Unit IV

AC Fundamentals
Prepared By: Mr. Sushant Y.Suryawanshi
❑AC waveform definitions
▪ Waveform
The waveform is a graph of magnitude of an AC quantity against time. The waveform tells
us about instantaneous (instant to instant) in magnitude value of an AC waveform.
▪ Instantaneous Value
• The instantaneous value of an ac quantity is defined as the value of that quantity at a
particular instant of time.

• For example in Fig., v(t1) is the instantaneous value of the ac voltage v(t) at instant t1, or
v(t2) is its instantaneous value at instant t₂.
▪ Cycle

• In an ac waveform, a particular portion consisting of one positive and negative part

repeats many times. Each repetition consisting of one positive and one identical negative
part is called as one cycle of the waveform. Refer Fig.
• A cycle can start at any point on the waveform (point A) and it ends when an identical
point is obtained (point B) as shown in Fig.
• If the waveform is plotted by plotting angle on the X- axis in place of time, then cycle is
that portion of the waveform corresponding to an angle span of 2π radians as shown in
Fig.
• 1 cycle = 2 π radians = 360°
▪ Time Period or Periodic Time (T)
• Time period (T) is defined as the time taken in seconds by the waveform of an ac quantity
to complete one cycle.

• After every T seconds, the cycle repeats itself as shown in Fig.

• Time period T = Time corresponding to one cycle.
▪ Frequency(f)
• Frequency is defined as the number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity in one
second.
• It is denoted by "f" and its units are cycles/second or Hertz (Hz).
• As the time period (T) is the time in seconds per cycle denoted in seconds/cycle, hence relation
between frequency and time period is as follows:
• Frequency (f) = Cycles /Second =1/ Second/Cycle =1/T
• f = (1/T) Hz

• Therefore as the time period increases, the frequency decreases and vice-versa as shown in Fig.
• Thus as we decrease the time period (T) the frequency increases as there are more number of
cycles per second.
▪ Amplitude

• The maximum value or peak value of an ac quantity is called as its amplitude. This is shown in
Fig. The amplitude is denoted by Vm for voltage, Im for current waveform etc.
▪ Angular Frequency(ω)
• Angular frequency (ω), also known as radial or circular frequency, measures angular
displacement per unit time.
• Its units are therefore degrees (or radians) per second.
• ω = 2πf = 2π / T
▪ Peak and Peak to Peak Voltage

• Peak voltage is the voltage measured from the baseline of an ac waveform to its maximum
or peak level. It is also called as amplitude.
• Peak voltage is denoted by Vm or Vp .For a typical sine wave, the positive peak voltage is
equal to the negative peak voltage.
• Peak to peak voltage is the voltage measured from the maximum positive level to
maximum negative level. Peak to peak values are most often used when measuring the
magnitude on the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) which is a measuring equipment.
• For a typical sinewave, the peak to peak value is equal to 2 times the peak value. Peak to
peak voltage is denoted by Vp-p = 2 Vm
▪ Average value
• It is the average of all instantaneous values of an a.c. variable over a period of half cycle.
• If x1, x2 ….xn are the instantaneous values at n
instants t1, t2 ….tn over half cycle beginning at zero value,
then average value =

• For a sinusoidal a.c. variable, Average value = 0.637 * peak value

• Expression for average value of sinusoidal variable
▪ RMS value
• It is the square root of mean of squares of all instantaneous value over a cycle. If
i1,i2,….in are the instantaneous values over a cycle, then
• RMS value =

