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MODELLING OF FLEXIBLE ROBOTS - AN

INTRODUCTION
P. Kopacek, K. Desoyer and P. Lugner
L'ni" l'I"sity of Linz , Tpchnicai L'nil 'e rsity \/iel/na , Austria

Abstract: This survey gives a short introduction to the today robot structure and problems
of motion control and some remarks for future aspects of lightweight , high performance
robots, that will include parts with non negligible flexibilities . How the modelling of this
time variant elastic deformations, a substantial part of any control strategy, can principally
be done is shown based on the recent literature.
The quasistatic method uses substitutive springs to describe the elastic deformat ions at spe-
ciallocations. For the dynamic behaviour of vibrating flexible links FE-methods, a vibration
mode or shape functions approach or other combined methods may be applied. The char-
acteristics of the FE-methods are their advantage of a realistic modelling of complex shaped
links but with the drow back of high evaluation time. The vibration mode methods need
a special knowledge to select the right set of functions but lead to short evaluation time.
Combined methods are also based on a fracturizing of the deformable elements into smaller
units, whose elastic properties can be described more easily.
The modelling of the elastic properties and an adequate control will be an essential basis for
a future time and energy efficient robot performance.
Keywords: Flexible Robots, Modelling, Systems of Elastic Bodies .

This paper deals with one feature of the robots of the

1 Introduction
Microelectronics are rapidly changing the face of manufac-
turing throughout the world. Large as well as small com-
panies are adopt ing these new methods to improve the ef-
ficiency of their operations. Researchers are developing ad-
vanced technologies suitable for application in manufactur-
ing. In such manufacturing concepts , industrial robots and
handling devices will be of great importance in the next fu-
ture. Today robots are u:ed for various purposes in large
manufacturing companies specialized in distinct fields (au-
tomotive industry, electrical industries) as well as in small
companies.
The main parts of an industrial robot are the arm, the
actuators including the gears and the control computer. Ad-
ditional parts are the gripper including the gripping device,
internal sensors or position measurement systems and exter-
nal sensors. The arm as well as the gripper each realize usu-
ally three degrees of freedom. These can be either translato-
rial (T) or rotational (R) . For different applications different
configurations may be appropriate. A revolute arm (RRR)
might be the best for reaching into a tub, whereas a cylindri-
cal arm (TRT or RTT) might be the best suited to execute
a straight thrust between the dies of a punch press .
Internal sensors e. g. encoders, resolvers or other devices
are mounted on each joint for giving the actual position in
robot coordinates .
next generation, their flexibility - not in the meaning of
performing tasks but with the elastic flexibility of their links
or substructures. Today the ratio of payload to weight of an
industrial robot amounts from 1:10 to 1:30 and less. Com-
pared with man it is very low - one person is able to have a
ratio of 1:3 or more. One of the goals for the next generation
of robots will be a ration in this dimension. This might be
possible only by developing lightweight robots . Their arms
may be made of new materials (e. g. fibreglass reinforced
plastic) or with a greater utilization of the material proper-
ties and therefore elastic deformations may occur during the
performance of the robot as a consequence of the static and
dynamic forces. Nevertheless, the handpoint of the robot has
to reach each point in the working space without overshoot-
ing. This requires new "advanced" control algorithms which
can be developed only on the basis of appropriate models
for the dynamic behavior. For flexible robots the control as
well as external sensors are of great importance. Therefore
these parts should be described in more detail.
The term "robot control" includes some different tasks
which have to be carried out by the control computer. The
main tasks of the control computer of an industrial robot
are:
- transformation of world coordinates into robot co-
ordinates and vice versa
- calculation of the speed and acceleration of the
"hand" in robot coordinates as well as in world
coordinates

