Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,

Management & Gramothan, Jaipur

Course Code: 1FY2-20/ 2FY2-20 Engineering Physics lab

Course Name: Engineering Physics Lab Course Code: 1FY2-20/ 2FY2-20

Class : I/II Sem. B.Tech. Evaluation

Branch : All Examination Time = Three (3) Hours
Credit: 1 Maximum Marks = Max. Marks: 50 (IA:30, ETE:20)
0L+0T+2P
S. N. Experiment
1 To determine the wave length of monochromatic light with the help of Michelson‟s interferometer.
2 To determine the wave length of sodium light by Newton‟s Ring.

3 To determine the wave length of prominent lines of mercury by plane diffraction grating with the help of spectrometer.
4 Determination of band gap using a P-N junction diode.
5 To determine the height of given object with the help of sextant.
6 To determine the dispersive power of material of a prism with the help of spectrometer.
To study the charge and discharge of a condenser and hence determine the same constant (both current and voltage graphs
7 are to be plotted.
8 To determine the coherence length and coherence time of laser using He – Ne laser.
9 To measure the numerical aperture of an optical fibre.
10 To study the Hall Effect and determine the Hall Voltage and Hall coefficients.
 Swami Keshvanand Institute of Technology,
Management & Gramothan, Jaipur

COURSE: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)

CO Course Outcomes Bloom's Level PO Indicators

1FY2-20.1 understand the deep learning of Interference,
diffraction, dispersion of light and height of a celestial
object with the use of optical concept.
1FY2-20.2 describe and demonstrate the behavior of
semiconductor characteristics.
1FY2-20.3 show the charging and discharging behavior of
capacitor with time in form of electrical energy.
1FY2-20.4 interpret the principle of optical fiber and demonstrate
this principle with the help of LASER
1.1.1, 1.2.1, 1.3.1, 2.1.3, 2.4.3, 2.4.4,
2 4.1.3, 4.1.4, 4.3.1, 9.1.1, 9.1.2, 9.2.1,
9.2.2, 9.2.3, 9.3.1
1.1.1, 1.2.1, 1.3.1, 2.4.3, 2.4.4, 4.1.3,
3 4.3.1, 9.1.1, 9.1.2, 9.2.1, 9.2.2, 9.2.3,
9.3.1
1.1.1, 1.2.1, 1.3.1, 2.4.3, 2.4.4, 2.4.2,
2 4.1.3, 4.3.1, 9.1.1, 9.1.2, 9.2.1, 9.2.2,
9.2.3, 9.3.1
1.1.1, 1.2.1, 1.3.1, 2.2.2, 2.4.3, 2.4.4,
3 2.4.2, 4.1.3, 4.3.1, 9.1.1, 9.1.2, 9.2.1,
9.2.2, 9.2.3, 9.3.1
 Department of Physics

LAB MANUALS

Subject: Engineering Physics Lab

(1FY2-20/2FY2-20)
 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)

Michelson Interferometer

OBJECT: To determine the wavelength of sodium light by using Michelson’s Interferometer.

APPARATUS: Michelson’s interferometer set up, sodium lamp, convex lens, reading lamp.

Fig. 1 Michelson Interferometer

THEORY & FORMULA:

The wavelength of sodium light in Mechelson interferometer is given by
2( x2  x1 )
=
N
where x1 = initial position of mirror M1
x2 = final position of mirror M1
N = No. of shifted fringes.
The mirror M1 is moved through distance (x2 – x1) which can be measured by the micrometer.

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 PROCEDURE:
1. In Michelson’s interferometer, the distance PM1 is made equal to PM2 with the help of micrometer screw.
2. Note the least count of screw.
3. After obtaining once perfect circular fringes, adjust the position of mirror M1 to obtain the bright position of
centre of fringes. Then note the position of mirror M1.
4. Now turn the screw head in one direction. In this condition the fringes will emerge or collapse at the centre.
5. Continue moving the screw head and at same time, count the no. of passing fringes through the field of view.
As soon as 10 fringes have passed and the field of view has become bright again, then note the reading of
screw head. Now continue to turn the screw in same direction and after passing every 10 fringes, note the
reading of screw head till 200 fringes pass the point of observation.
6. As indicated in the observation table, find distance (x2 – x1) moved by mirror M1 for 100 fringes to pass. Then
find its mean value.
7. Finally, calculate the wavelength ( ) of sodium light by using
formula.
OBSERVATIONS:
One division of main scale x = ....mm
No. of divisions on circular scale n = ......
Least count of circular scale ‘x/n’ = ……..mm
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S. No. Order of Readings of Screw Head Value of
Fringes Δx = x2 - x1 for
M.S. C.S. Total Reading
N = 100 fringes
(mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm)
1. x
2. x + 10
3. x + 20
4. x + 30
5. x + 40
6. x + 50
7. x + 60
8. x + 70
9. x + 80
10. x + 90
11. x + 100
12. x + 110
13. x + 120
14. x + 130
15. x + 140
16. x + 150
17. x + 160
18. x + 170
19. x + 180
20. x + 190
Mean of Δx =
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 CALCULATION:
• The mean value of Δx = (x2 – x1) for N = 100 is ...... mm = ……cm
• The observed wavelength of sodium light = ….. Å

• Standard wavelength of sodium light λ = 5893 Å

• Percentage Error (% error) X 100 = …….%

RESULT:
The observed wavelength of sodium light  = ......Å
Standard wavelength of sodium light  = 5893Å
Percentage Error =………...%

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Plane glass plates and mirrors M1, M2 should be cleaned thoroughly.
2. The instrument must be so placed that mechanical disturbance are not able to disturb it.
3. The glass plates P, Q must be parallel to each other.
4. The tilted screws at back of mirrors M1, M2 should be rotated through a very small angle. And while
observations, the micrometer screw should be turned on in one direction.
5. There should not be linear or lateral displacement of fringes when viewed by eye.
6. The centre of fringe system must be at the centre of the
crosswire.

 Viva Questions:

Q.1. On what optical phenomenon does Michelson’s interferometer depends?

Ans: It depends on the interference of light.

Q.2. How can we produce coherent sources of light?

Ans: we can produce coherent sources either by the method of division of amplitude or by the method
of division of wave front.

Q.3. By which method coherent sources produced in Michelson’s interferometer?

Ans: In M. I. experiment coherent sources are produced by the method of division of division of
amplitude.

Q. 4. Define interference of light?

Ans : If two light waves of same frequency or wavelength having constant phase relationship,
travelling in same direction then they superimpose each other and produce maxima and minima on the
screen. This optical phenomenon is known as interference of light.

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 Q.5. What is the use of compensating plate in Michelson’s interferometer?
Ans: Compensating plate is used to equalize the optical path of both the reflecting light waves if
mirrors M1 and M2 are at the equal distance from beam splitter plate P.

Q.6. Why are monochromatic sources used in Michelson’s interferometer?

Ans: To produce sustainable interference pattern.

Q. 7. In Michelson’s interferometer what kind of fringe pattern observed on the screen?

Ans: In case of M. I., fringes formed are may be circular, hyperbolic or straight band depends on
inclination of mirrors.