• Effective value of ac current is equal to value of a direct current that produces same
heating effect as this ac current while flowing in same resistance for same period
under identical conditions.
• For a sinusoidal ac, RMS value irms = 0.707 * peak value
• Expression for RMS value of sinusoidal variable
▪ Form Factor (Kf)
• The form factor of an alternating quantity is defined as the ratio of its RMS value to its
average value.
• Form factor Kf = RMS value/ Average value
• Form factor is a dimensionless quantity and its value is always higher than one. That
mean the RMS value will always be higher than the average value.
• Form factor of a sinusoidal alternating current is given by
Kf = Irms / Iavg = 0.707 Im / 0.637 Im = 1.11
• The value of K, = 1.11 is valid only for the sinusoidal (sine or cosine) ac quantities. For
all the other shapes of ac quantities the form factor is different from 1.11 and should be
obtained by using the general definition given in equation.
▪ Peak Factor or Crest Factor (Kp)
• The maximum value (peak value or amplitude) of an alternating quantity is called as the
crest value of the quantity. The crest factor is defined as the ratio of the crest (peak) value
to the rms value of the quantity.
• Kp = Peak value / RMS value
• As the peak value is always higher than the rms value, crest factor is always higher than
one.
• For a sinusoidal alternating quantity the crest factor is given by,
• Kp = √2 x RMS value / RMS value = √2 = 1.414… for a sinewave.
❑ GENERATION OF SINGLE PHASE A.C
• Consider a magnet with two poles as shown
in the figure. Between the two poles, there is
uniform magnetic flux density ‘B’. A conductor
is rotated in the magnetic field with speed
V m/s. Magnetic flux ‘Ф’ linking with the
conductor changes. Hence, according to
Faraday’s laws, an emf is induced in the
conductor.
• Rate of change of magnetic flux dø/dt is
different at different instants magnitude of
induced emf is different at different positions.
• Positions A and C, the conductor moves parallel to the flux lines. dø/dt is zero and
induced emf is zero.
• B and D, conductor moves perpendicular to the flux lines. dø/dt is maximum and
induced emf is maximum. Em = BLV where L= Active length of the conductor.
• θ is the angle between the magnetic flux direction and velocity direction. V sinθ is the
component of velocity perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines.
• e = dø/dt = rate of change of magnetic flux linking with the conductor.
• induced emf e = BLVsin θ = Em sin θ, θ = ωt. e= Em sin ωt
• induced emf is a sine function i.e. it is a sinusoidal emf.
• Fleming’s right hand rule gives the direction of dynamically
induced emf. By applying Fleming’s right hand rule, it is seen
that – The emf has one particular direction (say, positive) when
the conductor moves from one end of S pole (θ =0) to the
other end of S pole (θ =180 deg).
• The emf has opposite direction (i.e. negative) when the
conductor moves from one end of N pole (θ =180) to the other
end of N pole (θ =360 deg).
❑Phasor Representation of an Alternative Quantity
• A phasor is a straight line with an arrow
marked on one side.
• The length of this straight line represents the
magnitude of the sinusoidal quantity being
represented and the arrow represents its direction.
• Thus phasor representation is similar to the
vector representation. However the phasors rotate
in the anticlockwise direction as shown in Fig.
• The length of the phasor represents the rms
value of the sinusodial quantity. Sometimes the length also represents the peak value.
❑Phase of an Alternating Quantity
▪ Phase Angle
• The equation of the induced emf in the conductor is v = Vm sinωt = Vm sinø
• In above equation , ø is the angle made by the conductor with the reference axis and it is
called as the Phase Angle. Thus the phase angle can take any value between 0 and 2π
radians.
▪ Phase Difference

• It is not necessary that two voltages or current waves originate at the same instant of time.
Refer Fig. to understand this point.
• The voltage VA and VB, do not have the same zero crossover point so we say that there is
a phase difference between them.
• We can represent the two voltages mathematically as follows:
Voltage: VA=Vm sin θ
Voltage: VB= Vm sin (θ + ø)
• The angle ø is known as the Phase difference between VA and VB. It is measured in
"radians" or "degrees".
• If measured in radians the phase difference can take any value between 0 and 2π, but if
expressed in degrees it can take any value between 0 and 360°.
▪ Leading Phase Difference

• If the phase angle in equation VB= Vm sin (θ + ø) is positive then the phase difference is
said to be a leading phase difference. In other words we say that voltage VB, leads the
voltage VA.
• Thus if VA=Vm sin θ & VB= Vm sin (θ + ø) then VB leads the VA by an angle ø.
▪ Lagging Phase Difference

• If the phase angle in equation VB= Vm sin (θ - ø) is negative then the phase difference is
said to be a lagging phase difference. In other words we say that voltage VB lags the
voltage VA.
• Thus if VA=Vm sin θ & VB= Vm sin (θ - ø) then VB lags the VA by an angle ø.
▪ In Phase
• The two ac voltages (or any two
ac quantities) are said to be "in phase
" if the phase difference between
them is equal to zero as shown in
Fig.

