. Lie Scale (L Scale): items that are somewhat intentional or unintentional over-reporting
negative but apply to most people; assess the - High Fp = high probability of faking or exaggerating
likelihood of the test taker to approach the instrument psychopathology, even among psychiatric patients
with defensive mindset 9. Fake Bad Scale (FBS): “symptom validity scale”
- High in L scale = faking good designed to detect intentional over-reporting of
- Low in L Scale = frank and open regarding symptoms
responses to items, can be sarcastic and cynical - detect personal injury claimants who were
2. Infrequency Scale (F Scale): reveal inconsistencies exaggerating their difficulties
in answer patterns and could also indicate severe 10. Back Page Infrequency (Fb): reflects significant
distress or psychopathology change in the testtaker’s approach to the latter part of
- measures the extent to which a person answers in an the test
atypical and deviant manner - identify a “fake bad” mode of responding for the last
- High in F scale = faking bad, severe distress or 197 items
psychopathology - High Fb = exaggeration of psychopathology
- Moderate Scores = draw attention to distress as cry
for help, may be rebellious, antisocial, curious, Higher-Order Scales
psychologically sophisticated 1. Emotional/Internalizing Dysfunction (EID)
- Low Scores = perceive the world as most other 2. Thought Dysfunction (THD)
people do, possible denial of difficulties 3. Behavioral/Externalizing Dysfunction (BXD)
3. Superlative Self Presentation Scale (S Scale): a Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI)
measure of defensiveness; Superlative Self- - Leslie Morey
Presentation to see if you intentionally distort answers - 18 to 89, PAI-A for 12-18 years old
to look better (Social Desirability) - self-administered, paper-and-pencil/online test
4. Correction Scale (K Scale): reflection of the composed of 344 statements for which the respondent
frankness of the testtaker’s self-report must choose who true each is for him or her
- K Scale = reveals a person’s defensiveness around - assesses psychopathological syndromes and provide
certain questions and traits; also faking good information relevant for clinical diagnosis, treatment
- K scale sometimes used to correct scores on five planning, and screening for psychopathology
clinical scales. The scores are statistically corrected - items for each scale were developed based on
for an individual’s overwillingness or unwillingness to extensive reviews of both historical, conceptual
admit deviance literature and contemporary, empirical literature,
5. “Cannot Say” (CNS or ?) Scale: measures how a focusing on the concepts that are central and core to
person doesn’t answer a test item; number of items the concepts of each construct
left unanswered
- client might have difficulties with reading, Validity Scales:
psychomotor retardation, or extreme defensiveness 1. Inconsistency (ICN)
6. True Response Inconsistency (TRIN): five true, then 2. Infrequency (INF)
five false answers 3. Negative Impression (NIM)
#BLEPP
4. Positive Impression (PIM) - Objective, forced-choice inventory for assessing the
relative importance that an individual places on 15
Clinical Scales: personality variables
1. Somatic Complaints (SOM) - Useful in personal counselling and with non-clinical
2. Anxiety (ANX) adults
3. Anxiety-Related Disorders (ARD) - Individual
4. Depression (DEP) Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey
5. Mania (MAN) (GZTS)
6. Paranoia (PAI) - J.P. Guilford & Wayne Zimmerman
7. Schizophrenia (SCZ) - 16 yrs and older
8. Borderline Features (BOR) - items are stated affirmatively rather than in question
9. Antisocial Features (ANT) form, using the 2nd person pronoun
10. Alcohol Problems (ALC) - factor analysis
11. Drug Problems (DRG)
Personality Traits measured:
Treatment Scales: 1. General Activity (G)
1. Aggression (AGG) 2. Restraint (R)
2. Suicidal Ideation (SUI) 3. Ascendance (A)
3. Stress (STR) 4. Sociability (S)
4. Nonsupport (NON) 5. Emotional Stability (E)
5, Treatment Rejection (RXR) 6. Objectivity (O)
7. Friendliness (F)
Interpersonal Scales: 8. Thoughtfulness (T)
1. Dominance (DOM) 9. Personal Relations (P)
2. Warmth (WRM) 10. Masculinity (M)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R)
- Katherine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers - Costa and McCrae
- Self-report inventory designed to identify a person’s - 17 to 89 years old, NEO-PI-3 12 to 99 years old
personality type, strengths, and preferences - Standard questionnaire measure of the Five Factor
- Extraversion-Introversion Scale: where you prefer to Model, provides systematic assessment of emotional,
focus your attention and energy, the outer world and interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal, and
external events or your inner world of ideas and motivational styles
experiences - gold standard for personality assessment
- Sensing-Intuition Scale: how do you take inform, - Self-Administered
you take in or focus on interpreting and adding - Brief Ver: NEO-FFI
meaning on the information - T-scores
- Thinking-Feeling Scale: how do you make decisions,
logical or following what your heart says Neuroticism:
- Judging-Perceiving Scale: how do you orient the - identifies individuals who are prone to psychological
outer world? What is your style in dealing with the distress
outer world – get things decided or stay open to new - measures the tendency toward emotional instability,
info and options? turmoil, and general distress
Edward’s Preference Personality Schedule (EPPS) - high = anxious, emotionally labile, quick to anger,
[B] sad, impulsive, low self-worth
- Adults - low = emotionally stable and secure, less prone to
- Edwards, A. L. sadness
- designed primarily as an instrument for research and - extremely low = less productive, no sense of urgency
counselling purposes to provide quick and convenient 1. Anxiety (N1): measure proneness to becoming
measures of a number of relatively normal personality tense, jittery, nervous, fearful
variables 2. Angry Hostility (N2): tendency toward anger
- based of Murray’s Need Theory bitterness, and resentment
#BLEPP
3. Depression (N3): likelihood to experience the range 3. Feelings (O3): measures openness to one’s inner
of depressive affects, including sadness, loneliness, emotional life, including both allowing oneself to feel
hopelessness, helplessness, worthlessness, etc. deep emotions and valuing them as integral to the