Q.8. Where does fringes are formed in Michelson’s interferometer experiment?

Ans: In M. I. experiment fringes are formed by an imaginary air film enclosed between real mirror M 1
and image M2 and formed at infinity.

Q.9. What are the applications of Michelson’s interferometer?

Ans: It can be used to determine
 Wavelength of the incident light
 Thickness of thin transparent material
 Refractive index of thin transparent material

Q.10. What will happen to the diameter of rings as the order of rings decreases?
Ans: The diameter of rings increases.

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 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)
Newton’s Rings

OBJECT: To determines the wavelength of Sodium light by Newton’s rings Experiment.

APPARATUS: Monochromatic source of light (Sodium lamp.) Optical arrangements for Newton’s rings, plano-
convex lens of large radius of curvature, Travelling microscope, Reading lens, Glass plate.

THEORY AND FORMULA:

When a plano–convex lens of large focal length is placed on a plane glass plate with its convex surface in contact
with glass plate, a thin film of air is formed between the upper surface of plane glass plate and the lower surface
(convex surface) of lens. When a beam of light from a monochromatic source is made to fall normally on the
combination of plano–convex lens and plane glass plate, concentric rings are observed at the of point of contact of
the lens and the plate. The fringes are circular because the air film has a circular symmetry. These are known as
Newton’s ring. These rings are formed due to the interference between the waves reflected from the top and
bottom surfaces of the air film. Newton’s rings are example of interference fringes of constant thickness.

Fig. 1 Formation of Newton’s Ring

S is a source of monochromatic light. A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate G1, which is at 45° as
shown in fig. 1
A R1
R2
Incident
Reflected

B
D
Air film
C Plane glass plate

T1 T2
Fig. 2 Interference in Newton’s ring setup
The glass plate reflects a part of the incident light towards the air film formed between plane convex lens and
plane glass plate as shown in fig. 2.

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The wave length of monochromatic light (sodium light) is given by–

where Dn+p = diameter of (n + p)th bright (or dark) ring.
Dn = diameter of nth bright (or dark) ring.
R = radius of curvature of plano-convex lens.
p = difference in order of rings.

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the surface of the glass plate and the plano-convex lens with spirit and dry cloth piece.
2. Set glass plate in Newton’s rings apparatus, such that it makes an angle of 45º with the direction of incident
light.
3. Put the plano-convex lens below the microscope with its plane surface upwards.
4. Focus the microscope by moving it, in the vertical direction till sharp circular dark and bright rings are seen
distinctly.
5. Bring the centre of the rings symmetrically below the cross wire by adjusting the position of the lens and the
microscope and move it in horizontal direction towards left hand side till the cross wire becomes tangential of
the 18th ring. Take the reading.
6. Now rotate the knobs slowly in opposite direction so that the cross wire begins to return and when it is just
tangential to the 16th ring, stop the movement and take the readings. Similarly take the observations when the
cross wire is tangential to the 14th, 12th .....4th ring.
7. Cross over to the other side of the ring pattern and note positions of microscope by moving the cross wire
toward the other side so that it touches the 4th ring. Similarly move the cross wire, ahead, so that it touches,
the 6th, 8th .... 18th ring and each time take the observations.
OBSERVATIONS
One division of main scale x = ...... cm.
Total No. of division of circular scale N = ....
Least count of the travelling microscope x =…………cm
N
Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens = 200 cm
Table 1 Diameter of the Newton’s rings
No. of Microscope reading
rings Left hand side Right hand side Diameter D2(cm) Dn+p2-Dn2 Mean
2
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total D=a-b p=8 Dn+p2-
(cm) (cm) (a) (cm) (cm) (b) (cm) (cm)2 Dn2
(cm) (cm) (cm)2
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4

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 CALCULATIONS:

(i) Mean D2n+p - D2n = ........cm2

P = 8,

(ii) Wavelength   = ................ Å

RESULT
Mean wavelength of sodium light = .......Å
Standard value = 5893Å
% error = ....

PRECAUTIONS
1. The glass plate surface and the lens surface must be cleaned otherwise the rings will not be sharp and bright.
2. Plano-convex lens should be of large radius of curvature.
3. The microscope should be given motion only in one direction to avoid backlash error.
4. No. of rings must be measured accurately.
5. Source of light should be broad extended one.
6. Cross wire of the eye piece must be focused tangentially on the ring.
   
 Viva-Questions: 

Q.1. Is it necessary that the interfering waves should have equal amplitudes? ':
Ans. No, it is not necessary that the amplitudes of two waves should be exactly equal, but it is desirable to
have them as nearly equal as possible.

Q.2. Is there any loss of energy in interference phenomenon?

Ans. No, there occurs only redistribution of energy i.e. energy from dark places is shifted to the bright places.

Q.3. Why the circular rings are formed?

Ans. The rings are formed as a result of interference between the light waves reflected from the top and from
the bottom surfaces of the air film enclosed between the plano-convex lens and the plate. These fringes
are circular as the locus of the points of equal thickness of air film is a circle.

Q.4. What will happen to these rings if we use white light instead of monochromatic light?
Ans. White light will give a few coloured rings fading in general illumination.

Q.5. If the plate used with piano-convex lens is not optically plane, what type of fringes will be seen?

Ans. The fringes will not be perfectly circular.

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 Q.6. Can these fringes be used for testing the optical flatness of a glass plate?
Ans. Interference fringes are used extensively in industry for testing the optical flatness of glass plates.

Q.7. Why a lens of large radius of curvature is used in this experiment?

Ans. It is used for two reasons:
(i) Large radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens will give Newton's rings of large diameter and
therefore the accuracy of measurement will increase.
(ii) To keep the thickness of the air film less, as demanded by the theory, the radius of curvature is kept
large.

Q. 8. Why the glass plate is kept at 450 with the vertical?

Ans. The glass plate inclined at 450 makes the rays normally incident on the combination of plano-convex lens
and plate as is demanded by the theory.

Q.9. On what factors does the diameter of the ring depend?

Ans. The diameter of the Newton's ring depends on three factors:
(i) Refractive index of the film
(ii) the radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens
(iii) the wavelength of the source.

Q.10. What will happen to these rings if the sodium light is replaced by mercury green light?
Ans. The diameter of the ring will decrease, because the wavelength of mercury green light (5460Ǻ) is less
than that of sodium light (5893Ǻ).

4|Page
 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)
Diffraction Grating

OBJECT:To determine the wave length of prominent lines of mercury by plane diffraction grating with
the help of spectrometer.

APPARATUS:Spectrometer, mercury lamp, plane diffraction grating reading lens, spirit level etc.

