C H A P

ER
(1 PN Junction Diode

Module1

Syllabus
PN Junction Diode : Basic structure, Energy band diagrams, Zero applied bias,
Forward bias, Reverse bias, PN Junction current, Drift and diffusion current, Junction
capacitance, DC load line, Small signal model, Applied bias, Reverse applied bias,
Temperature effects.

1.1 Introduction:
In this chapter we will demonstrate that if a junction is formed between the p and n type
semiconductors, then such a junction has the properties of a rectifier.
PN junction is also known as a diode. In this chapter the V/I characteristics of a diode are
studied.

1.2 P-N Junction

Till now we have discussed about p-type and n-type semiconductors and their characteristics.
The majority carriers in the n type material are electrons while those in p-type areholes.
The minority carriers in the n-type and p-type materials are holes and electrons respectively.
It is not possible to manufacture any electronic device (diode, transistor etc.), with the help of
only p-type or only n-type semiconductor.
We need to use the combination of p and n-type semiconductor in order to manufacture different
devices.
The most basic combination of the p and n-type semiconductors is the p-n junction which is
formed by combining the p-and n-type semiconductors with a special type of chemical binding.
Ap-n junction is also called as a p-n junction diode, which is the most basic electronic device.
We have to study the characteristics and behaviour of the p-n junction diode so as to understand
the operation of a number of other devices.

1.2.1 Baslc Structure of a PN Junctlon:

As we join the p and n type semiconductors, at the boundary a p-n junction isformed.
Consider a special case shown in Fig. 1.2.1 which shows a p-n junction formed between a p-type
semiconductor with a constant concentration N^ and an n-type semiconductor with a uniform
density Np
The junction is a metallurgical (p-n) junction that separates the two sections of different
concentrations.
 PN Junction Diode
Electronic Devices &Circuits-1 (Elex.-MU) 12
from p ton type is
called as step grading
pe of doping where the density changes abruptly
type doping zero.
the concentration is
The junction is located at the plane where junction
Abrupt or step graded
n-type semiconductor

P-type semiconductor

NA
Vo
abrupt
2
or step graded p-n junction
F-2205Fig. 1.2.1: An

A step graded junction: there is an abrupt change in

p-type and an n-type material,
formed between a
When a junction is
of holes and electrons.
on that side. But
concentration as we
the
and hence available in plenty
carriers on p-side
Holes are the majority carriers.
enter into the n-side,
the holes will be minority
cross the junction
and holes will
will be low. Thus the concentration of
holes on the n-side
The concentration of to n-side.
move from p-side
decrease at the junction as we and
suddenly on the n-side
the concentration of electrons is high
This is shown in Fig. 1.2.2. Similarly carriers on the p-side.
as they become minority
reduces drastically at the junction
Junctton
Electrons
O Holes

PpNA
-Concentration
of electrons

Step change
Pn Concentration
of holes

F-2206 Fig. 1.2.2: A step graded p-n junction

concentrations of electrons and holes at
Because there is a sudden change or step change in the
the junction, this p-n junction is known as the step graded or an abrupt p-n junction.
The concentration of holes on the p-side is equal to the concentration of the acceptor impurity
atoms.

Pp Na ..on p-side. .(1.2.1)

The concentration of electrons on the p-side is denoted by n, which is very low as compared
to Ppr

Pp .(1.2.2)
Similarly the concentrations of electrons and holes on the n-side are denoted by n and Pa
respectively and they are given by,
2Electronic Devices &Circuits- (Elex.-MU) 1-3
1-3 PNJunction Diode
n ND .on n-side .(1.2.3)
And n, >Pa .on n-side ..(1.2.4)
1.2.2 The Open Circuited p-n Junction (Zero Applied Bias)
Atoms with holes
Junction
Atome with electrons

Anode
o Cathode
Electrons
o- O o Holes

Themally P-type type

generated semlconductor Thermally generated
semiconductor
electron hole electron hole pairs.
pairs
(B-10) Fig. 1.2.3 : Formation of a P-N junction
As shown in Fig. 1.2.3, a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor are joined together
vith the help of a special fabrication technique to form a P-N junction.
Terminals are brought out for the external connection with P and N-type semiconductors. The p-
side is called as anode and the n-side is called as cathode.
The "n side consists of a large number of electrons and few thermally generated holes whereas
the "p" side consists of a large number of holes and a few thermally generated electrons.
Thus the electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in the n-region whereas
their roles are exactly opposite in the p-region.
The P-N junction foms the basic semiconductor device called diode. The understanding of
characteristics and behaviour of a P-N junction proves to be useful to understand the operation of
many semiconductor devices. Let us now discuss the behaviour of P-N junction.