21
22 P. Kopacek , K. Deso"er and P. Lugner
calculation of points on a desired path - e. g.
straight line between two points in the working
space
determination of the necessary command values,
resulting from the tasks mentioned before, for the
joint controllers
position control of the axes in accordance to the
calculated command values.
While the calculation of the world coordinates from the
robot coordinates is always easy, the reverse case might be
difficult for some types of industrial robots . Whether a
closed solution for calculating the robot coordinates from
world coordinates exists depends on the kinematic structure
and the construction parameters of the robot. E. g. eccen-
tricities in the joints might be responsible that the control
computer has to solve the inverse transformation in a recur-
sive way.
The term "path calculation" has usually different mean-
ings. The a priori information could consist in
a total determination of the path or
a determination of distinct points of a desired
path together with information on the kind of the
connecting slope.
Both, the path or distinct points might be given in robot
coordinates or in world coordinates.
The robot may be programmed by the "teach-in meth-
ode" or by point or path calculation (e. g. by optimization
criteria) .
The problem of path generation leads to the problem of
calculating points along a desired path. This path might be
determined under different assumptions
minimum time for the motion
realizing the shortest distance (straight line be-
tween two points)
minimum energy consumption for the motion
along the path.
Calculating only the position, the robot would stop at
each of the calculated or predescribed points. Therefore, for
a continous motion of the robot, it is necessary to determine
in addition a speed and probably an acceleration in each of
these points.
Generally the control computer is structured as a host
computer for the tasks mentioned before connected to mi-
crocomputers which control the position of each joint. The
outputs of the host computer are command values resulting
from the path generation in the two described ways .
Basis of each position control design for robots are the
kinematic and kinetic equations of the robot arm. For the
main types of robots commercially available today these
equations are derived in the sense of rigid body systems
e.g. in Desoyer, Kopacek and Troch (1985).
External sensors give the control computer of the robot
additional information about the surrounding. External sen-
sors available today may be classified into four main groups:
tractile sensors are used for measuring forces and
moments, usually between the gripping de\'ice and
the object or between the arm and the end effec-
tor .
proximity sensors provide information about pres-
ence, distance, speed of approximation . . , They
work without contact .
visual sensors are of great importance for tasks in
connection with assembly operations (part identi-
fication , orientation ... ). They work mainly with
TV cameras.
auditive sensors are being de\'eloped and serve for
speech recognition.
2 General considerations on flexi-
bility
Kinematics, kinetics and control of industrial robots have
been studied extensively under the assumption that the links
can be modelled as "rigid bodies", an assumption which is
warranted in the great majority of manipulators in use today,
so called "heavy constructions" - in order to avoid untoler-
able posi tioning inaccuracies that may be caused by elastic
deflections and vibrations. The advantage of such a con-
struction is that angular encoders at the act uator shafts or
at the joints can be used to gain information of the actual
position of the end-effector in world coordinates in a purely
geometric manner. Therefore the control device can use this
information directly. But that is not enough if the deflections
of the substructures of a manipulator cannot be neglected
anymore .
For assembling tasks, for example, robots should be faster
and therefore light weight constructions are necessary. Never-
theless, they should have better positioning accuracy. Thus,
lightweight constructions and flexibility of the components
will be consequences of compromises between
higher acceleration and speed ,
higher ratio payload mass/ moved total mass,
smaller actuators, lower energy consumption and
safer operation due to reduce masses ,
positioning accuracy,
range of working space ,
complexity of control system,
- total costs, etc.
There are three possi bili ties for the reduction of moved
mass:
1. The links are characterized by
(a) their geometric size
(b) their material , (Yo ung's modulus, mass density,
permi t ted maximal stress)
(c) their permitted maximal deflexion .
These items determine the to tal mass . Considerations
in optimizing are presented e. g. by Book and Majette
(1983), Kiedrzynski (1986), Weck and Stave (1986),
and especially in considerations of new materials by
Urbanek (1988).
2. Even with todays heavy constructions the rotors of
the dri\'ing devices with large gear ratios contain a
great part of the total kinetic energy of the manip-
ulators (e. g. Springer , Lugner, Desoyer, 1985, Fig.3) .
Here , it seems appropriate to combine rotors and gears
so that the kinetic energy of the rotors is reduced to
a minimum (for a given maximum of power needed) .
 \Ioclelling of Flexihle Robots 23

With the high gear ratios used today the fast rotat-
ing rotors attached to moving vibrating links cause kinetostatic method dynamic methods
periodic gyroscopic moments which may produce ad- /
ditional disturbing vibrations transversal to these vi-
brations of the links_ Those are further reasons for
keeping the moment of momentum of the rotors low
(Desoyer, Kopacek, Troch, (1985); Desoyer, Lugner,
Springer, (1985)) .

3. The question of distributing the driving devices to the

links or some of them in the foundation, in connection
with the driving shafts which are more or less likely to
vibrate seems important too.