THEORY AND FORMULA:

L
G X
S1 e 
P1
b
S2 
S3 

P0

SN Pi
G Y
Fig. 1 Fraunhofer diffraction due to N slits

The equation for nth order principal maximum for wavelength  and for normal incidence is given by:
(e + b)sin = n
(e  b) sin 
 
n
here (e+b) = grating element
θ = angle of diffraction
n = order of spectrum

PROCEDURE
(a) Adjustments
Before performing the experiment, the following adjustments are made.
(i) Setting the Grating for Normal Incidence
(a) The spectrometer is well adjusted for parallel beam.
(b) The position of the telescope is adjusted in such a way that the image of the slit is focussed on the vertical
crosswire of the telescope. In this position, the collimator and the telescope are in the same line. The reading
is noted on the circular scale.
(c) The telescope is now turned through 90° and clamped.

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 (d) Grating is now mounted on the grating table normal to the collimator. The grating table is now rotated, so that
the image of the slit reflected from the grating surface lies at the intersection of the crosswire.
(e) Grating table is now rotated through an angle of 45° or 135° as the case may be, so that it becomes normal to
the incident light. The slit of the collimator is also adjusted, so that sharp spectral lines parallel to the rulings
of the grating are formed. The grating table is clamped in this position.

(ii) Determination of Grating Element (e + b)

On every grating, number of rulings (lines) per inch are marked by the manufacturer. Thus grating element
2.54cm
will be (e + b) =
N
N = number of lines on the grating,
Since 1 inch = 2.54 cm

(iii) Determination of Diffracting Angle ()

(a) When the source of light emits radiations of different wavelengths, the beam gets dispersed by grating and in
each order, a spectrum of constituent wavelengths is observed.
(b) The telescope is now turned to get the first order spectrum. The cross wire is adjusted on the line for which
wavelength is to be determined. The position of the telescope is fixed and the readings of the vernier are
recorded.
(c) The telescope is then turned on the other side and the crosswise is adjusted on the same coloured line of the
first order spectrum. The readings of the two verniers are again recorded.
(d) The difference of the readings of the same vernier gives twice the angle of diffraction for that line in the first
order. The average oftwo vernier is taken.
(e) Procedure (b) to (d) is repeated for other lines and for other orders. The arrangement is shown in fig. 2. Thus
knowing grating element (e + b), diffraction angle n and order of spectrum n, one can compute the
wavelength of desired spectral line.

Fig. 2 Determination of wavelength of light by plane transmission grating

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 OBSERVATIONS
(i) Grating element :
Number of lines per inch on grating = 15,000
Grating element (e + b) = 1.69x10-4cm
(ii) Least Count of the spectrometer :-
One division of main scale x = …….... degrees
Number of divisions on the vernier scale n = ......
Least count of vernier scale (x/n) = ………..degrees

(iii) Determine the angle of diffraction (θ)

Order of Color of Scale Spectrum to the Left of the Spectrum to the Right of the
the the direct Image direct Image 2θ = Mean θ
Spectrum spectral 2θ
M.S. V.S. T.R. M.S. V.S. T.R. θ1- θ2
(n) line
(θ1) (θ2)
V1
Violet
V2

V1
Green V2
First
Order V1
Yellow V2

CALCULATION:
(i) First order n = 1
( )
(A) Violet colour𝜆 = =…………..Ǻ
( )
(B) GreenColour𝜆 = =…………..Ǻ
( )
(C) YellowColour𝜆 = =…………..Ǻ

RESULT:

Color of Standard values of wave lengths Observed value of wave length Percentage
Spectrum Line Error (%)

Violet Colour 4358Å

Green Colour 5460Å
Yellow Colour 5790Å

3|Page
 PRECAUTIONS
1. Grating should be set normal to the incident light.
2. The slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. Grating should not be touched by fingers.
4. The reading lens should be used for taking readings.
5. The reading of both verniers should be taken.
6. The height of the prism table should be so adjusted that the light must fall on the entire ruling surface of the
grating.
Viva-Questions
Q.1 Define Diffraction?
Ans: The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the edges of obstacles and their spreading into
the geometrical shadow of the obstacle is called diffraction of light.

Q.2 Mention the two types of diffraction?

Ans: i) Fresnel diffraction ii)Fraunhofer diffraction

Q.3 What is the type of diffraction in the diffraction grating experiment?

Ans: Fraunhofer diffraction is involved because the source and the screen are effectively at infinite
distance.

Q.4 What is diffraction grating?

Ans: It is an optically flat glass plate on which large numbers of equidistant parallel lines are ruled by a
fine diamond pen.

Q.5 What is grating element?

Ans: The grating element is (e+b), where e is the width of slit or opaque width and b is the separation
between two slits or width of ruled lines.It is defined as the distance between the centers of any two
successive ruled lines or transparent stripes.

Q.6 What is the difference between prism and grating spectrum?

Ans: (i) The prism spectrum is formed by “dispersion” while the grating spectrum is formed by
“diffraction”.
(ii) In prism spectrum red color is least deviated and violet color is most deviated but in grating spectrum
the angle of diffraction is least for violet and greater for red.

Q.7 When will the even order spectra disappear?

Ans: They will disappear if the size of opaque lines and transparent stripes is made equal.

Q.8 Why does red color deviate the most in case of grating?
Ans: This is so because in case of grating (e + b)sin = ni.e angle of diffraction is proportional to the
wavelength and the wavelength of red is maximum.

Q.9 What gives a more intense spectrum – prism or grating?

Ans: A prism gives more intense spectrum because in prism entire light is concentrated into one
spectrum while in the case of grating light is distributed in the grating spectra of different orders.

Q.10 Describe essential parts of spectrometer.

Ans: Collimator , prism table, telescope.

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 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)

He-Ne Laser
OBJECT: To determine the wavelength of He-Ne Laser beam using Diffraction Grating.

APPARATUS: Optical bench, Laser Source, Optical Screen, Optical Slit, Diffraction
grating.

THEORY AND FORMULA:

Measurement of wavelength of LASER by diffraction Grating:

The wavelength λ of any spectral lines can be calculated by the formula:
(a + b) sinθ = nλ

Where (a + b) = grating element; θ = angle of diffraction;

n = order of the spectrum or maxima

PROCEDURE:
1. He-Ne laser source is fixed on a rider attached to the optical bench.
2. Diffraction grating and screen with scale are also fixed on riders attached to the
optical bench.
3. The level of all these should be same.
4. Switch on the laser light and you will see diffraction pattern on screen.
5. Note down the position of first maxima on either side of central maxima with the
help of scale attached to the screen.
6. Also note down the position of diffraction grating and optical screen.
7. Note down the positions of first maxima on either side of central maxima for
different positions of diffraction grating w.r.t. optical screen.

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 OBSERVATIONS:

(I) For Determination of Diffraction angle:

Order of Distance Observation Observati y= tanθ = θ= Mean θ

Spectrum between on right side on on left (A+B)/ y/x tan-1 (y/x)
diffraction of central side of 2
grating & maxima (A) central (cm)
optical (cm) maxima
screen (x) (B)
(cm) (cm)
1.
n=1 2.
3.
1.
n=2 2.
3.

CALCULATIONS:
(i) Determination of the grating element:
Number of lines per inch on grating = 15,000
Grating element (a + b) = 1.69x10-4cm

(ii) Determination of the wavelength(λ) for the He-Ne Laser:

using this formula calculate λ for I and II order of spectrum.

