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1
Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Chapter 7
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
Lecture Outline
Cognition is defined as the mental activity involved in understanding, processing, and

communicating information.
I. Thinking
Thinking means paying attention to information, representing it mentally, reasoning about it,
and making judgments and decisions about it. Thinking refers to conscious, planned attempts to
make sense of and change the world.
A. Concepts
Concepts are mental categories used to group together objects, relations, events, abstractions,
or qualities that have common properties. Thinking has to do with categorizing new concepts
and manipulating relationships among concepts, as in problems in geometry. People tend to
organize concepts in hierarchies. Prototypes are good examples. Simple prototypes, such as
dog and red, are taught by means of examples, or exemplars. Dogs are positive instances of
the dog concept. Negative instances—things that are not dogs—are then shown to the child
while one says, “This is not a dog.”
In language development, such over inclusion of instances in a category (reference to horses

as dogs) is labeled overextension.
B. Problem Solving
Problem solving is an important aspect of thinking.
C. Methods of Problem Solving
Understanding the Problem
Successful understanding of a problem generally requires three features:

• The parts of one’s mental representation of the problem relate to one another in a
meaningful way.
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2
• The elements of one’s mental representation of the problem correspond to the

elements of the problem in the outer world.
• People have a storehouse of background knowledge that they can apply to the
problem.
The Use of Algorithms
An algorithm is a specific procedure for solving a type of problem. An algorithm

invariably leads to the solution. If one was to use the systematic random search
algorithm, one would list every possible letter combination, using from one to all five
letters.
The Use of Heuristic Devices
The shortcuts are called heuristics, or heuristic devices—rules of thumb that help
individuals simplify and solve problems. In contrast to algorithms, heuristics do not
guarantee a correct solution. When they work, they permit more rapid solutions. One type
of heuristic device is the means–end analysis, a heuristic device in which one tries to
solve a problem by evaluating the difference between the current situation and the goal.
The Use of Analogies
An analogy is a partial similarity among things that are different in other ways. The
analogy heuristic applies the solution of an earlier problem to the solution of a new one.
D. Factors That Affect Problem Solving
Expertise
Experts solve problems more efficiently and rapidly than novices do. People who are
experts at solving a certain kind of problem share the following characteristics (Bassok &
Novick, 2012; Bunt et al., 2013):
• They know the particular area well.
• They have a good memory for the elements in the problems.
• They form mental images or representations that facilitate problem solving.
• They relate the problem to similar problems.
• They are more goal-directed and have efficient methods for problem solving.
Experts seemed to use parallel processing. That is, they dealt simultaneously with two or
more elements of the problems. Novices were more likely to engage in serial processing—
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that is, to handle one element of the problem at a time.
Mental Sets
The tendency to respond to a new problem with the same approach that helped solve
similar problems is termed a mental set. Mental sets usually make an individual’s work
easier, but they can mislead him or her when the similarity between problems is illusory.
Insight
Insight, in Gestalt psychology, is a sudden perception of relationships among elements of

the mentally represented elements of a problem that permits its solution.
Incubation
Incubation in problem solving refers to standing back from the problem for a while as
some process within may continue to work on it. Later, the answer may come to one in a
flash of insight. Standing back from the problem may help by distancing one from
unprofitable but persistent mental sets (Gilhooly et al., 2013; Koppel & Storm, 2013).
Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness is the tendency to think of an object in terms of its name or its
familiar function. It can be similar to a mental set in that it makes it difficult to use familiar
objects to solve problems in novel ways.
E. Judgment and Decision Making
People make most of their decisions on the basis of limited information. They take shortcuts.
They use heuristic devices—rules of thumb—in judgments and decision making just as they
do in problem solving (Mousavi & Gigerenzer, 2014).
Heuristics in Decision Making
• Representativeness heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which people make

judgments about samples according to the populations they appear to represent.
• Availability heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which the estimates of
frequency or probability of events are based on how easy it is to find examples.
• Anchoring and adjustment heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which a
presumption or first estimate serves as a cognitive anchor; as people receive
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additional information, they make adjustments but tend to remain in the proximity of
the anchor.
The Framing Effect
The framing effect refers to the way in which wording, or the context in which
information is presented, affects decision making (Takemura, 2014). Political groups, like
advertisers, are aware of the framing effect and choose their words accordingly.
Overconfidence
Whether one’s decisions are correct or incorrect, most people tend to be overconfident
about them. People tend to view their situations with 20/20 hindsight. There are several
reasons for overconfidence, even when people’s judgments are wrong.
• People tend to be unaware of how flimsy their assumptions may be.
• People tend to focus on examples that confirm their judgments and ignore those that
do not.
• Because people’s working memories have limited space, they tend to forget
information that runs counter to their judgments.
• People work to bring about the events they believe in, so they sometimes become
self-fulfilling prophecies.
Handout
Concept Chart
5
Thinking
Problem Judgment
Solving Concepts Decision
Making
II. Language
A. Communication by Nonhumans
The exclusive human claim to language has been brought into question by studies of
communication with various animal species. A language is a system of symbols along with
rules that are used to manipulate the symbols. Symbols such as words stand for or represent
other objects, events, or ideas.
Do Apes Really Use Language?
A chimpanzee named Washoe, who was a pioneer in the effort to teach apes to use
language, was using 181 signs by the age of 32 (King, 2008). One chimp, Kanzi, picked up
language from observing another chimp being trained and has the grammatical abilities of
a two-and-a-half-year-old child. Critics of the view that apes can learn to produce
language, such as Herbert Terrace (Terrace & Metcalfe, 2005) and Steven Pinker (1994a,
2011), note that:
• Apes can string together signs in a given sequence to earn rewards, but animals lower
on the evolutionary ladder, such as pigeons, can also peck buttons in a certain
sequence to obtain a reward.
• It takes apes longer to learn new signs than it takes children to learn new words.
• Apes are unreliable in their sequencing of signs, suggesting that by and large they do
not comprehend rules of grammar.
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• People observing apes signing may be subject to observer bias—that is, they may be
seeing what they want to see.
B. What Is Language?
Language is the communication of thoughts and feelings by means of symbols that are
arranged according to rules of grammar. By these rigorous rules, only humans use language.
Language makes it possible for one person to communicate knowledge to another and for one
generation to communicate to another. It creates a vehicle for recording experiences. It allows
people to put themselves in the shoes of other people, to learn more than what they could
learn from direct experience. Language also provides many units of thinking. True language is
distinguished from the communication systems of lower animals by properties such as
semanticity, infinite creativity, and displacement (Hoff, 2005):
• Semanticity—the sounds (or signs) of a language have meaning.
• Infinite creativity—the capacity to create rather than imitate sentences.
• Displacement—the capacity to communicate information about events and objects in
another time or place.
C. Language and Cognition
Jean Piaget (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958) believed that language reflects knowledge of the world
but that much knowledge can be acquired without language. For example, it is possible to
understand the concepts of roundness or redness even when people don’t know or use the
words round or red.
D. Language and Culture
Different languages have different words for the same concepts, and concepts do not
necessarily overlap.
The Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis
The linguistic-relativity hypothesis is the view that language structures the way people
view the world. In English, there are hundreds of words to describe colors. Shona-speaking
people use only three words for colors, and Bassa speakers use only two corresponding to
light and dark. Most cognitive scientists no longer accept the linguistic-relativity
hypothesis (Pinker, 2007, 2013). Adults use images and abstract logical propositions, as
well as words, as units of thought. Infants, moreover, display considerable intelligence
before they have learned to speak.
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III. Language Development: The Two-Year Explosion
Languages around the world develop in a specific sequence of steps, beginning with the
prelinguistic vocalizations of crying, cooing, and babbling. These sounds are not symbols. That
is, they do not represent objects or events.
A. Prelinguistic Vocalizations
As parents are well aware, newborn children have one inborn, highly effective form of verbal
expression: crying—and more crying. Babbling, like crying and cooing, is inborn and
prelinguistic. Children tend to utter their first word at 11 to 13 months, but a range of 8 to 18
months is normal (McCardle et al., 2009; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2014). By about 18 months,
children are producing a couple of dozen words.
B. Development of Grammar
Holophrase refers to a single word used to express complex meanings. Most children show
their parents what they intend by augmenting their holophrases with gestures and intonations.
Toward the end of the second year, children begin to speak two-word sentences. These
sentences are termed telegraphic speech because they resemble telegrams. There are different
kinds of two-word utterances. Some contain nouns or pronouns and verbs (“Daddy sit”).
Others contain verbs and objects (“Hit ball”).
Overregularization
Overregularization is an important development for understanding the roles of nature and