Therefore investigations are made all over the world to

gain mechanical-mathematical models and advanced control
rigid link with eigenfunctions planar finite
algorithms for the "next generation" of robots considering torsional spring or shape functions beam elements
the flexibility of their substructures. They will be equipped for bending
with internal and external sensors giving them additional
information about their own status and their surrounding. Figure 1: Modelling of the elastic properties demonstrated
In order to obtain good compromises as mentioned above for the planar bending of a beam shaped link.
theoretical and experimental studies in the field of dynamics
and control of flexible robots are imperative in consideration
of the vast variety of construction possibilities. As computer
3.1 Kinetostatic method
aided methods are being developed fast, such studies seem If the rigid body motion of the system can be calculated or
quite promising now . This is also shown by the great num- is known small elastic quasistatic deformations due to in-
ber of previous publications - and those presented at this ertial forces, link weights and loads will be superimposed
symposium - on dynamics and control of manipulators with on this reference motion, e. g. Jonker (1986), Kiedrzynski
flexible parts . (1986) , Spong (1986), Rivin and Zeid (1986), Book and Ma-
jette (1983), Book, Maizza-Neto and Whitney (1975).
As an example the planar elastic deflection of a beam
3 System modelling shaped link may be considered. The deflection at its free
end can be determined using the mathematical results of a
To analyse the behaviour and to get the necessary informa-
clamped beam loaded with a single force at the free end . The
tion for the control system the robot has to be modelled as
thereby obtained force deflection relation can be transfered
a number of flexible substructures - links, joints, actuators.
to the joint , so that the revolutionary joint of the link pro-
The elastic deformations and vibrations of these parts and
vides an additional degree of freedom represented by a tor-
their control will be essential for the maximal working speed
sional spring . In general that means that the elastic deflec-
and the demanded precision.
tion of a link (or a drive train or a part of complex structure)
For an accurate mathematical description of the flexibil-
due to a static loading is used to derive a substitutive spring
ity - more precisely the time variant elastic deformations -
for an equal deflection at a special position. With respect to
of such an often complex shaped structure partial differen-
a spatial arrangement, instead of a substitutive spring, an
tial equations are responsible together with kinematic and
elastic transfer matrix can be established. In a similar way
dynamic boundary and initial conditions. The rigid body
substitutive dampers may be defined or assumed.
model of the system and the thereby calculated motion may
For the kinetostatic method such a substitutive spring
only be used as a reference system. Only approximate so-
can present the flexibility of a link mounted at an ideal rigid
lutions of the elastic problem can be found using modelling
joint , a rigid link moved by a flexible drive train or any
techniques to simulate a more or less idealized substitute.
combination of joint, drive train and link flexibility. The
For the description of the elastic and dynamic behaviour of
necessary transformations from robot coordinates - now l!.
such flexible structures as especially beams, plates, shells
degrees of freedom corresponding to the rigid body motion
quite a number of well-known approaches are applied and
and '1. for the considered elasticities - into world coordinates
extended to robot structures.
x may be done by the transformation matrix
The methods used may be classified into the main cate-
gories - see fig. 1
(1)
kinetostatic method where the matrices .4;j correspond to the rigid body case
dynamic methods: and t he matrices Ej account for the deviations due to the
• vibration mode approach flexibility of part j - e. g. Judd and Falkenburg (1985) .

• finite element methods
other or combined methods.
The following characterization of these methods is based
on the well-known basic considerations and the recent litera-
ture . Due to the great number of publications and their not
always clear association with one of the methods only a lim-
ited number of references, without classification, are stated
in the following chapter.
The general form of the equations of motion for such a
robot model are formally equal to those stated in equation
(2) .
The numerical calculation provides directly the signals
for the control system for positions used to determine the
substitutive springs whereas for other locations an interpo-
lation, may be including the static deflections , has to be
done .
24 P. Kopacek . K. DesO\·er and P. Lugner