4. Self-Consciousness (N4): measures discomfort with entire, full human experience
social awkwardness 4. Actions (O4): measures the behavioral aspects of
5. Impulsiveness (N5): measures the degree to which openness, relating to trying novel and unknown
individuals have difficulty resisting their urges activities, foods, and places
6. Vulnerability (N6): measures the degree to which 5. Ideas (O5): measure a cognitive aspect of openness,
individuals feel capable or not of coping with stress related to intellectual curiosity
6. Values (O6): measure the willingness to re-examine
Extraversion: one’s values of people with different worldviews,
- quantity and intensity of energy directed different cultures, and a changing world, in general
- measures the degree to which individuals are not
only outgoing and sociable, but also assertive, upbeat, Agreeableness:
warm, and friendly - the kind of interactions an individual prefers from
- high = talkative, warm, and friendly, leaders, but can compassion to tough mindedness
be quite socially dominant and aggressive - measures both attitudes about the trustworthiness
- low = prefers to be on their own, reserved and general goodness of others and behaviors related
1. Warmth (E1): measures comfort with interpersonal to respecting, empathizing with, and deferring to
intimacy and closeness others
2. Gregariousness (E2): measures the preference for - high = sympathetic, willing to help, cooperative,
having other people around believes are others are generally decent and hones
3. Assertiveness (E3): tendency to make oneself heard - low = skeptical of others, expecting competition and
and known in social situations challenge from people around them, sarcastic and
4. Activity (E4): measures the amount of energy and stubborn
gusto with which individuals live their lives 1. Trust (A1): faith in the goodness of the human spirit
5. Excitement-Seeking (E5): measures the need for 2. Straightforwardness (A2): measures directness,
and enjoyment in high-stimulating activities honesty, and genuineness
6. Positive Emotions (E6): tendency to experience 3. Altruism (A3): measure genuine concern for the
positive emotions like happiness, joy, bliss, and love well-being of others
4. Compliance (A4): related to the way individuals
Openness to Experience: react to conflict with others
- active seeking and appreciation of experiences for 5. Modesty (A5): measures the outward-facing trait of
their own sake humility, including beliefs about being better than or
- encompasses many different personality traits that equal to others and whatever they would be likely to
have been researched in the literature, including boast about their achievements
imagination, curiosity, attunement toward personal 6. Tender-Mindedness (A6): measure sympathy and
emotions, and preference for abstract thinking concern for others
- high = intellectually and creatively curious, open to
new ideas and to values and theories that may Conscientiousness:
contradict or challenge their own - degree of organization, persistence, control, and
- low = conservative and conventional, realistic and motivation in goal-directed behavior
level-headed in solving problems - measures an array of traits related to both an
1. Fantasy (O1): how active one’s imagination is and orientation toward accomplishing things and the
how much fantasy is used not as an escape from behavioral correlates of doing so successfully
reality, but as a way to create, solve problems, and - high = motivated to achieve their goals, plans and
even interact with the world organize well, extremely reliable but can also be
2. Aesthetics (O2): measures the interest in and moralistic and judgmental of both themselves and
absorption by art, beauty, and even the inherent others
beauty in nature
#BLEPP
- low = often unprepared and disorganized, do not E Dominance (does)
think through potential consequences before acting, F Liveliness (life)
not overly driven to succeed G Rule-Consciousness (really)
1. Competence (C1): measure the feeling that one is H Social Boldness (suck?)
generally effective and capable to succeed in tasks and I Sensitivity (satisfy my)
life in general L Vigilance (virgin)
2. Order (C2): measures preference for neatness, M Abstractedness (ass)
tidiness, and orderliness N Privateness (putangina)
3. Dutifulness (C3): measures the degree to which 0 Apprehension (ay wow)
individuals do things that they feel they should do Q1 Openness to change (oh)
4. Achievement Striving (C4): relates to an attitude of Q2 Self-Reliance (shit!)
aspiration and striving to succeed in their goals Q3 Perfectionism (perfect)
5. Self-Discipline (C5): ability to actually follow Q4 Tension (timing!)
through on a plan once it is set
6. Deliberation (C6): measures the degree to which Global Scales:
individuals think and plan out carefully before acting 1. Extraversion
Panukat ng Ugali at Pagkatao/Panukat ng 2. Anxiety
Pagkataong Pilipino 3. Tough-Mindedness
- 13 years and older 4. Independence
- Indigenous personality test 5. Self-Control
- Tap specific values, traits and behavioral dimensions
related or meaningful to the study of Filipinos Response Style Indices:
a. Impression Management – answering in socially
1. Pagkamaalalahanin (Thoughtfulness) desirable or undesirable way
2. Pagkamaayos (Organized) - sten score of 9 or 10 at or above the 95th percentile
3. Pagkamadaldal (Social Curiosity) denotes Social Desirability
4. Pagkamagalang (Respectfulness) - a sten score of 1 or 2, or a score below the 5th
5. Pagkamahinahon (Emotional Stability) percentile means that the client has attempted to give a
6. Pagkamalikhain (Creativity) socially unfavorable image
7. Pagkamapagkumbaba (Humility) b. Acquiescence – agree to questions regardless of the
8. Pagkamapagsapalaran (Risk-Taking) content
9. Pagkamadamdamin (Sensitiveness) - scores at or above 95th percentile
10. Pagkamasiyahin (Cheerfulness) - count each “true”
11. Pagkamasikap (Achievement-Oriented) - confused when completing the questionnaire
12. Pagkamasunurin (Obedience) c. Infrequency – detects unusual responses, responded
13. Pagkamatalino (Intelligence) randomly or indecisively
14. Pagkamatapat (Honesty) - count “B or ?” response
15. Pagkamatiyaga (Patience) - scores at or above 95th percentile
16. Pagkamatulungin (Helpfulness) - poor comprehension
17. Pagkamaunawain (Capacity for Understanding) - trying to avoid making a wrong impression
18. Pagkapalakaibigan (Sociability) Big Five Inventory-II (BFI-2)
19. Pagkaresponsable (Responsibility) - Soto & John