▪ Out Phase
• The two ac voltages VA and VB
are said to "out-of-phase“ of each other
if the phase difference between them is
180° or л radians (leading or lagging) as
shown in Fig.
❑Mathematical Representation of Phasor
▪ Polar Representation

• The instantaneous voltage v(t) = Vmsin (ωt + ø) can be represented in the polar form as
follows:
v(t) = r ∠ ø where r = Vm
• That means the length of the phasor (r) represents the peak value of the ac quantity.
e.g. v(t) = 20 sin (100Πt + 60°)
then it is represented in the polar form as,
v(t) = 20∠ 60° Volts
▪ Rectangular Representation

• The instantaneous voltage v(t) = Vmsin (ωt + ø) can be represented in the polar form as
follows:
v(t) = x + jy
x = x component of the phasor = Vm cosθ
y= y component of the phasor = Vm sinθ
• Substituting the values of x and y components into equation we get,
v(t) = Vmcosθ + jVm sinθ
e.g. 20 sin (100Πt + 60°) then it is represented in the rectangular form as,
v(t)=(20 cos 60° + j 20 sin 60°) = (10 +j 17.32) Volts
▪ Conversion from Polar to Rectangular
• If the phasor is given in the polar from as r∠ø then it can be represented in the rectangular
form as :
v(t) = r cos θ + r sin θ
▪ Conversion from Rectangular to Polar
• If the phasor is given in the rectangular form as
• v = x + jy
• Then it can be represented in its polar form as :
• v(t) = r ∠ θ
• Where r = r = √x²+ y² and θ = tan-¹ (y/x)
▪ Express the instantaneous current given by, i = 20 sin (ωt- Π/3) in the polar
and rectangular
▪ A phasor is represented in its rectangular form as i = 20-j34.64 convert it
into the equivalent polar form.
❑Reactance
▪ Inductive Reactance (XL)
• We can define the inductive reactance as the opposition to the flow of an alternating
current, offered by an inductance.
• It is denoted by XL, and XL = ωL = 2ΠfL. The unit of inductive reactance is ohm (Ω).
▪ Capacitive Reactance (XC)
• The capacitive reactance Xc is defined as the opposition offered by a pure capacitor to the
flow of alternating current.
• The expression for capacitive reactance Xc is,
• Xc = 1/ ωc = 1/ 2Πf C.Unit of capacitive reactance is ohm(Ω).
• Equation shows that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of
the applied voltage if C is constant. Xc decreases with increase in frequency f.
▪ Impedance(Z)
• Impedance is defined as the effective opposition offered by a circuit or a component to an
alternating current, arising from a combined effect of resistance and reactance.
• Impedance is denoted by Z and has unit Ω.
• Impedance can be expressed in the polar form as Z=|Z| ∠ø Ω
• Impedance can be expressed in the rectangular form as Z=R +jX
• Where |Z| = √R²+ X² and θ = tan¹ (X/R)
• Impedance Triangle
• Impedance triangle is the graphical way of relating
the Resistance (R), reactance (X) and impedance (Z)
of the given circuit. Impedance triangle is a right
angle triangle.
• The two sides of the impedance triangle
correspond to resistance (R) and reactance (X) with an
angle of 90° between them as shown in Fig. and the
third side corresponds to the magnitude of impedance
i.e. |Z| with |Z|2 = R²+X².
• Also note that the angle between the sides representing |Z❘ and R is equal to the phase
angle ø where = tan -1 X / R
• Hence R = |Z❘cos ø and X = |Z❘sin ø.