nurture in language development (Ambridge et al., 2013; Pinker, 2013). They become
aware of the grammatical rules for forming the past tense and plurals. The tendency to
regularize the irregular is what is meant by overregularization.
Other Developments
By the age of six, children’s vocabularies have expanded to 10,000 words, give or take a
few thousand. By seven to nine, most children realize that words can have more than one
meaning, and they are entertained by riddles and jokes that require some sophistication
with language.
C. Nature and Nurture in Language Development
Language development, like many other areas of development, apparently reflects the
8
interactions between nature and nurture.
Learning Theory and Language Development
Learning theorists see language as developing according to laws of learning (Hoff, 2005).
They usually refer to the concepts of imitation and reinforcement. From a social–cognitive
perspective, parents serve as models. Children learn language, at least in part, through
observation and imitation. Learning theory cannot account for the unchanging sequence of
language development and the spurts in children’s language acquisition.
The Nativist Approach to Language Development
The nativist theory of language development holds that the innate factors—which make up
children’s nature—cause children to attend to and acquire language in certain ways.
According to psycholinguistic theory, language acquisition involves the interaction of
environmental influences—such as exposure to parental speech and reinforcement—and
the inborn tendency to acquire language. Noam Chomsky (see Cherniak, 2009) refers to the
inborn tendency as a language acquisition device (LAD). Evidence for an LAD is found
in the universality of human language abilities and in the specific sequence of language
development (Cherniak, 2009; A. Clark & Lappin, 2013).
IV. Theories of Intelligence
The concept of intelligence is closely related to thinking. Intelligence is the underlying ability to
understand the world and cope with its challenges (Strenze, 2015). Although intelligence, like
thinking, cannot be directly seen or touched, psychologists tie the concept to achievements such
as school performance and occupational status (Nisbett, 2013).
A. Factor Theories
Factor theories argue that intelligence is made up of a number of mental abilities, ranging
from one kind of ability to hundreds. In 1904, British psychologist Charles Spearman
suggested that the behaviors people consider intelligent have a common underlying factor that
he labeled g, for “general intelligence” or broad reasoning and problem-solving abilities. He
also noted that even the most capable people are relatively superior in some areas. For this
reason, he suggested that specific, or s factors account for specific abilities.
American psychologist Louis Thurstone (1938) analyzed tests of specific abilities and
concluded that Spearman had oversimplified intelligence. Thurstone’s data suggested the
presence of eight specific factors, which he labeled primary mental abilities:
9
• Visual and spatial abilities

• Perceptual speed
• Numerical ability
• Verbal meaning
• Memory
• Word fluency
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
Handout
10
B. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
11
Thurstone wrote about various factors or components of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s

(1983/1993, 2009) theory of multiple intelligences proposes, instead, that there are a number
of intelligences, not just one. Gardner refers to each kind of intelligence in his theory as “an
intelligence” because they can differ so much. Two of these “intelligences” are familiar ones:
language ability and logical–mathematical ability. Gardner also refers, however, to bodily–
kinesthetic talents (of the sort shown by dancers and athletes), musical talent, spatial–relations
skills, and two kinds of personal intelligence: awareness of one’s own inner feelings and
sensitivity to other people’s feelings. Gardner (2001) more recently added “naturalist
intelligence” and “existential intelligence.”
Critics of Gardner’s view agree that people function more intelligently in some aspects of life
than in others. But these critics question whether such talents are best thought of as
“intelligences” or special talents (Neisser et al., 1996). Language skills, reasoning ability, and
ability to solve math problems seem to be more closely related than musical or gymnastic
talent to what most people mean by intelligence.
C. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg (2000; 2006) has constructed a three-pronged or triarchic