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) - Assesses big 5 domains and 15 facets
- Raymond Cattell - for commercial purposes to researches and students
- constructed through factor analysis California Psychological Inventory (CPI-434)
- Evaluates a personality on two levels of traits [C]
- Harrison G. Gough
Primary Scales: - 13 years old and older
A Warmth (where) - create efficient and productive organizations,
B Reasoning (r) promote teamwork, build leadership competencies,
C Emotional Stability (everyone?)
#BLEPP
and find and develop employees who are destined for 5. Deviation
success 6. Hypochondriasis
- CPI-260, short form, 40-60 minutes 7. Impulse Expression
- T-Scores 8. Interpersonal Problems
9. Persecutory Ideas
Folk Scales: 10. Self-Depreciation
1. Capacity for Status 11. Social Introversion
2. Sociability 12. Thinking Disorder
3. Social Presence Projective Tests
4. Self-Acceptance Rorshcach Inkblot Test
5. Sense of Well-Being [C]
6. Responsibility - Hermann Rorschach
7. Socialization - 5 years and older
8. Self-Control - subjects look at 10 ambiguous inkblot images and
9. Tolerance describe what they see in each one
10. Good Impression - once used to diagnose mental illnesses like
11. Communality schizophrenia
12. Achievement via Conformance - Exner System: coding system used in this test
13. Achievement via Independence - Content: the name or class of objects used in the
14. Intellectual Efficiency patient’s responses
15. Psychological Mindedness
16. Femininity/Masculinity Independence Content:
17. Flexibility and Empathy 1. Nature
Strong Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) 2. Animal Feature
- E.K. Strong 3. Whole Human
- 15 years old and older 4. Human Feature
- help individuals in identifying their work personality 5. Fictional/Mythical Human Detail
by exploring their interests in six broad areas: 6. Sex
RIASEC
Thurstone Interest Schedule (TIS) Determinants:
[A] 1. Form
- Thurstone, L.L. 2. Movement
- checklist by which a person can systematically 3. Color
clarify his understanding of his vocational interest 4. Shading
- designed as a counseling instrument to be used in 5. Pairs and Reflections
situations in which the client-counselor relationship is
such that straightforward and honest Location:
Basic Personality Inventory (BPI) 1. W – the whole inkblot was used to depict an image
[C] 2. D – commonly described part of the blot was used
- Adults & Adolescents 3. Dd – an uncommonly described or unusual detail
- Douglas Jackson was used
- self-report measure of general domain of 4. S – the white space in the background was used
psychopathology Thematic Apperception Test
- 240 true/false items, 11 substantive clinical scales [C]
and one critical item scale - Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray
- 5 and above
Dimensions: - 31 picture cards serve as stimuli for stories and
1. Alienation descriptions about relationships or social situations
2. Anxiety - popularly known as the picture interpretation
3. Denial technique because it uses a standard series of
4. Depression
#BLEPP
provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the - reveals the maturation level of visuomotor
subject is asked to tell a story perceptions, which is associated with language ability
- also modified African American testtakers and various functions of intelligence
Children’s Apperception Test House-Tree-Person Test (HTP)
- Bellak & Bellak - John Buck and Emmanuel Hammer
- 3-10 years old - 3 years and up
- based on the idea that animals engaged in various - measures aspects of a person’s personality through
activities were useful in stimulating projective interpretation of drawings and responses to questions
storytelling by children - can also be used to assess brain damage and general
Hand Test mental functioning
- Edward Wagner - measures the person’s psychological and emotional
- 5 years old and above functioning
- used to measure action tendencies, particularly - The house reflects the person’s experience of their
acting out and aggressive behavior, in adults and immediate social world
children - The tree is a more direct expression of the person’s
- 10 cards (1 blank) emotional and psychological sense of self
Apperceptive Personality Test (APT) - The person is a more direct reflection of the person’s
- Holmstrom et. Al. sense of self
- attempt to address the criticisms of TAT Draw-A-Person Test (DAP)
- introduced objectivity in scoring system - Florence Goodenough
- 8 cards include male and female of different ages - 4 to 10 years old
and minority group members - a projective drawing task that is often utilized in
- testtakers will respond to a series of multiple choice psychological assessments of children
questions after storytelling - Aspects such as the size of the head, placement of
Word Association Test (WAT) the arms, and even things such as if teeth were drawn
- Rapaport et. Al. or not are thought to reveal a range of personality
- presentation of a list of stimulus words, assessee traits
responds verbally or in writing the first thing that - Helps people who have anxieties taking tests (no
comes into their minds strict format)
Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) - Can assess people with communication problems
- Julian Rotter & Janet Rafferty - Relatively culture free
- Grade 9 to Adulthood - Allow for self-administration
- most popular SCT Kinetic Family Drawing
SACK’s Sentence Completion Test (SSCT) - Burns & Kaufman
- Joseph Sacks and Sidney Levy - derived from Hulses’ FDT “doing something”
- 12 years old and older Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT)
- asks respondents to complete 60 questions with the - measures spontaneous production of words
first thing that comes to mind across four areas: belonging to the same category or beginning with
Family, Sex, Interpersonal, Relationships and Self some designated letter
concept Clinical & Counseling Tests
Bender-Gestalt Visual Motor Test Millon Clinical Multiaxial Scale-IV (MCMI-IV)
[B] Theodore Millon
- Lauretta Bender - 18 years old and above
- 4 years and older - standardized, self-report questionnaire that assesses a
- consists of a series of durable template cards, each wide range of information related to a client’s
displaying a unique figure, then they are asked to personality, emotional adjustment, and attitude toward
draw each figure as he or she observes it taking tests
- provides interpretative information about an - for diagnosing and treatment of personality disorders