For example a beam shaped finite element can provide

3.2 Dynamic methods
An special problem with high working speeds and the con-
sequently associated rapid changes in acceleration may be
the induced vibrations of the robot parts themselves. These
time variant bending or torsional deflections will be espe-
cially essential for long spanning, lightweight links and for
the control of their motion. For such cases the quasistatic
approach cannot provide the necessary information and one
of the following two different dynamic methods has to be
applied:
3.2.1 Finite element method (FE-method)
In Fig. 2 the main features of the finite element modelling of
a robot structure are shown in the form of a block diagram.
The links considered flexible will be substituted by a finite
number of elements. The shapes, number and deformation
properties of these elements depend not only on the shape of
the link but also have to take into account requirements im-
posed by the control system, e. g. Midha, Erdman and Frorib
(1978), Sunada and Oubowsky (1981), Geradin, Robert and
Bernardin (1984), Hirschberg (1985).
the mathematical relation between the displacements of both
ends and the forces and moments acting at those ends. They
are the nodes to the next finite elements with the same prop-
erties. Also a mass matrix is adjoint to each element for the
mechanical description of the inertia effects . The q.j char-
acterizes an elastic degree of freedom of the element k, that
may be presented by the spatial or angular displacement of
an element node with respect to a link-fixed frame. So one
finite element k has j = 1,2, ... ,jk elastic OOF, e.g. j. = 3
for a planar beam element.
The mathematical formulations of the properties (force
deflection relations) of quite a number of different shaped
elements like beams, plates, shells, ... are generally available
and can be used for a computer aided formulation.
The equations of motion are established in the local FE-
frames first, with the rigid body motion used as a reference
system. If a linearization also with respect to the deforma-
tion angles of preceding elements is employed, the compila-
n;
tion of all ni FE of link i will result in a set of L j. linear
<=1
differential equations for the elastic coordinates.
After the transformation to world coordinates, similar to
(1), the compilation of the equations of all links leads to
a generally large set of differential equations of the whole

I
Flexible Robot
I robot with a number of L t
i .Ie=l
j. elastic OOF, where the qkj

! are assembled in the vector '1. and the OOF for the rigid body
motion assembled in vector E. Its general mathematical form
Single Structure for an autonomous system also suitable for the controller
e. g. Link i Link i +1 design is

I I (2)
ni Finite Elements

~
of Link i
For this system of generally nonlinear equations the matrix
jk Elastic OOF for r- H(~) represents a generalized mass matrix and B(!!) the
Finite Element k generalized control forces as a function of the control vector
I
Equations of Motion
I l!. The main parts of the vector L are inertial and gyroscopic
terms and the elastic and damping properties of the system.
for the Element k
I The vector;;. comprises all (generalized) coordinates of the
robot.

I The nonlinear apprach, presented by the right hand side

Geometric no I Transformation
of figure 2, takes into account that the deflections of the link
itself with respect to its rigid body reference configuration
Linearization
I to Link Frame are no longer small. Then also the derivatives of the trans-
formation matrices from the local elements to the link frame

I yc.s
I lead to nonlinearities. The dashed line in figure 2 indicates

Assembling of the I the afterwards principally same assembling procedure to the

Equations for Link i

n,
L jk Elastic OOF I
I whole robot equations as in the "linearized" case. Natu-
rally the evaluation effort for the fully nonlinear case will be
remarkably higher and may include an iteration procedure.
I
t
k;l

+
To separate what can be done by off-line mathematical
- I - -
I modelling and preparation and the following online effort

Transformation
to Global System
I
I a demarcation line is set in fig . 2. It seems appropriate to
include the transformation from the link frames to the ref-
erence frame of the world coordinates for the global robot
I
Assembling of I
I motion into the numerical evaluation for each time step.
As most investigations show, even a small number of fi-
Link Equations
n;
L L jk Elastic OOF
r- ,...J I nite elements per link and a restriction to bending in only
one plane make a real time computing for a robot with two
i 11:::- I or more flexible links impossible today.
I I 3.2.2 Vibration mode approach
Solution Solution
The elastic deformations of a flexible link i are described by
a set of ni shape functions !Iij(r:;) with their time dependent
Figure 2: Scheme of FE-modelling. amplitudes qij( t) representating the elastic OOF of the link
 Modelling of Flexible Robots 25