theory of intelligence that includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
• Analytical intelligence can be defined as academic ability.
• Creative intelligence is defined by the ability to cope with novel situations and generate
many possible solutions to problems.
• Practical intelligence (“street smarts”) enables people to deal with other people,
including difficult people, and to meet the demands of their environment.
Handout
12
D. Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence
13
Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer developed the theory of emotional intelligence,
which holds that social and emotional skills are a form of intelligence, just as academic skills
are (Boyatzis et al., 2015; Stein & Deonarine, 2015). Emotional intelligence resembles two of
Gardner’s “intelligences”—intrapersonal skills and interpersonal skills. Failure to develop
emotional intelligence is connected with poor ability to cope with stress, depression, and
aggressive behavior (Brackett et al., 2011).
E. Creativity and Intelligence
Creativity is the ability to generate novel and useful solutions to problems. Creative people
share a number of qualities (Plucker et al., 2015): they take chances. They refuse to accept
limitations. They appreciate art and music. They use common materials to make unique
things. They challenge social norms and take unpopular stands. They challenge ideas that
other people accept at face value.
• In convergent thinking, thought is limited to present facts; the problem solver narrows
his or her thinking to find the best solution.
• In divergent thinking, the problem solver associates freely to the elements of the
problem, allowing “leads” to run a nearly limitless course.
Problem solving can involve both kinds of thinking. At first, divergent thinking helps generate
many possible solutions. Convergent thinking is then used to select likely solutions and reject
others.
V. The Measurement of Intelligence
A. The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale
Early in the 20th century, the French public school system was looking for a test that could
identify children who were unlikely to benefit from regular classroom instruction. The first
version of that test, the Binet–Simon scale, came into use in 1905. The Binet–Simon scale
yielded a score called a mental age (MA). The MA shows the intellectual level at which a
child is functioning.
Louis Terman adapted the Binet–Simon scale for use with American children at Stanford
University. The first version of the resultant Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale was published
in 1916. The SBIS included more items than the original test and was used with children aged
2 to 16. The SBIS also yielded an intelligence quotient (IQ) rather than an MA. The IQ
reflects the relationship between a child’s mental age and his or her actual chronological age
(CA).
14
IQ = mental age (MA)/chronological age (CA) X 100. IQ scores on the SBIS today are
derived by comparing results to those of other people of the same age.
B. The Wechsler Scales
In contrast to the SBIS, David Wechsler developed a series of scales for use with children and
adults. The Wechsler scales group test questions into a number of separate subtests. Each
subtest measures a different intellectual task. Wechsler described some of his scales as
measuring verbal tasks and others as assessing performance tasks. Verbal subtests require
knowledge of verbal concepts, whereas performance subtests require familiarity with spatial-
relations concepts.
Wechsler also introduced the concept of the deviation IQ. He based IQ scores on how a
person’s answers compared with those attained by people in the same age group. The average
test result at any age level is defined as an IQ score of 100. Wechsler distributed IQ scores so
that the middle 50% were defined as the “broad average range” of 90 to 110. Only 4% of the
population have IQ scores of above 130 or below 70.
C. Group Tests
Group tests for children were first developed during World War I. At first these tests were
hailed as remarkable instruments because they helped school administrators place children.
As the years passed, however, group tests came under attack because many administrators
relied on them exclusively and did not seek other sources of information about children’s
abilities. Numbers alone, and especially IQ scores, cannot adequately define children’s special
abilities and talents.
D. The Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests
Over the years, the SBIS and the Wechsler scales have been shown to be reliable and valid. In
terms of reliability, the scores are rather consistent from testing to testing. This kind of
reliability is called test–retest reliability.
E. Differences in Intellectual Functioning
The average IQ score in the United States is very close to 100.
Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences
Lower-class U.S. children obtain IQ scores some 10 to 15 points lower than those obtained
15
by middle- or upper-class children. African American children tend to obtain IQ scores

some 15 points lower than those obtained by their European American age-mates (Nisbett
et al., 2012; Saklofske et al., 2015). Latin American and Native American children also
tend to score below the norms for European Americans. There may also be intellectual
differences between Asians and Caucasians. Asian Americans, for example, frequently
outscore European Americans on the math portion of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Most
psychologists believe that such ethnic differences reflect cultural attitudes toward
education rather than inborn racial differences (Nisbett at al., 2012).
Gender Differences
Girls are somewhat superior to boys in verbal abilities, such as vocabulary, ability to
generate sentences and words that are similar in meaning to other words, spelling,
knowledge of foreign languages, and pronunciation (Andreano & Cahill, 2009; Lohman &
Lakin, 2009). Males seem to do somewhat better at manipulating visual images in working
memory. For half a century or more, it has been believed that male adolescents generally
outperform females in mathematics, and research has tended to support that belief (Else-
Quest et al., 2013; Miller & Halpern, 2014). The reported gender differences are group
differences. There is greater variation in these skills between individuals within the groups
than between males and females (Miller & Halpern, 2014).
VI. Nature and Nurture in Intelligence
A. Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Research on genetic influences has employed kinship studies, twin studies, and adoptee
studies. The IQ scores of identical (monozygotic, or MZ) twins are more alike than scores for
any other pairs, even when the twins have been reared apart. In sum, studies generally suggest
that the heritability of intelligence is between 40% and 60% (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin et
al., 2013). Several studies with one- and two-year-old children in Colorado (Baker et al.,
1983), Texas (Horn, 1983), and Minnesota (Scarr & Weinberg, 1983) have found a stronger
relationship between the IQ scores of adopted children and those of their biological parents
than between the children’s scores and those of their adoptive parents.
B. Environmental Influences on Intelligence
The Home Environment
Children of parents who are emotionally and verbally responsive, furnish appropriate play
materials, are involved with their children, encourage independence, and provide varied
16
daily experiences obtain higher IQ scores later on (Bradley, 2006). Organization and safety
in the home have also been linked to higher IQs and achievement test scores (Bradley et
al., 1989; Petrill et al., 2010).
Education
Although intelligence is viewed as permitting people to profit from education, education