individual’s development and neuropsychological - exaggeration of polarities results to maladaptive
functioning behavior
#BLEPP
2. Underreporting of Difficulties (Faking Good): low
Validity/Modifying Indices: scores on Disclosure (X) and Debasement (Z), high
1. Invalidity (V) – person answers randomly score on Desirability (Y)
2. Inconsistency (W) – expected to be answered both 3. Fake Bad: high score on Disclosure (X) and high
in same direction score in Debasement (Z)
3. Disclosure (X) – designed to measure whether a Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II)
client’s responses were open and revealing as opposed - Aaron Beck
to defensive and secretive - 13 to 80 years old
4. Desirability (Y) – measure of defensive responding - 21-item self-report that taps Major Depressive
5. Debasement (Z) – extent to which a person is symptoms accdg. to the criteria in the DSM
describing himself in negative, pathological terms - Beck’s Anxiety Inventory (BAI)
MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale (MAC & MAC-R)
Clinical Personality Patterns: - from MMPI-II
1. Schizoid - Personality & attitude variables thought to underlie
2. Avoidant alcoholism
3. Melancholic California Psychological Inventory (CPI-III)
4. Dependent - attempts to evaluate personality in normally adjusted
5. Histrionic individuals
6. Turbulent - has validity scales that determines faking bad and
7. Narcissistic faking good
8. Antisocial - interpersonal style and orientation, normative
9. Sadistic orientation and values, cognitive and intellectual
10. Compulsive function, and role and personal style
11. Negativistic - has special purpose scales, such as managerial
12. Masochistic potential, work orientation, creative temperament,
leadership potential, amicability, law enforcement
Severe Personality Pathology: orientation, tough-mindedness
1. Schizotypal Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
2. Borderline - measures global feelings of self-worth
3. Paranoid - 10-item, 4 point likert scale
- used with adolescents
Clinical Syndromes: Dispositional Resilience Scale (DRS)
1. Generalized Anxiety - measures psychological hardiness defined as the
2. Somatic Symptom ability to view stressful situations as meaningful,
3. Bipolar Spectrum changeable, and challenging
4. Persistent Depression Ego Resiliency Scale-Revised
5. Alcohol Use - measure ego resiliency or emotional intelligence
6. Drug Use HOPE Scale
7. Posttraumatic Stress - developed by Snyder
- Agency: cognitive model with goal driven energy
Severe Clinical Syndromes: - Pathway: capacity to contrast systems to meet goals
1. Schizophrenic Spectrum - good measure of hope for traumatized people
2. Major Depression - positively correlated with health psychological
3. Delusional adjustment, high achievement, good problem solving
skills, and positive health-related outcomes
Validity Indicators: Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
1. Random Responding: scores of one or more on the - overall assessment of life satisfaction as a cognitive
three items of the MCMI-IV Invalidity scale (items judgmental process
49, 98, 160) Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)
#BLEPP
- measure the level of positive and negative emotions
a test taker has during the test administration 6 Categories:
Pictorial Self-Concept Scale for Children (PSC) 1. Home Living
- Jack Joseph 2. Community Living
- 3 yrs to 13 yrs old 3. Life-Long Learning
- Allows clinician to measure self-concept in children 4. Employment
as young as 3 5. Health and Safety
- Identifies children with negative self-appraisal put 6. Social Activities
them at risk for academic and behavioral difficulties Self-Directed Search (SDS)
- Let youngster respond using pictures rather than - career assessment and exploration tool that matches
words your aspirations, activities, and talents to the career
- Children are shown pairs of illustrations representing choices and educational opportunities that fit you best
common self-appraisal situations and are asked to Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-3)
choose between a picture representing negative and - self-report measures of constructs shown to be
positive self-concept clinically relevant in individuals with eating disorders
- Can be used to evaluate psychological and
educational interventions 12 Primary Scales
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery Drive for Thinness
(HRNB) Bulimia
- Ward Halstead & Ralph Reitan Body Dissatisfaction
- 15 yrs old and older Low Self-Esteem
- set of tests used to diagnose localize brain damage Personal Alienation
by providing a comprehensive assessment of cognitive Interpersonal Insecurity
functioning Interpersonal Alienation
Interoceptive Deficits
Five Core Subtests: Emotional Dysregulation
1. Category Test Perfectionism
2. Tactual Performance Test Asceticism
3. Seashore Rhythm Test Maturity Fears
4. Speech Sounds Perception Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS-II)
5. Finger Tapping Test - leading instrument for supporting the diagnosis of
intellectual and developmental disabilities
Five Optional Subtests:
1. Trail Making Test Domains:
2. Reitan Indiana Aphasia Screening Test 1. Communication
3. Reitan-Klove Sensory Perceptual Examination 2. Daily Living Skills
4. Grip Strength Test 3. Socialization
5. Lateral Dominance Examination
Neuropsychological Impairment Scale (NIS) Supplemental Scales:
[C] 1. Motor Skills
- William E. O’Donell et. Al. 2. Maladaptive Behaviors
- 18 years old – 88 yrs old Kiddie Schedule of Affective Disorders and
- self-report, observer report, and senior interview Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version (K-
- identify neuropsychological symptoms and defiency SADS-PL)
- produces one Global Measure of Impairment (GMI) - assesses hypomania, cyclothymia, and BD
Supports Intensity Scale (SIS-A/SIS-C) - also combines dimensional and categorical
- evaluates the support needed by an individual assessment approaches to diagnose current and past
- focuses on the types and intensities of supports episodes of psychopathology in children and
needed to enable an individual to lead a normal adolescents
independent life Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)
#BLEPP
- 6 yrs old to 18 yrs old - assesses the anxiety in children
- Parent or other close relatives of the child complete - intended to provide an indicator of the number and
the form regarding the behavior of the client severity of anxiety symptoms experienced by younger