Diffusion
Hole diffusion
Electron diffusion o Holes

. Electrons

Anode Cathode

X0

junction
(B-1) Fig. 1.2.4: Diffusion of electrons and holes
At the junction, one side has a high concentration of holes whereas the other side has high
concentration of electrons.
Due to this a concentration gradient is created across the junction, and the process of diftusion o
the charge carrier, as shown in Fig. 1.2.4.
1.2.3 The Depletion Region orSpace Charge Region:
The behaviour of a p-njunction immediately after its formation is as follows:
Note that no external voltage is applied between the terminals of the p-n junction, hence tne p u

junction is said to be unbiased.

 PN Junction Diode
Eatronic Devices& Circuits-1 (Elex.-MU) 14
with the noles pt
The free electrons from "n" side will diffuse into the p-side and recombine
there 1on on ine - S i d e
side will leave behind a positive immobile
Each electron diffusing into the "p"
as shown in Fig. 1.2.5.
which accepts
this electron,
"" side, an atom
electron combines with a hole on the
1.2.3.
When an as shown
in FIB.
ion
negative immobile
OSes its neutral status and becomes a
electrically to p-side
from n-skde
Electrons diffusewith holes.
recomblne
and
converted into
n-side 3 A,B,C
are
p-side Atoms 1,2 andatoms
and
posltive lons lons.
are
converted into negative

Atoms with eleotrons

O
Junotion
immobile ions
B-12) Fig. 1.2.5: Creation of positive and negative the junction
near
ions accumulate
Due to this recombination process,
a large number of positive on the p-side near
ions will accumulate
on the n-side and a large
number of negative immobile
the junction as shown in Fig. 1.2.6.

Negative immoble ions8

Junction -Positive immobile ions

Holes Free electrons

O
Minortty carriers
electrons p-type n-type
semiconductor Depletion semiconductor Minority carriers
region holes

(B-13) Fig. 1.2.6: p-n junction with the depletion region

The negatively charged ions on the p-side will start repelling the electrons which attempt to
diffuse into the p-side and after some time the diffusion will
stop completely.
At this point, the junction is said to have attained an
equilibrium is shown in Fig. 1.2.6.
equilibrium. The p-n junction in the state of

Depletion region:
The shaded region on both sides
of junction in Fig. 1.2.6 contains
charge carriers such as electrons or holes. In other words this only immobile ions and no free
charge carriers. region "depleted" of the free
is
Therefore this region is called as the
"depletion region'". Practically the width of depletion
is 0.5 to 1 um. It is very small as
compared to the p and n region
regions.
 2Electronic Devices &Circuits-1 (Elex.-MU) 1-5 PN Junction Diode
This region is also known as the "space charge region". In the state of equilibrium, the depletion
region gets widened to such an extent that electrons cannot cross the junction any more.

In the state of equilibrium, the depletion region gets widened to such an extent that electrons can
not cross the junction any more.

Note Inthe unblased p-n junction, the depletion region gets formed very quickly after the formation of
the junction
Width of depletion reglon
We can define the width of the depletion region as the distance measured from one side to the
other side of the depletion region. Practicaly the width of depletion region is very small of the order of
0.5 to 1 micron where 1 micron is equal to 1 x 10 metres. Thus the depletion region is very thin as
compared to the widths of p and n regions.