also apparently contributes to intelligence. Head Start programs, for example, enhance IQ
scores, achievement test scores, and academic skills of disadvantaged children (Bierman et
al., 2008) by exposing them to materials and activities that middle-class children take for
granted. Children who have been in school longer obtain higher IQ scores (Neisser et al.,
1996). Test scores tend to decrease during the summer vacation (Neisser et al., 1996).
The Flynn Effect
Philosopher and researcher John Flynn (2003) found that IQ scores in the Western world
increased substantially between 1947 and 2002, some 18 points in the United States.
Psychologist Richard Nisbett (2009) argues that people’s genetic codes could not possibly
have changed enough in half a century to account for this enormous difference and
concludes that social and cultural factors such as the effects of improved educational
systems and the penetration of the mass media must be among the reasons for the change.
Lecture Topics
I. Thinking
Lecture Topic 1: Heuristic Judgment Theory
The use of heuristics is common among people. This problem-solving strategy works well but
can lead to errors in judgment. The topic of heuristics can be a fun discussion as students begin
to relate to the errors that are made in daily judgments. To help students understand a new theory
of heuristic judgment, access the article titled “Heuristic Judgment Theory” written by Harvey
(1998). The article discusses the importance of heuristics in human decision making, proposes a
decision-making process, and discusses the psychology of decision making.
Lecture Topic 2: Decision Making
An interesting article titled “Problems for Judgment and Decision Making” written by Hastie
(2001) can be discussed. It explores the area of judgment and decision making in cognitive
psychology. The author attempts to review recent developments in the field of judgment and
17
decision making and also discusses what makes a good research problem in this area. Finally, the
author suggests 16 problems that could be considered for judgment and decision-making
research. This information can help students see the contemporary thought in this area.
Lecture Topic 3: ‘Like Me’: A Foundation for Social Cognition
Infants try to understand their own perception (of actions) by comparing it with others. In other
words, they begin to recognize that their own self is a lot like others with relation to perceptions
and emotions. This “like me” perception of others is an infant’s first steps toward social
cognition. To help students understand this area of research, access the article titled “‘Like Me’:
A Foundation for Social Cognition” written by Andrew N. Meltzoff (2007). This article will
provide information for students by illustrating an expanded view of cognition.
II. Language
Lecture Topic 1: Language and Nature
To help students understand the argument made by Chomsky and others about language being
more natural, access the article titled “Language and Nature” written by Chomsky (1995). In this
article, Chomsky suggests that the mind and brain need be thought of as natural processes and
should be studied that way. As language is a part of the brain, language should also be studied
and understood through naturalistic principles.
Lecture Topic 2: Culture, Language, and Color
For an interesting discussion that instructors can have with students about how language
development can actually alter perceptions, access the article titled “A Study of Colour Grouping
in Three Languages: A Test of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis” written by Davies (1998).
This article discusses a research project where individuals who speak different languages were
asked to group color tiles. The results indicate that grouping differences were seen between those
who speak different languages. A possible explanation presented by the authors is that language
development may impact perceptions.
Lecture Topic 3: Childcare and Language Development
This lecture topic will give instructors an opportunity to discuss various environmental factors
that contribute to language and cognitive development. A study was conducted with children
from ten sites in the United States to determine the factors that contribute to language and
cognitive development. The main independent variables explored in the study were daycare and
family environments. Instructors can access this article titled “The Relation of Child Care to
18
Cognitive and Language Development” written for Child Development (2000). This article
discusses such topics as quality, type, and amount of care and how these variables relate to
development. One result from the article is that at age three, children in daycare centers
performed better than children in other types of care.
Lecture Topic 4: Translating between Languages: English and Japanese
The process of how bilinguals maintain two languages has intrigued cognitive psychologists
attempting to determine the processes of translation. Two hypotheses are at the forefront: (1)
“word association,” where the word is directly translated with the corresponding word in the
second language; and (2) concept mediation hypothesis, which suggests that semantic memory
plays a role. To help students understand these two hypotheses, access the article titled “The
Process of Translation between English Words and Japanese Words” written by Ikeda (1998).
This article describes a research study exploring which hypothesis might be correct and suggests
that word association has more support.
III. Intelligence
Lecture Topic 1: Race and Intelligence
An interesting topic to share with students is that of race and intelligence. It is perhaps this area
that is more controversial than any other in the field of psychology. An article titled “Race and
Intelligence: Separating Science from Myth” written by Reeve (2002) is a book review that
focuses on this issue. Topics covered in the book (which would also make excellent topics for
discussion in class) include the following: (a) race exists only as a socially defined category, (b)
racial categories are developed for the purpose of justifying and perpetuating social inequalities,
(c) the merits of intelligence testing, (d) the misuse of statistical concepts, and (e) alternative
interpretations of the bell curve.
Lecture Topic 2: Sex Differences in Intelligence
A topic that can lead to an interesting class discussion is that of sex differences and intelligence.
The correlation between brain size and intelligence has been established, and, just over a decade
ago, it was determined that males have larger brains compared to females, even when making
adjustments for body size. Thus, it could be concluded that males should be more intelligent.
Yet, research utilizing large samples does not support males being more intelligent in the
traditional categories of fluid and crystallized intelligence. In an article titled “Sex Differences in
Intelligence and Brain Size: A Developmental Theory” written by Lynn (1999), this topic is
discussed. The author presents his own explanations, and he reviews the explanations of others.
19
Lecture Topic 3: Music and Intelligence
For an interesting study regarding the relationship between music and intelligence, access the
article titled “Music for Your Brain” written by Knox (1994). This article describes what the
authors call the Mozart Effect, which suggests that listening to classical music (specifically
Mozart) can increase ability in spatial reasoning tasks. Though the effect may be short-lived, the
conclusion of the research is interesting.
IV. Nature and Nurture in Intelligence
Lecture Topic 1: The Evolution of Human Intelligence
To help students better understand the evolutionary nature of intelligence, access the article titled
“The Evolution of Human Intelligence” written by Clamp (2001). This article discusses how
intelligence has evolved over time and allowed humans to adapt. The costs that are seen in this
process are discussed, as well as two specific theoretical perspectives explaining why it makes
sense to take this perspective (ecological theory and social theory). This information can help
students see the value in such a perspective.
Lecture Topic 2: Giftedness: Infancy to Adolescence
To help students better understand the developmental nature of giftedness, access the article
titled “Giftedness: Infancy to Adolescence—A Developmental Perspective” written by Dalzell
(1998). This in-depth article discusses historical perspectives of giftedness and then transitions
into modern approaches. The authors suggest that gifted children differ from their peers of the
same age in such ways as motivation, independence, and introversion. This article contains
interesting information that will assist students in their understanding of giftedness.
Lecture Topic 3: What Is Intelligence?
In a slightly different approach to understanding where intelligence comes from, access the
article titled “Human Abilities” written by Sternberg and Kaufman (1998). This article explores
definitions of intelligence, which include cognitive, biological, psychometric, and traditional
approaches. Presenting these approaches to students can help them see that the concept of
intelligence may just come from the theory rather than the theory attempting to explain the
construct of intelligence.
20
Classroom Demonstrations
I. Thinking
Classroom Demonstration 1: Framing Effect
To help students understand the power of framing, access the article titled “Influence of
Elaboration on the Framing of Decision” written by Takemura (1994). This article provides an
example of the framing effect, which can be used in class to describe an unusual disease
expected to kill 600 people. Instructors may want to create an overhead of the framing example.
Two alternatives are presented between which students need to choose. One option is positively
framed, and one is negatively framed. After presenting the scenario to the students, have them
write down which option they would choose. This demonstration will help students understand
framing.
Classroom Demonstration 2: Why Overconfidence Occurs and How to Overcome it
For this demonstration, instructors would have to create a survey on a similar topic where
students are sure to make overtly confident guesses about a particular outcome (e.g., a sports
event, a court verdict, or the winner of local elections etc.).
The article titled “Why Overconfidence Occurs and How to Overcome It” written by Winston
Sieck (2016) offers an interesting example of overconfidence. This article discusses a research
study that college students used to demonstrate overconfidence about financial knowledge. They
chose finance as a topic because major decisions in life are made using financial management. A
replication of this study can help students understand this phenomenon. To demonstrate how
overconfidence truly works, have students complete a similar survey that tests their
overconfidence. The collected data will help demonstrate the concept of overconfidence.
Classroom Demonstration 3: Research on Cognition
John Krantz of Hanover College provides a number of cognitive experiments on his website,
http://psych.hanover.edu/JavaTest/CLE/Cognition/Cognition.html. Studies include research on
automaticity, attention, and decision making. Choose one or more of the experiments, and then
simply demonstrate to the class how a person would participate in the study, or (if the instructor
has the time) have some students participate in the study and investigate the results as a class.
Classroom Demonstration 4: Cognitive Demonstrations
Visit the website http://www.gocognitive.net/demos, which offers a number of free
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"I shall do so with pleasure. Sir," to the sheriff, "I presume Miss
Campbell may now accompany me to the hotel, since she is discovered to
be innocent of the crime with which she is charged?"
The sheriff bowed in silence.
"Mr. Drummond, you had better bring this young girl also. You perceive
she has fainted," said Mr. Brantwell.
The clergyman, with Sibyl, entered the carriage, followed by