- 118 items regarding behavior problems children
- Teacher’s Report Form and Youth Self-Report Form
- can assist in identifying BD in children Subscales
GAD
Subscales: Social Anxiety
Aggressive Behavior OCD
Anxious/Depressed Physical Injury Fears
Attention Problems Separation Anxiety
Rule-Breaking Behavior Children’s Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive
Social-Problems Scale (CY-BOCS)
Somatic Complaints - 6 yrs old to 17 yrs old
Thought Problems - designed to rate the severity of OC symptoms in
Withdrawn/Depressed children and adolescents
Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale - clinician-rated
(RCADS) Dimensional Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive
- 8 yrs old to 18 yrs old Scale (DY-BOCS)
- 47-item, youth self-report questionnaire - assesses the presence and severity of obsessive
- Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale – compulsive-symptoms
Parent Version (RCADS-P) Children’s Obsessional Compulsive Inventory –
Revised Self Report (ChOCI-R-S)
Subscales: - 32-item self-report measure assessing the presence
Anxiety Disorder and severity of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
Social Phobia in children and adolescents aged 7-17 years
GAD Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS)
Panic Disorder [B]
OCD - most popular measures of adaptive behavior in
Low Mood children
Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional - 0-90 years old
Disorders (SCARED) Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS-III)
- measure widely used to assess childhood anxiety - used to assess the functional skills necessary for the
based on parent and child support daily living
- Child and parent - 0-89 years old
Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale (SCAS) 7-Minute Screen
- 8 yrs old to 15 yrs old - identify patients with Alzheimer’s Disease
- assess severity of anxiety symptoms in children Strengths and weaknesses of assessment tools (2)
- Child and Parent Pros Cons
Test
Subscales: - can gather a sample of - In crisis situations when
Separation Anxiety behavior objectively with relatively rapid decisions
Social Phobia lesser bias need to be made, it can be
OCD - flexible, can be verbal or impractical to take the
Panic/Agoraphobia nonverbal time required to
GAD administer and interpret
Fears of Physical Injury tests
Preschool Anxiety Scale (PAS) Interview
- 2 ½ yrs old to 6 ½ yrs old - can take note of verbal - sometimes, due to
- completed by parent/guardian and nonverbal cues negligence of interviewer
#BLEPP
- flexible and interviewee, it can know how their - expensive
- time and cost effective miss out important colleagues think - inconvenient to assess in
- both structured and information - group can discuss ways a real situation
unstructured allows - interviewer’s effect on to potentially resolve the - While some employees
clinicians to place a wider, the interviewee situation and participants will be comfortable role
more meaningful context - various error such as leave with as much playing, they’re less adept
- can also be used to help halo effect, primacy information as possible, at getting into the required
predict future behaviors effect, etc. resulting in more efficient mood needed to actually
interviews allow - interrater reliability handling of similar real- replicate a situation
- clinicians to establish - interviewer bias life scenarios
rapport and encourage Test Administration, Scoring, Interpretation and
client self-exploration. Usage (20)
Portfolio Detect Errors and impacts in Test
- provides comprehensive - can be very demanding Issues in Intelligence Testing
illustration of the client - time consuming 1. Flynn Effect – progressive rise in intelligence score
which highlights the that is expected to occur on a normed intelligence test
strengths and weaknesses from the date when the test was first normed
Observation ▪ Gradual increase in the general intelligence
- flexible - For private practitioners, among newborns
- suitable for subjs that it is typically not practical ▪ Frog Pond Effect: theory that individuals
cannot be studied in lab or economically feasible evaluate themselves as worse when in a group of
setting to spend hours out of the high-performing individuals
- more realistic consulting room 2. Culture Bias of Testing
- affordable observing clients as they ▪ Bias In Testing: presence of systematic error in
- can detect patterns go about their daily lives the measurement of certain factors
- lack of scientific control, ▪ Culture-Free: attempt to eliminate culture so
ethical considerations, nature can be isolated
and potential for bias from ▪ Impossible to develop bec culture is evident in its
observers and subjects influence since birth or an individual and the
- unable to draw cause- interaction between nature and nurture is
and-effect conclusions cumulative and not relative
- lack of control ▪ Culture Fair: minimize the influence of culture
- lack of validity with regard to various aspects of the evaluation
- observer bias procedures
Case History ▪ Fair to all, fair to some cultures, fair only to one
- can fully show the - cannot be used to culture
experience of the observer generalize a phenomenon ▪ Culture Loading: the extent to which a test
in the program incorporates the vocabulary concepts traditions,
- shed light on an knowledge etc. with particular culture
individual’s past and Test Equivalence
current adjustment as well Linguistic: wording and content
as on the events and - whether the test has been translated accurately
circumstances that may - Back-Translation: once translated to a certain
have contributed to any language, it is translated back to the original language
changes in adjustment Conceptual: construct has the same meaning
Role Play - requires constructs to have the same meaning in
- encourages individuals - may not be as useful as various cultures
to come together to find the real thing in all Metric: same psychometric feature across different
solutions and to get to situations groups/culture
- time-consuming Errors: Reliability
#BLEPP
o Classical Test Theory (True Score Theory) – score Error: Time Sampling
on ability tests is presumed to reflect not only the - the longer the time passes, the greater likelihood that
testtaker’s true score on the ability being measured the reliability coefficient would be insignificant
but also the error - Carryover Effects: happened when the test-retest