Mean wavelength:

λ = (λ1 + λ2)/2 = ……. Å

RESULT:
Observed value of the wavelength of He-Ne Laser is λ = ……… Å
Standard value of the wavelength of He-Ne Laser λ = 6328 Å.
Percentage Error = ………. %

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Clamping of Laser source and diffraction grating must be proper.

2) Grating should be adjusted for the normal incidence of light.
3) Laser beam is very injurious for eyes so don’t see it directly.
4) Grating should be cleaned properly.
5) Do not look at specular reflections of the laser beam.

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Viva Questions

Q.1 What is the LASER?

Ans. LASER is an acronym for “Light Amplification by stimulated emission of Radiation”.

Q.2 What is the difference between ordinary and LASER light?

Ans. Ordinary light is incoherent in nature while LASER is highly coherent, highly
monochromatic and has directionality.

Q.3 What do you understand by coherence?

Ans. In LASER beam all its constitute photons are in same phase giving the coherent character.

Q.4 What are the condition for LASER production?

Ans. For LASER action two conditions must be satisfied:
(i) The emission rate must be larger than the absorption rate.
(ii) The probability for stimulated emission must be larger than the probability for spontaneous
emission.

Q.5 What do you understand by monochromaticity?

Ans. Monochromaticity means quite small wavelength or frequency spread.

Q.6 Write the types of coherence for LASER Light?

Ans. (i) Temporal Coherence
(ii) Spatial Coherence

Q.7 What do you understand by Amplification in LASER Light?

Ans. Amplification means increase in intensity of LASER.

Q.8 Write the areas of application for LASER?

Ans. In medicine, in electronic industry, in drilling, in LASER cutting etc.

Q.9 What is coherence time for LASER?

Ans. The average time interval for which definite phase relationship exists.

Q.10What is the wavelength emitted by the He-Ne gas LASER?

Ans. 6328 Å.

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 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2
(1FY2-20/2FY2
20/2FY2-20)
Dispersive Power

OBJECT: To determine the dispersive power of material of a prism with the help of
spectrometer.

APPARATUS:A
A spectrometer, spirit level, prism
prism, eye-piece, magnifying glass and mercury lamp.

THEORY& FORMULA: When a ray of white light passes through a prism, it splits into its different
constituents colours. This phenomenon is called dispersion.

Fig. 1 Dispersion by Prism

The refractive index of material of prism
prismfor a given wavelength is given by
A  m
sin( )
 2 .....(1)
A
sin( )
2
Where A angle of Prism
m angle of minimum deviation
The dispersive power () can also bbe defined as dispersion for unit deviation i.e.
v  r
 .....(2)
y 1
PROCEDURE:
To obtain pure spectrum by spectrometer the following adjustments must be mademade--
1. The Prism table is leveled with the help of spirit leve
levell and leveling screw. Further it is adjusted at
the same height of collimator & telescope by a clamping screw.
2. The slit of collimator
limator should be made narrow
narrow& vertical.
3. Place the mercury lamp in front of collimator. K
Keep
eep the collimator slit near the window of source.

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 4. Adjust the collimator and telescope such that a sharp &welldefined image is seen through telescope.
5. Measurement of Angle of Minimum Deviation:
(i) Place the prism symmetrically at the centre of prism table with it ground face away form
collimatorshown in fig2.
(ii) Set the telescope at about 450 to axis of collimator. Now rotate prism table towards Left or right
through a very small angle to make a small angle to normal. Hence on turning the telescope the
spectrum will seen.
(iii) Rotate the prism table in one direction and also keep the spectrum in the field of view. A stage
comes when the spectrum just starts returning back. This position is minimum deviation
position. At this stage clamp the prism table.
(iv) Now turn the telescope and set its cross wire on red line of spectrum. Similarly set the cross
wire on different colours line i.e.yellow, violet respectively and note the readings.
6. Direct Image:To obtain the direct image, remove the prism from the prism table and turn telescope
to obtain direct image on the cross wire symmetrically. Note the readings of both verniers.
7. Determination of the Angle of Prism :
(i) Place the prism at the centre of prism table with its refracting edge at the centre and ground face
perpendicular to the collimator axis a shown in fig2.

Fig. 2Determination for prism angle and minimum deviation angle

(ii) The reflected light from each face of prism gives an image of the slit. For this see the reflected light
from face on the right side. Fix the cross wire on this image and note the both readings.
(iii) Similarly get an image of slit on the left side formed by reflection of light from the other face of the
prism and note the both readings.
(iv) The difference of these two angles will be double of prism angle(i.e. 2A).
(v) Hence repeat the process several times and find the mean value of A.

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 OBSERVATION :
(i) Least Count of spectrometer
One division of M.S. x = ……………degree
No. of divisionson V.S. N = ……………
Least count of spectrometer(x/N) = …………degree

(ii)Table for determination of angle of Prism (A)

Scale Reflection from face AB Reflection from face AC 2A Mean

Mean A
T.R. T.R. (P-Q) 2A
M.S. V.S. M.S. V.S. (degree)
(degree)(P) (degree)(Q) (degree) (degree)
V1

V2

(iii) Table for determine the angle of Minimum Deviation (m)

Reading at minimum
Reading for direct image m= Mean
deviation position of image
S.No Colour Scale (a-b) m
T.R. T.R.
M.S. V.S. M.S. V.S. (degree) (degree)
(degree)(a) (degree)(b)
V1
1 Red
V2
V1
2 Yellow
V2
V1
3 Violet
V2

CALCULATION:
(i) Angle of Prism = …………………… degree.
(ii) The refractive index for violet, red and yellow colours are given by
v = .................................
R = .................................
Y = .................................
(iii) Dispersive Power of prism's material
 = .................................
RESULT:
1. The dispersive power of Prism’s material is .....................
2. Standard value .....................................
3. Percentage error .................................

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 PRECAUTIONS:
1. The telescope should be focused for infinity and the collimator should be adjusted to give a
paralleled beam of Light.
2. The axis of telescope collimator and the plane of prism table should be horizontal.
3. The slit should be as narrow as possible.
4. The prism table should be leveled as that the maximum light must fall on the entire surface of prism.
5. The telescope should be used on both verniers to note readings. 

Viva-Questions
Q1. What do you mean by dispersion of light?
Ans. When a ray of white light passes through a prism, it is separated into rays of its
constituent colours, This phenomenon is known as dispersion.

Q2. What is meant by dispersive power of a material?

Ans. The dispersive power of a material is its ability to disperse light into its constituent
colours .

Q3. On what factors does it depend?

Ans. It depends on the nature of material and on the wavelength for which it is determined.

Q4. What you meant by Angle of Prism?

Ans : Angle between two refracting surfaces of the prism.

Q5. What type of light do you use in this experiment?

Ans : White light.

Q6. What is relative refractive index?

Ans : The ratio of sine of angle of incidence in the first medium to the sine of angle of
refraction in the second medium.