❑Admittance(Y)
• Admittance is defined as the acceptance offered by a component to the current flow in it.
or
• Admittance is reciprocal of impedance, Y=1/Z
• Its unit is Siemen.
❑Power in ac circuit
▪ Average power or active power(P):
• The true power or real power (P) is defined as the average Pavg taken by or consumed
by the ac circuit.
• Average power = Vrms Irms cos θ
• Unit of average power = watt.
• Average power drawn is the total input power drawn by a device that it converts into
other form of power.
▪ Reactive power(Q) :
• It is the product of V,I and sine angle of between V & I i.e. θ .
• Reactive power = Vrms Irms sin θ
• Unit of reactive power =VAr.
▪ Apparent power(S):
• It is the product of rms voltage and rms current.
• Apparent power = Vrms Irms
• Unit of apparent power = VA.
▪ Power Factor
• It is cosine angle between the applied voltage (V) and current (I).
• It is the ratio of the active power and the apparent power. Ideally the power factor should
be 1 and practically it should be as high as possible.
• The power factor can also be defined as ratio of resistance to impedance.

• Power factor = VI cos ø / VI = cos ø

• The value of power factor will be confined between ± 1 because it is basically the cosine
of the phase difference ø.
• -1 ≤ PF≤1
❑Purely Resistive AC Circuit
▪ Alternating current through resistance
• Let current in the circuit be i= Im sin ωt
• voltage across resistance = v = Ri
= R Im sin ωt
= Vm sin ωt Vm= R Im
• Comparing current and voltage equations, it is seen
that they have same frequency and they are in phase.
• Power drawn by a resistance
• p = vi
= Vm sin(ωt) Im sin(ωt)
= Vm Im sin2 (ωt)

(Note : T =2Π / ω is the Time period for 1 cycle of both - voltage and current. )
• Average power drawn over one cycle duration of voltage or current
❑ Inductance (L)
• This is the property of a component to oppose a CHANGING current in it. This property
is due to the fact that if there is change in the current through a conductor, an emf of
opposing nature is induced in the conductor

• voltage-current relation for inductance is, V=L di/dt

• If sinusoidal voltage v = Vm sin(ωt + θ) is applied to a inductance L, then current in the

inductance is i = sin (ωt+ θ - Π/2) .
• Inductance does not draw (active) power. Note L=n2/S where, n = turns of the coil and S
= reluctance of core.
• Unit of inductance : Henry.
▪ Purely Inductive Circuit
• current in the circuit be i= Im sin ωt
• voltage across the inductance is
• v = L d/dt (Im sin ωt)
= L Im d/dt (sin ωt)
= Im ωL cos ωt
= Im ωL sin (ωt+ Π /2 )
= Vm sin (ωt+ Π /2 ) where Vm = Im ωL= Im XL , XL = 2ΠfL
• it is seen that they have same frequency and voltage across inductance leads the current
by Π /2.
• Power drawn by inductance:
• p= v i Hence, p = Vm sin(ωt + Π /2 ). Im sin ωt
= Vm Im cosωt sin ωt
= (Vm Im / 2) sin 2ωt
• Average power drawn (over Time period for one cycle of voltage or current)
❑ Capacitance (C):
• Capacitance is the ability of a component or circuit to collect and store energy in
the form of an electrical charge. Amount of the stored charge depends on the applied
voltage

• voltage-current relation for capacitance is Charge q = Cv,

• If sinusoidal voltage v = Vm sin(ωt + θ) is applied to a capacitance L, then
current in the capacitance is i = (Vm ωC) sin (ωt+ θ + Π/2 )
• Voltage across capacitance lags the current by 90°.
• Capacitance does not draw (active) power.
• Purely Capacitive Circuit
• Let current in the circuit be i= Im sin ω t
• Then voltage across the capacitor