▪ Error: refers to the component of the observed interval is short, wherein the second test is influenced
test score that does not have to do with the by the first test because they remember or practiced the
testtaker’s ability previous test = inflated correlation/overestimation of
▪ Errors of measurement are random reliability
- Practice Effect: scores on the second session are
higher due to their experience of the first session of
testing
- test-retest with longer interval might be affected of
other extreme factors, thus, resulting to low correlation
- target time for next administration: at least two weeks
Parallel Forms/Alternate Forms Reliability
Error: Item Sampling (Immediate), Item Sampling
changes over time (delayed)
- Counterbalancing: technique to avoid carryover
▪ The greater number of items, the higher the
effects for parallel forms, by using different sequence
reliability
for groups
▪ Factors that contribute to inconsistency:
- most rigorous and burdensome, since test developers
characteristics of the individual, test, or situation,
create two forms of the test
which have nothing to do with the attribute being
- main problem: difference between the two tests
measured, but still affect the scores
- test scores may be affected by motivation, fatigue, or
o Error Variance – variance from irrelevant random
intervening events
sources
- create a large set of questions that address the same
Measurement Error – all of the factors associated
construct then randomly divide the questions into two
with the process of measuring some variable, other than sets
the variable being measured
Internal Consistency (Inter-Item Reliability)
- difference between the observed score and the true
Error: Item Sampling Homogeneity
score
- Positive: can increase one’s score Split-Half Reliability
- Negative: decrease one’s score Error: Item sample: Nature of Split
- Sources of Error Variance: Inter-Scorer Reliability
a. Item Sampling/Content Sampling Error: Scorer Differences
b. Test Administration o Standard Error of Measurement – provide a
c. Test Scoring and Interpretation measure of the precision of an observed test score
Random Error – source of error in measuring a ▪ Standard deviation of errors as the basic measure
targeted variable caused by unpredictable fluctuations of error
and inconsistencies of other variables in measurement ▪ Index of the amount of inconsistent or the amount
process (e.g., noise, temperature, weather) of the expected error in an individual’s score
Systematic Error – source of error in a measuring a ▪ Allows to quantify the extent to which a test
variable that is typically constant or proportionate to provide accurate scores
what is presumed to be the true values of the variable ▪ Provides an estimate of the amount of error
being measured inherent in an observed score or measurement
- has consistent effect on the true score ▪ Higher reliability, lower SEM
- SD does not change, the mean does ▪ Used to estimate or infer the extent to which an
▪ Error variance may increase or decrease a test observed score deviates from a true score
score by varying amounts, consistency of test ▪ Standard Error of a Score
score, and thus, the reliability can be affected ▪ Confidence Interval: a range or band of test
scores that is likely to contain true scores
Test-Retest Reliability
#BLEPP
o Standard Error of the Difference – can aid a test - Halo Effect: tendency to give high score due to failure
user in determining how large a difference should be to discriminate among conceptually distinct and
before it is considered statistically significant potentially independent aspects of a ratee’s behavior
o Standard Error of Estimate – refers to the standard - snap judgement on the basis of positive trait
error of the difference between the predicted and - Horn Effect: Opposite of Halo Effect
observed values - One way to overcome rating errors is to use rankings
o Four Possible Hit and Miss Outcomes 5. Fundamental Attribution Error – tendency to
1. True Positives (Sensitivity) – predict success explain someone’s behavior based on internal factors
that does occur such as personality or disposition, and to underestimate
2. True Negatives (Specificity) – predict failure the influence the external factors have on another
that does occur person’s behavior, blaming it on the situation
3. False Positive (Type 1) – success does not occur - Barnum Effect: people tend to accept vague
4. False Negative (Type 2) – predicted failure but personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of
succeed themselves (Aunt Fanny Effect)
o Bias – factor inherent in a test that systematically
prevents accurate, impartial measurement
▪ Prejudice, preferential treatment
▪ Prevention during test dev through a procedure
called Estimated True Score Transformation
o Social Desirability – tendency to say good things
about yourself or to mark items that you believe will
be approved by the examiner
Ethical Principles and Standards of Practice (19)
o Assessment should only be conducted in the context
of a clearly defined professional relationship, thus,
nature, purpose, and conditions of the relationship
must be discussed and agreed on
Errors due to Behavioral Assessment
o It is the examiner’s responsibility to recognize the
1. Reactivity – when evaluated, the behavior increases
possible influences he or she may exert on the client
- Hawthorne Effect
and to optimize the level of rapport
2. Drift – moving away from what one has learned o It is particularly important to assess the degree of the
going to idiosyncratic definitions of behavior client’s motivation and his or her overall level of
- subjects should be retrained in a point of time anxiety
- Contrast Effect: cognitive bias that distorts our ▪ There could be times that testing must be halted
perception of something when we compare it to due to the client’s emotional state
something else, by enhancing the differences between o The more the examiner likes the client, the more
them likely he or she will be to score an ambiguous
3. Expectancies – tendency for results to be influenced response in a direction favorable to the client
by what test administrators expect to find o If mistakes were made, they should do something to
- Rosenthal/Pygmalion Effect: Test administrator’s correct or minimize the mistakes
expected results influences the result of the test o If an ethical violation made by another psychologist
- Golem Effect: negative expectations decreases one’s was witnessed, they should resolve the issue with