Q7. How does a ray pass through a prism at minimum deviation?

Ans. Inside the prism the ray passes parallel to the base of the prism.

Q8. What is the condition for obtaining minimum deviation?

Ans. The deviation is minimum when the angles of incidence and the emergence are equal.

Q9. Does the deviation depend on the angle of the prism?

Ans. Yes, greater the angle of the prism, more is the deviation.

Q10. Do the light rays of different colours travel with the same velocity while passing
through the prism?
Ans. No, since different colours have different values of refractive index for the same prism,
they travel with different velocities through the prism. Violet rays travel with less
velocity than that of red.

4|Page
 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)

Sextant

OBJECT: To determine the height of an object with the help of Sextant.

APPARATUS: A Sextant set up with stand, a measuring tape.

FORMULA:
Height of the object
x
H = h ' .....(1)
cot   cot 
Where  and  are the angles subtended by the top at the two positions of the sextant, distance x apart and h is
the height of the reference point at the same level of the sextant.

DIAGRAM

Fig. 1 Sextant

  

x1
x2
x3
Fig. 2
PROCEDURE:

1. First of all note down the value of one division of main scale and total number of divisions on circular
& vernier scales.
2. Draw a short horizontal line as a reference point P on the wall at the level of the eye.
3. See this mark P through the transparent portion of the horizontal glass by telescope from a distance of
5 to 6 meters form the wall keeping the plane of the graduated circular scale vertical.
4. Now rotate the movable arm of the sextant till the two images of the reference mark, one seen through
the transparent portion of horizontal glass another seen on the polished portion of the horizontal glass

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 are at the same level. In this position the reading on the scale is noted. This reading is called zero
error.
5. Movable arm is rotated gradually till the image of upper mark whose height is to be determined, in the
mirror M2 is at the same level as the image of the reference mark as seen directly. In this position the
reading on the scale is noted.
6. Take three sets of observations at different distances.

OBSERVATIONS
Value of one division on main scale = 1o
Value of one division on circular scale = (1/60)o
Number of divisions on vernier scale = 5
Least count of the scale = (1/60)  5 = (1/300)o
Height of the sextant above the ground h = …… meter

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Zero error (deg.) Angular elevation (deg.) Angle of

S. No. Distance elevation
(m) M.S. C.S. V.S. T.R. (a) M.S. C.S. V.S. T.R. (b)
(b – a) deg.
1. x1 =
2. x2 =
3. x3 =

CALCULATION:
Determine h for every set with the help of the formula given below:
(a) x = x2 – x1 = ___ meter,  = ___ degree,  = ____degree
x
h1 = =…………meter
cot   cot 
(b) x = x3 – x2 = _____ meter,  = _____degree,  = ______degree
x
h2 = =…………meter
cot   cot 
(c) x = x3 – x1 = _____ meter,  = _____degree ,  = _______degree
x
h3 = =…………meter
cot   cot 
h1  h2  h3
Mean h  =…………meter
3
Then the height of the object is H = h + h =…………meter

RESULT:
The height of the given object measured by sextant H =…………meter
Actual height measured by scale H =…………meter
Percentage error = __________

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Plane of index mirror should be perpendicular to the plane of the circular arc.
2. Plane of index mirror should be parallel to the moving arm.
3. In the zero error position the index mirror and the horizon glass should be parallel.
4. The axis of telescope must be directed towards the horizon glass.
5. Zero error must be found separately at different places.

Viva-Questions
Q.1. Why this instrument is called a Sextant?
Ans. The circular scale of the instrument is one sixth of a circle i.e., an arc of 60°.

Q.2. Upon what principle does a sextant work?

Ans. This is based on the principle that when a plane mirror is rotated through an angle θ, the reflected ray is
turned though 2θ.

Q.3. Is the incident ray fixed here as mirror is rotated? Then?

Ans. No, the incident ray is not fixed, but the reflected ray is fixed in this experiment. On account of the
reversibility of light path, the incident and reflected rays are interchangeable.

Q.4. What is the maximum angle which can be read with sextant?
Ans. Maximum angle measured by the sextant is 120°.

Q.5. Why are the two images formed when a sextant is directed towards some object?
Ans. One image is formed by the rays directly entering the telescope through the transparent portion of
horizon glass and the second by those rays which enter the telescope after reflections from index-glass
and silvered portion of horizon glass.

Q.6. What do you mean by zero error of sextant?

Ans. When index mirror and horizon glass are parallel, the zero of the main scale should coincides with the
zero of the vernier scale. If it is not, the sextant has a zero error.

Q.7. Does the zero reading in a sextant depend on the distance of the object?
Ans. Yes, the zero reading varies with the distance of the object. Nearer the object, greater is the divergent
beam received from it and thus grater is the value of zero error. In other words, zero error is inversely
proportional to the distance of the object.

Q.8. What are these coloured glasses meant for?

Ans. These are used when measurements are made with sun or any other bright object.

Q.9. What is the relative setting of index mirror (M1) and horizon mirror (M2) when the scale reads zero?
Ans. The two mirrors are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the bed of the apparatus.

Q.10. What are other applications of sextant?

Ans. Sextant is used for the determination of
(i) The horizontal and vertical distances between terrestrial objects
(ii) Altitude of the sun and moon
(iii) Angular diameter of sun and moon etc
3|Page
 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)

P-N Junction Diode

OBJECT: Determine the band gap using a P-N junction diode.

APPARATUS: Ge/Si diode, microammeter, thermometer, oven, battery or power

supply.

THEORY&FORMULA:
The energy gap between the top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band is
known as band gap.
 Band gap Eg = Ec – Ev.
Here Ev: Energy level corresponding to the top of the valence band
Ec: Energy level corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band.

When a P-N junction is reverse biased then current formed is due to minority carriers
whose concentration is dependent on the energy gap E or Eg. The reverse current Is
(saturated value) is a function of the temperature of junction diode. For small range of
temperature the relation can be expressed as :-
log Is = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐴(𝑁 𝑒𝑣 + 𝑁 𝑒𝑣 ) − .....(1)
where
vn = Velocity of electrons;
vp = Velocity of holes;
A = Area of the junction
Nn = concentration of electrons in n-region
Np = concentration of electrons in p-region
K = Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T=Absolute temperature of junction

For small range of temperature Is depends only on term containing temperature as the
other term is a constant being independent of temperature. So
log Is = Constant -
𝟏𝟎𝟑
log10Is = Constant-5.036 E .....(2)
𝑻

where T is temperature in kelvin. A graph between log10 Is and (103/T) is plotted which
comes out to be a straight line. Slope of this line
Slope = – 5.036 E
Slope
 E = − .....(3)
𝟓.𝟎𝟑𝟔

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Procedure:

1. Connect the PN junction diode to the battery through micro ammeter such that the
junction is reverse biased(negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P
semiconductor and positive to the N semiconductor)
2. Insert the thermometer and diode in the sachet of the oven.
3. Now switch on the power supply of the oven and allow the temperature to increase
upto80 0 C or less till the reverse current reached up to nearly 50µA. now oven is
switched off.
4. Now start taking readings of micro ammeter in steps of 5 0C decrease.
5. Plot a graph between log10Is& (103/T).

y

L o g IS x
O 3 X
10 /T
Fig 1.: Circuit Diagram for Band gap Determination

Observations:

Temperature Temperature Current Is

S.No. 103/T (K-1) Log10Is
T (in 0C) T (in K) (in μamp)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Calculation:
The slope of the graph between log10Is& (103/T)=....................
Slope
nergy band gap E =  = ..........eV
5.036

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 Result:

The energy band gap for a given semiconductor = ........eV

Precautions:

(1) The diode should be reverse biased.