Drummond bearing Christie, and then the carriage drove rapidly away
toward the hotel.
And the surprised and wondering crowd dispersed, to spread the

astonishing news far and wide.
Sibyl, like one in a dream, had allowed herself hitherto to be led

passively wherever they willed; but at the entrance of Willard, she started,
like one who receives a galvanic shock; her face, a moment before like
marble, grew crimson; her wild, black eyes lit fiercely up; and turning to
Mr. Brantwell, she haughtily demanded:
"Why is he here? How dare he ever enter my presence again?"
"My dear Sibyl, be reasonable," said the minister, delighted that even
anger should rouse her from her apathy, "Mr. Drummond has saved your
life."
"I would sooner die than owe my life to him!" she said, passionately.
"My dear Sibyl," said the minister, soothingly, as he cast a deprecating

glance at Willard, "You mustn't talk like this; it's very wrong, you know."
"Let her speak, Mr. Brantwell; I deserve it all," said Willard, bitterly.
His words, the sound of his voice, wrought a revulsion in her feelings,
and she cried out, in a tone of passionate reproach:
"Oh, Willard, Willard! how could you deceive me so? I loved you so
much, so much Willard, and yet you deceived me! Oh, it was cruel, it was
base, it was treacherous, it was unmanly to trifle with a poor young girl
thus!"
"Sibyl, I am a wretch! I dare not ask you to forgive me!" he groaned, in

bitterest remorse.
"And she—she is your wife, is she not?" she said, fixing her flaming
eyes, on the pale, wan face of Christie.
"She is; but she had no part in deceiving you, Sibyl; all the blame must
rest on me. As I deceived you, so did I deceive her, villain that I was," he
replied.
"Mr. Drummond, she is dead, I fear," said Mr. Brantwell, looking in

alarm at the white, rigid face of Christie.
"No, she has only swooned; she breaths yet."
"Here we are, at the hotel, thank Heaven!" said the minister, as the
coach stopped.
A vast crowd had assembled here. For a moment all shrank from
passing through it, but there was no help for it.
"My brother is here?" said Sibyl, in a hurried whisper.
"Yes."
"Take me to his room then," she said, passing her arm through that of
the clergyman.
"You will take Mrs. Drummond to my apartment," said the minister,

kindly; "the waiter will show you where it is. I will join you in a few
moments."
Bearing the light form of his still senseless wife in his arms, Willard
entered the room and laid her on the bed.
The wife of the host entered with restoratives, but it was long ere the
heavy lids were raised from the sad blue eyes.
"My own Christie, you are better now?" said Willard, bending over her.
She smiled faintly, and pressed her hand to her heart.
"Yes, I will soon be better," she said, in a strange tone. "Willard, where
is Sibyl?"
"With her brother, dearest."
"Have you told her all?"
"No, Christie, I have explained nothing."
"Send for her, then; for her brother, too, and Mr. Brantwell. I want to tell
them all, and get Sibyl's forgiveness before I—"
"Before you—what?"
"Nothing, dearest Willard, Have you sent?"
A servant entered, and the message was delivered.
"But she has nothing to forgive you, Christie; you never wronged her."
"Oh, I did. I did, unintentionally, perhaps, but still I wronged her. Hark!
they are coming, Willard."
There was a soft knock at the door. Willard opened it, and Mr.
Brantwell, followed by Sibyl and Captain Campbell, entered. The young
captain, pale, thin, and haggard, cast a fierce, implacable glance at Willard;
but the sight of the frail, spiritual, attenuated form of Christie checked the
fierce, passionate words that were already rising to his lips.
A great change was perceptible in Sibyl during these few minutes. The
exhortations of the good clergyman had evidently not been without effect;
for her pale, worn face had a calm, subdued look, as if she had at last
realized the great danger she had escaped.
"Miss Sibyl—dear Miss Sibyl, can you ever forgive me?" said the sad,
sweet voice of Christie, as she held out her hand and looked wistfully,
imploringly into Sibyl's face.
"Oh, Christie, I have nothing to forgive you. You were not guilty," said
Sibyl, sinking down by the bedside, and hiding her face in Christie's little
thin hand.
"Not willfully, but still I wronged you. And there is another—-will you
not forgive him?"
"Never, so he'p me Heaven!" fiercely exclaimed Sibyl, springing up and