performance informal resolution, as long as it does not violate any
4. Rating Errors – intentional or unintentional misuse confidentiality rights that may be involved
of the scale o If informal resolution is not enough or appropriate,
- Leniency Error: rater is lenient in scoring (Generosity referral to state or national committees on
Error) professional ethics, state licensing boards, or the
- Severity Error: rater is strict in scoring appropriate institutional authorities can be done.
- Central Tendency Error: rater’s rating would tend to Still, confidentiality rights of the professional in
cluster in the middle of the rating scale question must be kept.
#BLEPP
o Failure to cooperate in ethics investigation itself, is o Before recording voices or images, they must obtain
an ethics violation, unless they request for deferment permission first from all persons involved or their
of adjudication of an ethics complaint legal rep
o Psychologists must file complaints responsibly by o Only discuss confidential information with persons
checking facts about the allegations clearly concerned/involved with the matters
o Psychologists DO NOT deny persons employment, o Disclosure is allowed with appropriate consent
advancement, admissions, tenure or promotion based ▪ No consent is not allowed UNLESS mandated by
solely upon their having made or their being the the law
subject of an ethics complaint o No disclosure of confidential information that could
▪ Just because they are questioned by the ethics lead to the identification of a client unless they have
committee or involved in an on-going ethics obtained prior consent or the disclosure cannot be
investigation, they would be discriminated or avoided
denied advancement ▪ Only disclose necessary information
▪ Unless the outcome of the proceedings are o Exemptions to disclosure:
already considered ✓ If the client is disguised/identity is protected
o Psychologists should do their services within the ✓ Has consent
boundaries of their competence, which is based on ✓ Legally mandated
the amount of training, education, experience, or o Psychologists can create public statements as long as
consultation they had they would be responsible for it
o When they are tasked to provide services to clients ▪ They cannot compensate employees of the media
who are deprived with mental health services (e.g., in return for publicity in a news item
communities far from the urban cities), however, ▪ Paid Advertisement must be clearly recognizable
they were still not able to obtain the needed ▪ when they are commenting publicly via internet,
competence for the job, they could still provide media, etc., they must ensure that their statement
services AS LONG AS they make reasonable effort are based on their professional knowledge in
to obtain the competence required, just to ensure that accord with appropriate psych literature and
the services were not denied to those communities practice, consistent with ethics, and do not
o During emergencies, psychologists provide services indicate that a professional relationship has been
to individuals, even though they are yet to complete established with the recipient
the competency/training needed just to ensure that o Must provide accurate information and obtain
services were not denied. However, the services are approval prior to conducting the research
discontinued once the appropriate services are o Informed consent is required, which include:
available ✓ Purpose of the research
o Any consent involves a clear explanation of what ✓ Duration and procedures
procedures will occur, the relevance of the testing, ✓ Right to decline and withdraw
and how the results will be used ✓ Consequences of declining or withdrawing
Privacy Confidentiality ✓ Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects
- actions of honoring an - refers to actions of ✓ Benefits
individual’s right to keeping documents, files, ✓ Limits of confidentiality
control who has access for and other data away from ✓ Incentives for participation
him/herself and how their people or entities that are ✓ Researcher’s contact information
information is shared not meant to see/hear o Permission for recording images or vices are needed
publicly them unless the research consists of solely naturalistic
- personal - relational observations in public places, or research designed
- right - agreement includes deception
o Psychologists should discuss the limits of ▪ Consent must be obtained during debriefing
confidentiality, uses of the information that would be o Dispense or Omitting Informed consent only when:
generated from the services to the persons and 1. Research would not create distress or harm
organizations with whom they establish a scientific ▪ Study of normal educational practices conducted
or professional relationships in an educational settings
#BLEPP
▪ Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic ▪ Spatial Visualization
observation, archival research ▪ Associative Memory
▪ Confidentiality is protected ▪ Perceptual Speed
2. Permitted by law ▪ Reasoning
o Avoid offering excessive incentives for research o Cattell: Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence
participation that could coerce participation o Spearman: Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
o DO not conduct study that involves deception unless ▪ General (g) Intelligence
they have justified the use of deceptive techniques in ▪ Specific (s) Ability
the study o Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligences
▪ Must be discussed as early as possible and not ▪ Visual-Spatial
during the conclusion of data collection ▪ Linguistic-Verbal
o They must give opportunity to the participants about ▪ Logical-Mathematical
the nature, results, and conclusions of the research ▪ Body-Kinesthetic
and make sure that there are no misconceptions about ▪ Musical
the research ▪ Interpersonal
o Must ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort, ▪ Intrapersonal
infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects ▪ Naturalistic
▪ If so, procedures must be justified and be as Malingering – the deliberate feigning of an illness or
minimal as possible disability to achieve a particular desired outcome
▪ During termination, they must do it rapidly and Faking Bad (Overreporting) - appear worse than
minimize the pain actually is the case
o Must no present portions of another’s work or data Faking Good (Underreporting) - attempt to appear
as their own better than is actually the case