• ω=2ΠfC, XC = 1/ωC, Vm = Im XC
• Comparing current and voltage equations, it is seen that they have same frequency
and voltage across capacitance lags the current by Π/2
• Power drawn by a capacitance:
• p = vi
= Vm sin(ωt - Π/2 ). Im sin ωt
• Average power drawn over one cycle of voltage or current
=
❑ Series AC Circuit
▪ Series AC circuit with resistance (R) and inductance(L)
• current in the circuit be i=Im sin ωt
• instantaneous voltage across resistance VR = ImR sin ωt
• Instantaneous voltage across inductance
VL= ImωL sin (ωt+ Π /2 )
• Instantaneous value of total voltage is v = VR + VL
• Hence, v = ImR sin ωt + Im ωL sin(ωt+ Π /2)
= Im R sinωt + Im ωL cos ωt
Multiplying and dividing by

• where, Z = is the combined opposition to current. It is called as impedance.

• Comparing v and i, we conclude that voltage across the series R L combination leads the
current through it by θ = tan-1 ωL / R where 0 < θ < Π /2
▪ Series AC circuit with resistance and capacitance
• current in the circuit be i=Im sin ωt
• Then, instantaneous voltage across resistance is
VR = ImR sin ωt
• Instantaneous voltage across capacitance is
VC= Im / ωC sin (ωt- Π /2 )
• Instantaneous value of total voltage is
v = VR + VC
• Hence, v = ImR sin ωt + (Im / ωC )sin (ωt - Π/2)
• Multiplying and dividing by

-
• is the net opposition to current in this circuit. It is called as impedance.
• Comparing v and i, we conclude that voltage across the series RC combination lags its
current by θ = tan-1 1/ RωC where 0 < θ < Π /2

Examples based on series ac circuits

1.A non inductive resistor of 5 ohm is connected in series with pure inductance of 5mH.
Find impedance, current, pf, power drawn, reactive power if applied voltage is 200V
(rms), 50Hz.
2 .A resistance of 20 ohm is connected in series with a capacitance of 500 micro F. AC voltage
of 200V, 50 Hz is applied to the branch . Find active power, reactive power, pf.
❑ Generation of Three Phase EMF
▪ Principle
• The single phase supply is generated using a single turn alternator. Thus if armature
consists of only one winding, then only one alternating voltage is produced.
• But if the armature winding is divided into three groups which are displaced by 120° from
each other, then it is possible to generate three alternating voltages.
▪ Construction

• As shown in Fig. (a) the armature winding is divided into three groups. The three coils are
R - R', Y-Y' and B-B'.
• All these coils are mounted on the same shaft and are physically placed at 120° from each
other.
• When these coils rotate in the flux produced by the permanent magnet, emf is induced into these
coils. These emfs as shown in Fig. are sinusoidal, of equal amplitudes and equal frequency but they
are displaced from each other by 120°.
• VR, VY and VB are the three phase voltages. If VR is considered as the reference then VY lags VR by
120° and VB lags VY by 120°, in other words VB lags VR by 240°.
❑ Star Connection (Wye Connection)

• The Star or Wye connection of the three alternator windings is shown in Fig.(a). This configuration
is obtained by connecting one end of the three phase windings together.
• We can connect either R Y B or R' Y' B' together. This common point is called as the Neutral Point
and it is denoted by N.
• The remaining three ends of the windings are brought out for the external connections. These ends
are denoted by R-Y-B as shown in Fig. (b).
❑Delta Connection

• The delta or mesh connection of the three alternator windings is shown in Fig.
• The delta or mesh configuration is obtained by connecting one end of winding to the
starting end of the other winding such that it produces a closed loop.
❑Concept of balanced load

• A balanced load is that in which magnitudes of all impedances connected in the load are
equal and the phase angles of them also are equal and of same type (inductive, resistive or
capacitive).
• All the phase voltages will have equal magnitudes, all the line voltages also will have
equal magnitudes and same is true for the phase currents and line currents as well.
• Note that the magnitude | Z | and the phase angle for all the impedances Z₁, Z₂ and Z3 will
be the same for the balanced loads.
❑Concept of Unbalanced load

• If a load does not satisfy the condition of balance, then its is called as the unbalanced load.
• The magnitudes and phase angles of the three impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3 differ from each
other if the load is unbalanced type.