casting upon him a glance of fire.
"Sibyl, I am dying! You will not refuse my last request? Oh, Sibyl, in a
moment of thoughtless passion he married me; but all the time he loved you
best. I can see it all now. He loved you then—he loves you now, better than
all the world."
"And you can forgive him for the irreparable wrong he has done you—a
deserted home, a blighted life, and an early death? Christie, you are an
angel!"
"No, no; only a frail sinner, with so much to be forgiven herself, that she
can easily, joyfully forgive that. Sibyl, my hours are numbered. Will you
render them miserable by refusing my last request?"
"Oh, Christie, you know not what you ask!"
"Sibyl, do you not love Willard still?"
"Oh, I do—I do! Heaven forgive me, I do!" she said, passionately.
"And he loves you. Willard, come here—take Sibyl's hand. Now, Sibyl,
promise when I am gone to be his wife."
There was a fierce struggle in the passionate heart of Sibyl—a last
struggle between love and pride, and her burning sense of the great wrong
he had done her. With her face bowed, her whole frame quivering, she did
not look up—would not speak, until the little hand of Christie fell
imploringly on her head.
"Sibyl, I cannot go until you promise me this. Oh, Sibyl, I love you both
so much that I would willingly die to make you happy. You love one
another still; why should this one fault, committed in a moment of
thoughtlessness make your whole future lives miserable? Oh, Sibyl, we
have all so much to be forgiven, can you not pardon this?"
Still no reply
"Sibyl, I am dying! if I can forgive the wrong done me, why—oh, why
cannot you? Oh, Sibyl, cast out this false pride that will make you wretched
all your life, and make my last moments happy by this promise. Oh, Sibyl,
dearest Sibyl, consent!"
"Christie, you have conquered." said Sibyl, as she kissed through her
fast-falling tears, the pale brow of the dying girl. Then rising, she placed her
hand in Willard's, and said, with sad earnestness:
"Willard, we have both erred; let us forget the past. I love you still, and
forgive you all."
He did not reply—he could not speak; but he raised the hand she
extended to his lips, and turned toward the window.
"Oh, thank Heaven—thank Heaven for this!" cried Christie, exultingly.

"Now I can die in peace."
There was a low rap at the door. Captain Campbell opened it, and Laura
Courtney, pale, wild and excited, entered.
"Mrs. Courtney! you here?" exclaimed Mr. Brantwell, in surprise.

"Oh, Mr. Brantwell, Edgar is dying—the doctor says so; and he is
raving and saying the most frightful things. He wants to see Captain
Campbell and his sister immediately."
"Me!" said Sibyl. "What can he want with me?"
"Oh, I do not know. He is saying such dreadful things! Come with me,"
said Mrs. Courtney, catching Sibyl's arm in a wild, terrified way and
drawing her from the room.
Mr. Brantwell, Willard, and his dying girl-wife were left alone.
"I want to see Aunt Tom and Carl," said Christie, faintly. "Do you know
where they are to be found?"
"They are on the island," said Mr. Brantwell, "and consequently have
not heard of your arrival here. I will send a messenger over for them, if you
wish."
"Yes, yes!" said Christie, eagerly; "send now—right away."
Mr. Brantwell left the room, and speedily returned to say that a man had
gone, and Mrs. Tom and her nephew might be expected in a few hours.
And then the good clergyman came and sat down beside the dying girl,
and, taking her hand in his, began talking in a low earnest tone, while
Willard, with his head bowed on his hand, sat by the window, absorbed by
many conflicting thoughts.
And thus an hour passed; and then Captain Campbell and his sister
returned, pale and excited, as if by some strange tidings.
"Mr. Courtney?" said the minister, inquiringly.
"Is dead!" answered Captain Campbell, with a slight shudder.
"Is it possible? How very sudden!" said Mr. Brantwell, in surprise,

"What was the matter?"
"He ruptured an artery this morning," replied the young man, beginning
to pace the room with rapid strides: "and that, with the shock caused by the
unexpected appearance of Christie, caused his death."
"Christie's appearance! How could that shock him?" said the minister,
still more surprised.
"He thought her dead—thought himself her murderer, and fancied she
had risen from the grave to accuse him," said Captain Campbell, excitedly.
"Thought himself her murderer!" said the minister, still repeating the
young man's words, like an echo. "How was that?"
Both Christie and Willard fixed their eyes eagerly on the excited face of
the young captain.
"Well, it was he who stabbed her that night on the beach. He has
confessed it all," said Captain Campbell.
"He stabbed her!" exclaimed Willard, springing to his feet, while

Christie uttered a faint cry; "and why, in the name of Heaven, should he try
to murder her? What had she ever done to him?"
"Nothing. He did not mean to injure Christie. He mistook her for his
wife."
"Mistook me for his wife!" said Christie, like one in a dream. "And did
he want to kill his wife?"
"Yes; horrible as it seems, he wanted to kill her!" said Captain

Campbell. "The way of it was this," he said, stopping suddenly in his
excited walk, "Courtney was jealous of his wife; he fancied she had gone to
keep an appointment with some one on the island"—a slight flush of
crimson glowed for an instant on his dark cheek as he spoke—"and he
determined to follow her there. He went. In the storm and darkness he met
Christie. He thought her his wife, and stabbed her, and left her for dead on
the ground. Some apparition that he met terrified him, and he fled from the
island—first returning to the spot where he had left Christie; but finding the
body gone, swept away by the tide, as he imagined. He returned the next
evening to the parsonage; there he found his wife living, but hearing the
rumor of Christie's death, he knew he had stabbed her in his blind fury. He
heard, also, that my sister had gone to the island that night, and that a
woman resembling her had been seen flying through the storm about the
time the deed was committed, and the diabolical project entered his head of
having her accused of the murder, and thus freeing himself forever from all
possibility of blame. How well he succeeded, we all know; and Sibyl would
have died an ignominious death for his crime, had not a retributive
Providence sent Christie here at the eleventh hour to save her, and bring his
crime to light; but too late to save her from the shame and humiliation of
what has passed. May the foul fiend catch his soul for it!"
"Oh, brother! hush!" said Sibyl, laying her hand on his arm. "Remember
you speak of the dead!"
"This is monstrous," said Mr. Brantwell, in a tone of horror. "I never

dreamt that any man in his senses could have committed such a crime."
"He was not in his senses," said Sibyl, "he was crazed with jealousy."
"Was he not sane when he accused you—the double-dyed perjurer?"