▪ Must take responsibility and credit, including - Intentional (Social Desirability) or Unintentional
authorship credit, only for work they have (Impression Management)
actually performed or to which they have Nay-Saying – answering question negatively of their
substantially contributed content, which can distort results of surveys,
▪ Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with questionnaires, and similar instruments
students as early as possible - Non-acquiescence
o After publishing, they should not withhold data from Yea-Saying – answering question positively regardless
other competent professionals who intends to of their content, which can distort the results of surveys
reanalyze the data - Acquiescence
▪ Shared data must be used only for the declared Self-Deception – process of denying or rationalizing
purpose away the relevance, significance, or importance of
o RA 9258 – Guidance and Counseling Act of 2004 opposing evidence and logical argument
o RA 9262 – Violence Against Women and Children o Jungian Typology:
o RA 7610 – Child Abuse Extraverted Thinking – principle, idealistic,
o RA 9165 – Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of objective, rational
2002 Introverted Thinking – influenced by ideas,
o RA 11469 – Bayanihan to Heal as One Act independent, often fearful of intimacy
o RA 7277 – Magna Carta for Disabled Persons Extraverted Feeling – adaptive, relating well to the
o RA 11210 – Expanded Maternity Leave Law external environment
o RA 11650 – Inclusive Education Law Introverted Feeling – sympathetic, pleases others,
o RA 10173 – Data Privacy Act may be dependent, reserved
o House Bill 4982 – SOGIE Bill
Extraverted Sensation – realistic, concrete, pleasant,
o Art. 12 of Revised Penal Code – Insanity Plea
and friendly
Additional Information
Introverted Sensation – calm, passive, restrained,
o Thurstone: Seven Primary Mental Abilities
controlled, and controlling
▪ Verbal Comprehension
Extraverted Intuition – enterprising, outgoing, can be
▪ Word Fluency
irresponsible
▪ Number Facility
#BLEPP
Introverted Intuition – mystical, dreamer, and artist, o Mental Status Exam – appropriate before
can be obsessive assessment to determine the appropriateness of more
o Types of Interpretation: formal psychological testing
Concrete – limited to the subtest and subscale scores Appearance – client’s clothing, posture, gestures,
and does not draw conclusions beyond the scores speech, personal care/hygiene, and any unusual
Mechanical – pattern of subscales; significant physical features
difference between scores Relatedness – facial expressions, eye contact, activity
Individualized – interpreting the results in the context level, degree of cooperation, notable physical
of the larger picture characteristics, and attentiveness
o 16 PF Factors Speech/Language – often proxies for their thought
Global Factors Cont. Primary Factors processes, as they relate to the primary mode of
Extraversion (4) Warmth communicating thoughts to the outside world
Liveliness - help clinicians determine the possibility of poor or
Social Boldness exceptional cognitive functioning, focus, and
Privateness confusion and possible thought disorder
Self-Reliance - evaluating how well individuals understand language,
Independence (4) Dominance as evidenced by responding appropriately to directions
Social Boldness and conversations (receptive language)
Vigilance Affect/Mood (Feeling) – client might be cold or warm,
Openness to Change distant or close, labile, or have flat affect
Tough-Mindedness Warmth - Mood: dominant emotion reported during the
(6) Sensitivity interview
Abstractedness - Affect: client’s outwardly projected range of emotions
Openness to Change Thought Process
Self-Control (4) Liveliness Thought Content – can be coherent, spontaneous, and
Rule-Consciousness comprehensible or may contain unusual features
Abstractedness Memory
Perfectionism Attention/Concentration
Anxiety (5) Emotional Stability Alertness/Orientation – they know who they are,
Vigilance where they are, and when current and past events have
Apprehension occurred or are occurring
Tension - Sensorium: refers to how intact their physical sensory
o Interpretation of Assessment Information: processes are to receiving and integrating information
Intuitive Approach – no identifiable basis, based on (hearing, smell, vision, and touch and might range from
feelings and instincts, and have no empirical being clouded to clear)
explanation Judgment/Planning – vary how they provide for
Authoritative Approach – based on experts or well- themselves, evaluate risks, and make plans
known psychologists Insight – why they believe they were referred for
Empirical/Conceptual – derived from researches evaluation and, in a wider context, they attitudes
o Function of Tests: towards their cultures
Additive Function – measuring different domains to o Types of Decisions made through Psychological
broaden understanding of the person being examined Tests:
Confirmatory Function – two or more measures of Individual – testtakers use their scores to make
the same domain are placed in a test battery to decisions about themselves
strengthen initial impressions Institutional – made by another entity about a person’s
Complementary Function – multiple measures of the score
same dome yield different rather than confirmatory Comparative – made by comparing the test scores of
results a number of people to see who has the best score
Absolute – decisions made by other by looking who
has the minimum score needed to qualify
#BLEPP
end
Congratulations for reaching the end of this reviewer! <3
Remember to take rest if you need to and be less harsh to

yourself. Reward yourself, you deserve it. You can never
learn everything but at least you still did learn
something. Progress is progress. The most important
thing is you will get there!
Claim that license!
Congratulations, Future RPm!

TOS_Outline_PsychAssess_Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

TOS_Outline_PsychAssess_Final

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

TOS_Outline_PsychAssess_Final

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Psychological Assessment

Research Methods and Statistics (20)

▪ Mean < Median < Mode

o Symmetrical Distribution – right side of the graph

Successive Five-Level Interpretative Procedures:

Congratulations for reaching the end of this reviewer! <3

Remember to take rest if you need to and be less harsh to

Claim that license!

Congratulations, Future RPm!

You might also like