(2) Do not use the Instrument in wet environments.
(3)Do not heat beyond 70ºC in case of Ge diode and 120ºC in case of Si diode.
(4) Bulb of the thermometer and diode should be inserted well in the oven.
(5) The current through the sample was adjusted to the most bearable minimum, because
if large, it will amount to overheating.

Viva-Questions

Q.1: What are Semiconductors?

Ans.: Semiconductors are those materials whose resistivity lies between those of
conductors and insulators, i.e. of the order of 108 to 10-1 of units of resistance.

Q.2: What are energy bands in Solids?

Ans.: In solids there are very large number of atoms which are situated very close to each
other. Due to mutual interactions among them their energy levels spilt up. Being very
close to each other these energy levels from almost continuous energy bands.

Q.3: What is forbidden energy gap?

Ans: In solids, there is a gap between the valance band and the conduction band which
does not contain any allowed energy levels. Hence this gap in known as forbidden energy
gap.

Q.4: What is the conductivity of semiconductor at absolute zero temperature?

Ans.: At absolute zero temperature the conductivity of the semiconductor is zero i. e.
they behave like insulators.

Q.5: What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

Ans: When the semiconductor is in pure state it is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
When some limited quantity of suitable impurity is mixed in pure semiconductors the
resulting semiconductor is known as extrinsic semiconductor.

3|Page
 Q.6: What are the charge carriers in semiconductors?
Ans.: In semiconductors electrons and holes both are charge carriers for the effective
current.

Q.7: What are holes?

Ans.: The absence of an electron creates a hole or an effective positive charge. Holes act
as carriers of positive charge in valance band whose displacement is in a direction
opposite to that of electrons.

Q.8: What are N-type and P-type semiconductors?

Ans.: When some atoms of pentavalent element (like P, As, Sb, etc.) are mixed as
impurity with pure semiconductor, the resulting semiconductor is known as N-type
semiconductor and when some atoms of trivalent element (like B, Ga, Al, In etc.) are
mixed as impurity with pure semiconductor the resulting semiconductor is known as P-
type semiconductor.In P-type semiconductor holes are majority charge carriers while in
N-type semiconductors electrons are majority charge carriers.

Q.9: What is PN junction diode?

Ans.: When a P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor crystals are joined
together, then a PN junction diode is formed.

Q.10: What do you mean by forward and reverse biasing?

Ans.: When PN junction diode is connected to a battery such that P region is connected
to positive terminal and N region is connected to negative terminal of the battery, the
arrangement so formed is called forward bias, if P region to negative terminal and N
region is connected to positive terminal of the battery, such an arrangement is called
reverse bias.

4|Page
 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)

Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor

OBJECT:To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor and hence determine the
time constant (both current and voltage graphs are to be plotted).

APPARATUS: D.C. Power supply, resistance and capacitorof various values,

milli/microammeter, multimeter as a voltmeter, keys, stopwatch, connecting wires.

THEORY AND FORMULA:

Fig. 1 Circuit diagram for studying the charging and discharging of a capacitor.

(i) Charging of a capacitor

During the charging of capacitor, the capacitor is connector to the terminals of the battery and
hence charge accumulation on plates of a parallel plate capacitor increases. With the increase in
charge at the plates of capacitor, potential difference between battery and capacitor decreases
which decreases current exponentially. This process can be summarized with the following
equations:
Q = Qo (1 – e–t/RC)
V = Vo (1 – e–t/RC)
I = Io e–t/RC
Where Qo, Vo andIo is the maximum value of charge, voltage and current
Q, V and I is the charge, voltage and current at any time t

At time t=τc = RC (time constant),

V=Vo(1-1/e)=0.632Vo or voltage increases to 63.2% of the maximum voltage value
I=Io/e=0.367Io or current decreases to 36.7% of the maximum current value

(ii) Discharging of a capacitor

During the discharging of capacitor, charge accumulated on plates of capacitor, potential
differenceand current decreases exponentially as per following equations:
Q = Qoe–t/RC
V = E e–t/RC
I = –Io e–t/RC
and at timet=τc = RC(time constant),
V=Vo/e=0.367Vo or the value of the voltage decreases to 36.7% of the maximum voltage
I=Io/e=0.367Io or the value of the current decreases to 36.7% of the maximum current

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PROCEDURE:
(i) Charging of a capacitor
1. Make connection as shown in the figure.
2. The value of resistance R and capacitor C are selected for time constant such as for example
(R=100kΩ and C = 1000 µF) RC ~100 sec.
3. Current in the circuit could be observed by pressing key SW1 and simultaneously stop watch is
also started.
4. The reading of the voltmeter and microammeter is noted in every 10 seconds till it becomes
constant.
5. A graph is plotted by taking potential difference V on Y-axis and time t on X-axis, similarly
another graph is plotted between I and t.
6. Calculate the value of time constant theoretically by using relation t= RC and from I-tand V-t
graph at the time for which I = 0.367Io and V = 0.63Vo.This comes out to be equal to time
constant of the circuit.

(ii) Discharging of a capacitor

1. The capacitor can be discharged by releasing SW1 and pressing key SW2.
2. Again stop watch is started and the reading of microammeter and voltmeter are noted after
every 10 seconds.
3. Graphs are plotted forV–t and I–t for discharging process.
4. Calculatethe value of time constant from I-t&V-t graph for discharging process by selecting the
appropriate timefrom the graph for which I = 0.367Io and V = 0.367Vo.
5. The above procedure is repeated for various values of R and C.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Charging and discharging ofcapacitor:

Time t For Charging of capacitor For Discharging of capacitor

(Sec.) R=……..kΩ R=……..kΩ
S.No. C=……..µF C=……..µF
τc = RC=……Sec. τc = RC=……Sec.
V (Volt) I (µA) V (Volt) I (µA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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CALCULATION:
For Charging:
1. For given value of R & C plot graph between time t along x-axis and voltage V / current I
along Y-axis and these graphs will look like as Fig. 2 (a & b).
2. From V-t graph Fig. 2 (a) for charging of capacitor the time corresponding to 0.63Voi.e. time
constant t 1= . . . . sec,
3. From I-t graph Fig. 2 (b) I = 0.37Io,time constant t2=.....sec

Fig. 2 The variation of voltage and current during charging of a capacitor

For Discharging:
4. From V-t graph Fig. 3 (a) for discharging of capacitor the time corresponding to 0.37V 0 i.e.
time constantt3= ........sec
5. From I–t graph Fig. 3(b) I = 0.37I0, time constantt4 =........sec

Fig. 3 The variation of voltage and current during discharging of a capacitor

Therefore, the mean valueof time constant t = τc= (t1+t2+t3+t4)/4 =…………..sec

experimental value – standard value

Percentage Error (% error) = X 100 = …….%
standard value

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RESULT
The time constant of charging:
Experiment values t =τc= ...... sec
Theoretical values of time constant (calculated):τc=RC = .....sec
Percentage error: ..…%

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The value of resistance R and capacitor C must be so chosen that the time constant of circuit
large.
2. It is not possible to take voltmeter reading and ammeter reading simultaneously. Voltmeter
and ammeter readings should be taken one after the other.
3. During experiment note voltage and current reading quickly and accurately.
4. The reading of stop watch should be very carefully taken.
5. As the stop watch is not synchronized with the apparatus we should be more careful in
manual handling.