exclaimed Captain Campbell, fiercely, "Oh, why does God permit such
frightful injustice to go so long unpunished? Where slept His thunderbolts
that this demon in human form was not stricken dead where he stood?"
"Guy, my dear boy, be calm," interposed Mr. Brantwell. "God is His

own interpreter; and in His own good time has seen fit to save your sister.
Let what is past be forgotten—'let by-gones be by-gones.'"
"But Christie has not told us yet how she was saved." said Sibyl; "all
that is still involved in mystery."
Faintly, and in broken sentences, for her strength was failing fast,
Christie related all that the reader already knows. To explain the presence of
Bertha on the island, it was necessary, however painful it might be, to tell
her story; and Guy and Sibyl listened in sorrow and amazement.
"Then my father's wife lives yet," said Sibyl, slowly.
"And now I remember, though indistinctly, like a dream, of catching a

glimpse of a tall, dark, handsome Woman in the upper rooms of the old
lodge, when I was a boy," said Guy, thoughtfully. "It is strange I thought so
little of it at the time, for her presence there was singular. What terrible
revelations time brings to light! Who would ever suppose my father could
have done such a deed?"
"His child, too, may be living yet," said Mr. Brantwell. "How
unfortunate that there is no clew to tell what may have been its fate."
Ere any one could reply, a bustle at the door arrested their attention;
and, the next moment, Mrs. Tom entered, followed by Carl, and rushing to
the bed, clasped Christie in her arms, laughing and crying hysterically.
"My own darling child! my own blessed baby! my dear, darling little
Christie!" were her exclamations, between laughing, and crying, and
hugging.
"Dear Aunt Tom! dear, good Aunt Tom! Oh, I am so glad, so glad to see
you again!" said Christie, throwing her arms round her neck, her wan face
flushing with joy.
"And to think that you was married, and I never knowed a word about
it! Lor' sakes! an' to be killed, too, and come to life at the nick o' time!" said
Mrs. Tom, with another hug, and a laugh, and a fresh burst of tears. "Carl,
you great, lazy, idle vagabones, come over here and see Christie, 'stead o'
standing there, shiftin' from one foot to another, like you had got into a nest
o' young wipers."
Thus adjured, in the sharp, peremptory tone that reminded Christie of

other days, Carl advanced and pressed his lips to Christie's cheek as
gingerly as though he were afraid of burning himself. Evidently relieved
when this was over, he edged off toward the door, and, at the invitation of
Sibyl, took a seat, and sat down on the extreme edge of the chair.
And then, when Mrs. Tom had hugged and kissed Christie to her heart's
content, and laughed and cried herself into something like composure, her
first demand was to Lear all that had happened "sence that there awful
night."
And Sibyl, fearing to further agitate Christie, who had now fallen back,
completely exhausted, on her pillow, led the bustling little woman over to
the window, and seating herself near her, related all.
Mrs. Tom listened with many "lor' sakes'!" and "gracious me's!" and
"oh's!" and "ah, Lord's!" until Sibyl began relating the maniac's story. As
she proceeded, Mrs. Tom grew violently agitated; and before she could
reach the end, the old lady had jumped up, and, pale and trembling, bent
over Christie.
"Christie, look here," she said, excitedly, "that there crazy woman had a
little child, had she, the time she was walled up in that room?"
"Yes," replied Christie, wonderingly.
"That there little child was left in Campbell's Lodge, with Mark
Campbell, was it?" continued Mrs. Tom, more and more agitated.
"Yes, I believe so. Why, Aunt Tom, what's the matter?"
"And they never could find out what became of it after, could they?"
again asked Mrs. Tom, sinking into a chair.
"No. Why, what in the world does ail you, Aunt Tom?" said Christie, in
still increasing surprise.
"Oh, my Saviour! Oh, my dear Lord! Only to think on it! Christie, that
there crazy woman is your mother! You are the little child that was left with
Mark Campbell!"
In a moment nearly all present were on their feet, gazing in wonder and
amaze on Mrs. Tom, and on each other, as if asking what in the world they
were destined to hear next.
Christie, too weak now to betray any emotion, lay still, with her
wondering blue eyes fixed on the old woman's face.
"Yes, you needn't stare, all of you; it's jest so," said Mrs. Tom, very
much excited; "and the way of it was this: One morning airly, jest as I riz,
Mark Campbell came into my cottage with something I took to be a bundle,
under his cloak. He opened it, and you may guess the astonishment I was in,
when, instead o' a bundle, he laid the sweetest, dearest, puttiest little baby
on the table ever I seed. Lor' sakes! I was so completely consternified I
hadn't a word to say, but jest stood starin' with my mouth wide open, fust at
him and then at the baby that was sleepin' like a sweet little angel. Before I
could ask him a single blessed question 'bout it, he sez to me:
"'Mrs. Tom, there's a child I want tooken care of. Ef you'll do it, I'll pay
you; if you won't——'
"I don't know what he was going to say, for I broke out with the greatest
string o' questions just then that ever was, asking him all about the baby;
but he only looked fierce, and wouldn't tell me a word.
"'If you will take it, Mrs. Tom,' sez he, 'you shall be well rewarded for
taking care of it; but you must never, while I live, breathe to a living soul
that I left it with you. If you do,' sez he, 'it will be all the worse for you.'
"'And its mother,' sez I; 'Where's she?'
"My conscience! if you had seen him then! His face got like a thunder-
cloud, and he said, in a voice that made me tremble—yes, even me, and
there ain't many I'd tremble before, thank the Lord:
"'Never mention that word again, or I swear I'll blow your brains out as
I would a rabbit's!'
"And then he rushed from the house, leaving me more astonished and
frightened than ever I had been before in all my born days.
"But I kept the baby, and called it 'Christina,' after a sister I had once
(Carl Henley's mother, poor thing! that went and heaved herself away on a
vagabones of a fellow), and kept it till it grew up. Mark Campbell died a
little while after, but we never spoke another word about the child; but now
I know, arter hearing about the crazy woman, she was its mother."
Aunt Tom paused for breath, and Sibyl, with a great cry, sprang forward
and clasped Christie in her arms.
"My sister! my sister! my dear little sister!" she exclaimed, through her
fast falling tears. "Oh, Christie! oh, Christie! to discover you are my sister
when it is too late!"
With her arms round Sibyl's neck, her golden head lying on her
shoulder, Christie said, in a voice, so faint that Sibyl had to stoop down
very low to hear her:
"I am going, Sibyl, dear sister Sibyl! Tell Guy, my brother, and Aunt
Tom, to come and bid me good-by."
In a voice choked with sobs, Sibyl called them to the bedside, to receive
that parting embrace. Guy's eyes were full of tears, and Mrs. Tom's sobs
resounded audibly through the room.
"And now, Sibyl, my own, my darling sister, good-by, and Heaven bless
you. Hush! do not weep so;" and the little wan arms clasped Sibyl's neck in
a last embrace. "Dearest Sibyl, go now and send Willard to me."
Pressing a last kiss on the transparent brow, Sibyl arose, and beckoned
Willard to approach.
Calm and tearless, but pale with a grief too intense for tears, he came
over. A flush of love and joy lit up the wan face at his approach, her arms—
with a last effort—encircled his neck; the golden head dropped on his
breast, while the sweet beautiful lips murmured:
"Dear Willard! dearest Willard! good-by! I am going; going to heaven