- e. g. Book , Maizza-Neto and Whitney (1975) , Matsuoka
and Citron (1985) , Cetinkunt, Siciliano and Book (1986) ,
Nicosia, Tomei and Tornambe (1986), Johanni (1986) . So
the elastic deformation !!!i(r;, t) at a position r; of the link i
can be formulated by a series expansion or modal expansion
Yl;(r;,t) = I:llj;(r;)qj;(t)
j =l
For these functions l!.j;(r;) a set of vibration modes or eigen-
functions may be used, that are directly derived from the
partial differential equations and the individual boundary
conditions describing the behaviour of the considered flex-
ible part . So this approach can be applied for relatively
simple boundary conditions and geometry of the parts only
- e. g. Sakawa and Matsuno (1986), Balas (1978) - because
for a fast moving part connected to arbitrary moving neigh-
bours the boundary conditions will be very complex.
Therefore generally a Ritz approach, an appropriate set
of shape functions not directly related to the basic differ-
ential equation and boundary conditions will be employed
- e.g. Truckenbrodt (1978), (1981), (1982). So e.g. often
shape functions corresponding to the eigenfunctions of a
clamped-free beam are used to describe the deflections of
the joint at the end of the beam, thus providing the position
and the attitude for the clamped end of the next beam in a
chain structured robot arm.
In figure 3, showing a similar overview like fig . 2, for a
robot with flexible links, the third level indicates the decom-
position of the elastic deflexion of a link i into n; shape func-
tions with an equal number of elastic DOF. As indicated in
the left branch, a (geometrical) linearization with respect to
the influences of preceding elastic deformations will provide
a set of differential equations which has no strong coupling
in the highest order time derivatives. The nonlinear branch,
indicated by the dashed line in the right branch, comprises
the same steps, but will naturally lead to a more complex
set of system equations . Again the resulting equations can
be written in the form of equation (2) .
As indicated by the demarcation , most of the preparation
(3) work for the evaluation can be done omine. The selection of
proper shape functions will always be a problem connected to
the special application, but it will be increasingly supported
by computer aided algorithms. So e. g. a precalculation with
FE-methods for a link may lead to approximat ions for the
vibration modes. Because most of the offline work could be
done in analytical handy form , the real evaluation will be
very time efficient.
A comparison of these two dynamic methods with re-
spect to quality of information, cal c ula~ion and evaluation
efforts will remain a problem, because of the number of FE
or number and kind of the shape functions chosen, e. g. Ho-
henbichler (1987), Plockinger (1987).
The FE-methods have better possibilities to model links
of geometrically complex shapes, but at the cost of a greater
number of FE-elements and thereby evaluation time. On
the other hand , eigenfunctions or shape functions for com-
plex shaped links need a great preparation effort (e. g. with
employing FE-methods as mentioned before) and experience
to utilize the smaller number of DOF.
Using the FE-methods no problems occur connecting the
links, whereas using shape functions which violate boundary
conditions introduce a systematic incoherence into the sys-
tem. But increasing the accuracy means more shape func-
tions , taking into account the boundary conditions more pre-
cisely, and that will result in a higher evaluation time.
In contrast to the FE-methods a description of the flex-
ibilities by the vibration mode methods , together with an
individual adaptation, are more likely to enable a real time

I
I Flexible Robot
I 1
evaluation in the soon future .

3.2 .3 Combined methods

Each of the above mentioned methods uses greater or smaller
Beam Shaped
Link i +1 elements with flexible properties or elements providing flexi-
Link i
bility by the kind of connexion. So there will be a transition
I I in the methods applied for modelling flexibilities from sim-
ple elements to such with improved properties and to an
n; Eigenfunctions = ~
n; Elastic DOF r increasing number of elements.
for Link i The combined methods also use some kind of segmenta-

I I tion or local flexibilities of the considered robot components.

Often they are tuned in such a way, that already available
Equations of and proved software programs can be used at least for a part
Motion Described
in Global System
I of the preparation and evaluation effort.
So e. g. a method models a flexible beam-like structure

I I by rigid body subelements that are connected by hinges

or spherical joints and springs and dampers . Then, the
off-line preparation for the calculation can use already sta-
Linearization I no
bliched symbolical computer algorithms for rigid body sys-
I
tems, e. g. Schiehlen and Rauh (1986). It should be acknowl-

I yes
I I edged that a proper combination of different features of the
known methods may lead to an improved precision of the
Assembling of
Link Equations ~.-J I I:::
o
calculated results together with high time efficiency of the
evaluation.
2:: Tt; Elastic DOF
;

- --
I -
I I 4 Conclusions
Solution Solution c
I I CJ
c
~.,!g
c :>
.2
~
The construction and the design of future high performance
robots have to consider all components from configurations
0:':
:; and shapes of links, joints, actuators , the system modelling
Figure 3: Scheme of the vibration mode modelling. with the background of available computer capacity to the
26 P. Kopace k. K. Deso\'er and P. Lugner
possibility of advanced control algorithms to achieve the re-
quired precision and working speed.
The elastic deformations and their prediction with math-
ematical models will be essential as input quantities for fu-
ture control systems and will thereby determine to a large
extend the performance range of the robot.
While the FE-methods offer relatively high precision, that
means results close to reality, today their evaluations cannot
be done in real time and therefore the methods cannot be
applied in real time contro!' The movement of simple arm
structures or arms with only one f\eJcible component are con-
trolled today by using a mechanical system modelling similar
to the vibration mode methods. We think, that an expansion
of these methods together with improved control concepts
will set the lead to first steps to an industrial application of
light weight, high speed robots.
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