Viva-Questions

Q.1 What is capacitor?

Ans. A capacitor is made of two conducting sheets (called plates) separated by an insulating
material (called the dielectric). The plates will hold equal and opposite charges when
there is a potential difference between them.

Q.2 What are the factor affecting the capacitance of a capacitor?

Ans. Area of the plate, distance between the plates and the dielectric used in between the
plates.

Q.3 Why a high resistance is preferred in this experiment?

Ans. It is used to increase the value of time constant.

Q.4 What is time constant? Why should its value be large in experiment?
Ans. The time in which the charge on a capacitor falls to 1/e =0.37 times of its maximum
values using discharging through a resistor is defined as time constantt=RC. It shows be
charge so that charging and discharging process takes place slowly.

Q.5 Is there any current through the plate of capacitor during charging and discharging?
Ans. Yes, it is known as displacement current Id=εoA(dE/dt) where, A is the area of the
plates of capacitor and E is electric field in between plates of the capacitor.

Q.6 What is the difference between conduction current and displacement current?
Ans. 1. Conduction current obeys ohm's law as V=IR but displacement current does not obey
ohm's law.
2. Conduction current is the actual current whereas displacement current is the apparent
current produced by time varying electric field

Q.7 How does charge increase on a capacitor during charging process?

Ans. During charging process charge increases exponentially on the capacitor that is
Q=Qo(1-e-t/RC)

4|Page
Q.8 What is the effect of resistance on the rates of charging and discharging?
Ans. The rate of charging or discharging of a capacitor decreases with increase or resistance in
the circuit.

O.9 Point one application of RC circuit.

Ans. RC circuit is used to quench discharge in nuclear detectors especially in GM counter.

Q.10 Why do you say that it is the method of determining high resistance?
Ans. Because for low resistance, time constant will be quick and no charge will be left on
capacitor to pass through the ballistic galvanometer.

5|Page
 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)

Optical Fiber

OBJECT:To determine the numerical aperture of an optical fiber.

APPARATUS: Diode Laser, Emitter, Concentrator, Optical Fiber, Fiber mount, Screen, Optical bench.
.

THEORY AND FORMULA:

Optical fiber is hair line thin, flexible medium of glass or plastic pipe having cylindrical shape, which
guides electromagnetic energy in form of light.

Fig.1

Fig.1: Light Propagation in optical fiber

For ray propagation through optical fiber by total internal reflection the angleϕ should be greater than
ϕcand hence, θ should be less than(𝜋/2– 𝛷 𝑐), i.e. 𝜃m = 𝜋/2– 𝛷 𝑐. Thus, the angle of incidence 𝛼at one
end of optical fiber should be less than a certain value𝛼 , which is corresponding to 𝜃m = 𝜋/2– 𝛷 𝑐. This
limiting angle 𝛼 is called the maximum angle of acceptance of the fiber. This means, all the rays
incident within a cone of half angle 𝛼 will be collected and propagated through the fiber. This cone is
called as acceptance cone.
From above figure, it is clear that if angle of incidence (at one end of fiber) 𝛼in slightly less than
𝛼 , Ɵbecomes slightly less than 𝜃 and 𝛷becomes slightly greater than ∅𝑐, which is required for total
internal reflection. Now applying Snell’s law at core medium interface.
n0sin𝛼 = n1sin 𝜃m {𝜃m = 𝜋/2– 𝛷 𝑐}
=𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 𝑐
By applying Snell’s law at core-cladding interface
𝜋
𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷 𝑐 = 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2

1|Page
 𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛷 𝑐 =
𝑛
/
(𝑛 − 𝑛 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 =
𝑛

/
n sinα (𝑛 − 𝑛 )
=
n 𝑛

n sinα = (𝑛 − 𝑛 ) / = 𝑁. 𝐴.
This term n sinα is called numerical aperture (NA) of fibre. It defines the light gathering capacity of
the fibre.

The maximum acceptance angle

(𝑛 − 𝑛 )
α = sin [ ]
𝑛

For measurement of diameter of spot from optical fiber we use following figure:

Fig.2: For measurement of diameter of spot from optical fiber

Numerical aperture of an optical fiber

𝑊
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = /
(4𝐿 + 𝑊 )
Where

W = diameter of the spot (cm or mm)

L = separation between screen and optical fiber (cm or mm)

2|Page
PROCEDURE:

1. Plug the circuit (board) to AC mains and switch it on. The light should appear at theother end of the
optical fiber, Adjust the LED current to the maximum.
2. Put a white screen with concentric circles C (a white screen can be prepared on aplastic/metal sheet
with concentric circles drawn on it) with diameter 10, 15, 20, 30mm.
3. The position of the light spot coincides with one of the circles.
4. Record L (the distance between fiber end point and the screen) and the diameter (W)of spot.
5. Vary the distance L and note corresponding value of W.
6. Compute Numerical Aperture.
7. Repeat this procedure and write the observation in the table.

OBSERVATION TABLE:Observation Table for the determination of Numerical Aperture (NA)

S.No. Distance of the Diameter of the Numerical Maximum

screen from the spot Aperture acceptance angle
fibre end W(mm) (NA) 𝜶𝒎 (degree)
L(mm)
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATIONS:

Compute NA from the formula:

Numerical Aperture =
𝑊
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = /
(4𝐿 + 𝑊 )

And Acceptance angle αm = sin-1 (N.A.)

RESULT:

The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber (at 660 nm light) =........

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Attach the fiber optical cord properly.

2. Distinguish the outer the inner pink light spots and thus make measurement of “W”.
3. Make sure that the wave-lengthselected is 660 nm. As the wave-length850 nm corresponds to IR rays
and detection mechanism for which is altogetherdifferent.
4. Laser beam is very injurious for eyes so don’t see it directly.
5. Do not look at specular reflections of the laser beam.

3|Page
Viva Questions

Q1 What is Optical Fiber?

Ans Optical fiber is a thin hairline flexible medium of plastic or glass pipe having cylindrical shape
which transmits the electromagnetic energy in the form of light.

Q2 What is the basic principle of optical fiber?

Ans The optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection.