to pray for you and Sibyl. You will try to be very happy, and make her very
happy, when I am gone—will you not? Lift me up, Willard, and carry me to
the window, I want to see the beautiful sunlight once more."
He lifted the slight little form, and sat down, with her in his arms, beside
the window. A bright ray of sunshine flashed in, and lit up with a sort of
glory the angel-brow, the golden hair, and the sweet, pale face.
Colder and colder grew the hand in his; lower sank the head on his
bosom; fainter and fainter beat the gentle, loving heart. No sound, save the
suppressed sobs of Mrs. Tom, broke the stillness of the room.
Suddenly the closed eyes flew open, with a vivid, radiant light; the
sweet lips Darted in a smile of ineffable joy; and she half rose from her
recumbent posture. The next, she fell back; the blue eyes closed; a slight
shiver passed through her frame; and the streaming sunshine fell on the face
of the dead.
* * * * *
One year after, there was a wedding—a very quiet, private one—at the
little church of N——. And when it was over, Sibyl and Willard entered
their plain, dark traveling carriage, and bidding good-by to their friends
assembled in the parsonage, set out for Willard's Virginia home—where, in
the unclouded sunshine of the future, they soon forgot, or learned to only
look back with tender regret, to the sufferings and sorrows of the past.
Christie was not forgotten. The oldest daughter of Mr. and Mrs.
Drummond, a gentle, dark-eyed girl, bears her name.
* * * * *
Three months after the marriage of Sibyl, her brother led to the altar
Laura Courtney, whose natural vivacity soon overcame the shock she had
received by the sudden death of Edgar Courtney, her unloved husband; and
three days later, in the good bark "Evening Star," she was dancing over the
bright waves of the Atlantic, on her way to Europe with Captain Campbell.
Willard Drummond sent for Uncle Reuben and Bertha, and for several
years they resided with him. But when at last the gentle maniac passed in
peace away, her faithful cousin bade them farewell, and set out for his
boyhood home, to pass his last days under the old roof-tree.
And Aunt Tom, good old Aunt Tom, staid still on the island, which no
persuasions could ever induce her to leave, and there brought up Mr. Carl
Henley in the way he should go; and employed her whole heart and soul in
the, alas! vain labor of curing him of the sin of laziness. If any reader is
concerned in knowing the future fate of that interesting young gentleman, I
am happy to say, when he arrived at the years of discretion, he made the
acquaintance of a strapping, strong-armed, red-cheeked German girl, who
fell violently in love with the tallow-candle complexion and tow locks of
the fascinating youth. Mr. Henley, after revolving the matter over
profoundly in all its bearings, came to the conclusion that he might as well
marry her as not, which he accordingly did, in the "fullness of time"—
having previously extorted a promise from her to do all the work. Mrs.
Tom, who had an invincible antipathy to "furriners," looked with dislike at
first on her niece-in-law; but the unvarying good humor of Mrs. Henley,
and her willingness to work, soon completely gained the good old lady's
affections, and mastered her prejudices.
THE END.
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PSYCH 5th Edition Rathus Solutions

PSYCH 5th Edition Rathus Test Bank

PSYCH 3rd Edition Rathus Test Bank

Childhood Voyages in Development 5th Edition Rathus

HDEV 5th Edition Rathus Test Bank

HDEV 3rd Edition Rathus Solutions Manual

Childhood Voyages in Development 5th Edition Rathus

Psychology Concepts and Connections 9th Edition Rathus

Childhood and Adolescence Voyages in Development 5th

Cognition is defined as the mental activity involved in understanding, processing, and

In language development, such over inclusion of instances in a category (reference to horses

Problem solving is an important aspect of thinking.

C. Methods of Problem Solving

Understanding the Problem

Successful understanding of a problem generally requires three features:

• The elements of one’s mental representation of the problem correspond to the

The Use of Algorithms

An algorithm is a specific procedure for solving a type of problem. An algorithm

The Use of Heuristic Devices

The Use of Analogies

D. Factors That Affect Problem Solving

that is, to handle one element of the problem at a time.

Insight, in Gestalt psychology, is a sudden perception of relationships among elements of

E. Judgment and Decision Making

Heuristics in Decision Making

• Representativeness heuristic—a decision-making heuristic in which people make

The Framing Effect

Do Apes Really Use Language?

C. Language and Cognition

D. Language and Culture

The Linguistic-Relativity Hypothesis

III. Language Development: The Two-Year Explosion

Overregularization is an important development for understanding the roles of nature and

C. Nature and Nurture in Language Development

interactions between nature and nurture.

Learning Theory and Language Development

The Nativist Approach to Language Development

IV. Theories of Intelligence

• Visual and spatial abilities

B. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Thurstone wrote about various factors or components of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s

C. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg (2000; 2006) has constructed a three-pronged or triarchic

D. Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence

E. Creativity and Intelligence

V. The Measurement of Intelligence

A. The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale

B. The Wechsler Scales

D. The Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests

E. Differences in Intellectual Functioning

The average IQ score in the United States is very close to 100.

Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences

by middle- or upper-class children. African American children tend to obtain IQ scores

VI. Nature and Nurture in Intelligence

A. Genetic Influences on Intelligence

B. Environmental Influences on Intelligence

The Home Environment

Although intelligence is viewed as permitting people to profit from education, education

The Flynn Effect

Lecture Topic 1: Heuristic Judgment Theory

Lecture Topic 2: Decision Making

Lecture Topic 3: ‘Like Me’: A Foundation for Social Cognition

Lecture Topic 1: Language and Nature

Lecture Topic 2: Culture, Language, and Color