Q3 What are the main parts of an optical fiber.

Ans An optical fiber has three main parts, the core, the cladding and the coating.

Q4 What do you mean by total internal reflection.

Ans When a light ray strikes at the interface of two media at an angle greater than the critical angle
with respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive index is lower on the other side of the
boundary no light can pass through, so effectively all of the light is reflected.

Q5 What is the physical meaning of Numerical Aperture ?

Ans Light gathering capacity of an optical fiber
Q6 What is the meaning of acceptance angle ?
Ans The maximum angle within which light will be accepted an element, such as a detector or wave
guide, is called acceptance cone. It quantified as half the vertex angle of the cone within which
optical power may be coupled into modes of a fiber.

Q7 On what factors Numerical Aperture depends ?

Ans It depends only on the refractive index of core and cladding materials.

Q8 Gives the importance of optical fiber.

Ans (i) Small size and weight
(ii)Ruggedness and flexibility
(iii)Easy to maintain
(iv) signal security

Q9 Give the applications of optical fiber

Ans (i) In communication
(ii) In medical
(iii) In optical fiber sensing
(iv) In optical faceplates
(v) In military applications

Q10 What type of information can be sent through fiber optic cable.
Ans Through fiber optic cables video, audio, speech, text materials and computer data can be
transmitted.

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 Department of Physics
Subject: Engineering Physics Lab (1FY2-20/2FY2-20)
HALL EFFECT

OBJECT:To study the Hall Effect and determine the Hall voltage and Hall coefficient.

APPARATUS:Electromagnets, power supply for electromagnets, gauss meter for measuring

magnetic flux, germanium crystal mounted, and constant current power supply for crystal.

THEORY AND FORMULA: Hall Effect is a magneto-electric effect. If a current IX passes in

X-direction of the crystal and a magnetic field BZ is applied in Z-direction, then a potential
difference, called the Hall potential difference, is produced in Y- direction. The sign of Hall
potential depends on the nature of charge carriers. Thus by noting the directions of Hall potential
and the magnetic field, the nature of charge carriers may be determined by the use of Fleming
left hand rule.

Specifications of n-type Ge Crystal:

Width (W): 5mm
Breadth (B): 5mm
Thickness (T): 5 x 10-2cm
Resistivity (ρ): 10 ohm cm or 10 volt coulomb -1 sec cm
Conductivity(σ): 0.1 coulomb volt-1 sec-1cm-1

Hall Coefficient(R): 𝑅=
Here VH=Hall Voltage
T= Thickness of Sample
I= Current Flow in Sample
Bz= Magnetic Field density

Carrier Density (n) : 𝑛=

Here R = Hall Coefficient

Q = Magnitude of charge of an electron

Carrier Mobility (µ): µ=Rσ

Here R = Hall Coefficient
σ = Conductivity of Ge Crystal

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DIAGRAM:

Fig 1. Set up Diagram for Hall Effect Fig 2. Basic Principle of Hall effect

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the widthwise contacts of the Hall probe to the terminals marked voltage and
lengthwise contacts to terminals marked ‘current’.

2. Switch ‘ON ‘the Hall effect set-up and adjustment current (Say few mA).

3. There may be some voltage reading even outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect
alignment of the four contacts of the Hall probe and is generally known as the ‘Zero field
potential’. In case its value is comparable to the Hall voltage it should be adjusted to a minimum
possible (for Hall probe(Ge)only).In all cases, this error should be subtracted from the Hall
voltage reading.

4. Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in fig.and switch on the electromagnet
power supply and adjust the current to any desire value. Rotate the Hall probe till it become
perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage will be maximum in this adjustment.

5. Measure Hall voltage for both the directions of the current and magnetic field (i.e. Four
observations for a particular value of current and magnetic field).

6. Measure the Hall voltage as function of current keeping the magnetic field constant.

7. Measure the Hall voltage as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of current as
constant.

8. Measure the magnetic field by the gauss meter.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

(i) Calibration between current in Electromagnets and Magnetic Field density produced at the
centre of coil

S.N. Power supply for electromagnet Magnetic field density

(Amp. ) ( kG )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

(ii) At constant Current = (For Ge Crystal)

S.N. Magnetic field density Hall voltage

(kG) (mV)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

GRAPH:Graph between magnetic field with Hall Voltage

VH

Bz

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CALCULATION:

Hall Coefficient(R): 𝑅= = (Slope of VHv/s Hzgraph) x(T/I)

Carrier Density (n) : 𝑛=

Carrier Mobility (µ): µ=Rσ

RESULTS: Hall coefficient of the material ( R) =……………………….cm 3/coulomb

Carrier Density of the material (n) =………………………..cm -3
Carrier Mobility of the material (µ)=………………………..cm 2 volt-1 sec-1

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Handle the germanium crystal with care,it can break.

2. Handle the Hall probe of gauss meter with care;it may be damaged in mishandling.
3. Do not use electromagnets continue at full current,it may start heating.
4. Gap between poles of electromagnets must remain fix during one set of readings.
5. Take observation accurately and carefully.

Viva-Questions:

Q.1 What is Hall effect?

Ans. The production of a potential difference across an electrical conductor when a magnetic
field is applied in a direction perpendicular to that of the flow of current.

Q.2 What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

Ans: When the semiconductor is in pure state it is known as intrinsic semiconductor. When some
limited quantity of suitable impurity is mixed in pure semiconductors the resulting
semiconductor is known as extrinsic semiconductor.

Q.3 What are n-type semiconductors?

Ans. The term n-type comes from the negative charge of the electron. In n-type semiconductors,
electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. N-type semiconductors are
created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with donor impurities.

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Q.4 What are p-type semiconductors?
Ans. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority
carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor
impurities

Q.5 What is effect of temperature on Hall coefficient of a lightly doped semiconductor?

Ans. As temperature rises, more electrons are transferred from valence band to conduction band,
thus increasing n. For lightly doped semiconductors, this effect is more dominant than reduction
in µ. So conductivity increases and Hall Voltage increases.

Q.6 Do the holes actually move?

Ans.Absence of electrons is considered to be holes. When someone says a hole is moving, it
doesn't mean that vacant space is moving in that direction, but it implies that electrons are
travelling in opposite direction and occupying the hole. This results in shift of hole.

Q.7 Define Lorentz forces?

Ans.The Lorentz force is the combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due
to electromagnetic fields. A particle of charge q moving with a velocity v in an electric
field E and a magnetic field Bexperiences a force:
F= qE + q(v×B)

Q.8 Is Hall Effect calculated for intrinsic semiconductor, why?

Ans. Yes, the hall voltage depends on conductivity and conductivity depends on mobility of
charge carrier. Electrons have higher mobility than holes. It means intrinsic semiconductor will
behave as an n-type semiconductor. So the hall voltage effect is negative.

Q.9 What is the unit of Hall Coefficient?

Ans. cm3/coulomb or volt gauss-1cm amp-1

Q.10 Write the relation between Gauss and Tesla

Ans. One Gauss = 10-4 Tesla

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