1.2.4 Built in Barrier Potential or Junction Potential or Contact Potential

Due to the presence of immobile positive and negative ions on opposite sides of the junction, an
electric field is created across the junction. This electric field is known as the "barrier potential"
or "junction potential" or cut in voltage. It has fixed polarities as shown in Fig. 1.2.7.
The polarities of barrier potential are decided by the type of immobile ions present on the two
sides of the junction. Thus the negative terminal of the barier potential is on the p-side and
positive side is on the n-side as shown n Fig. 1.2.7.
This is called as barrier potential because it acts as a barrier to oppose the flow of electrons and
holes across the junction.
The barrier potential represents the height of the barrier that is to be overcome for
commencement of flow of electrons and holes.
whereas
Barrier potential is measured in volts. The barrier potential for Silicon is about 0.6 Volts
its value for the Germanium is 0.2 Volts. (Refer to Table 1.2.1) at 25°C.

Table 1.2.1: Barrier potential for different materials

Barrier potential or
junction potential

Material Value
Silicon 0.6 Volts
Germanium 0.2 Volts
Depletion
region

B-14) Fig. 1.2.7: Barrier potential

Importance of barrier potential
holes to
to a barrier (wall) which does not allow the electrons and
Barrier potential is equivalent
cross the junction. to
the junction, then an external voltage of appropriate
polarity has
So if we want them to cross
be applied in order to overcome the opposition of the barrier potential.
Then the flow of electrons and holes across the junction can restart again.
 1-6 PN Junction Diode
(Elex.-MU)
Electronic Devices &Circuits-1
deciding the barrier potentlal
value
Factors

Following are the factors which decide the

value of the barrier potential:
Semiconductor material used (Silicon or Germanium).
1.
The intrinsic concentration of Si
or Ge before doping.
2.
The level of doping on p and n sides.
3.
4. Temperature.
Energy band dlagram :
Fig. 1.2.8 shows the energy band diagram of a pn junction in thermal equilibrium.
Note that the intrinsic Fermi level is at equal distance from the conduction band edge through the
junction.
denoted by V
Vi represents the barrier potential. It is also
P
E
qVpi
E adFp
E ..

Ey |a9Fn-- EA

s670) Fig. 1.2.8 : Energy band diagram of pn junction in the thermal equilibrium

Penetration of depletion region:

The penetration of the depletion region into p or n-side depends on the doping levels of those
sides.
Equal penetration More penetration More penetration
on both sides on p side on n side

P P

(a) Both sides equally doped (b) p-side is lightly doped (c) n-side is lightly doped
(F-1006)ig. 1.2.9
If both these sides are equally doped then the depletion region penetrates equally on both the
sides as shown in Fig. 1.2.9(a).
But if p-region is
lightly doped as compared to the n-region then the penetration of depleno
region is more on
the p-side as shown in Fig. 1.2.96).
Similarly if n-side is lightly doped as compared to p-side then the depletion region extends
into the n-side as shown in mon
Fig. 1.2.9(c).
Electronic Devices &Circuits-I (Elex.-MU) 1-7 PN Junction Diode
Thus the depletion region always penetrates deeper into the side which is
compared to the other. lightly doped as

The complete unbiased p-n junction, immobile ions and

the variation of barrier
the length is shown in Fig. 1.2.10. potential along
****************Y**** ******** t********p

P side n side Negative

immobile ions
***************************************
Positive
AAA wwww

immobile ions
*************?******?**********
?***************** ** *****

ww.vvn wrennww.rvi
Holes
Electrons
Junction *******************T****************2********

*************"*** *******

(a) Schematic diagram ******'*****T****

Depletion
of p-n junction
**** ******************

****

region
Charge density ************************************************ *** *:

************ntono

********

dx
*********************"*****e******* w.v vrv

*******"**************
Distance from junction
"***********************2*************************************************** ***************************************************

Electric (b) Charge densityy

E-=d ****

field intensity ********************?*****

**********"******

T*** *******:********?******************:*********************""".******************.* .

(c)Electric field intensity wwww.i*vw vw**

Electrostatic potential ****:********?********

*****7
V= -JE dx- ******************:****************?***************:**********************************

****

p side V, or Vo **

V 0 Distance from junction

****** *********** ****** ** *
09****** *************V*****V*****1**"*************************************V**************************************

** ****** * e******t***************i*********
(d)
Electrostatic potential ****** ********

E=0 Potential energy barrier *

*******

for electrons
* ***
n*********** **** ********************************;**********"************************2***********************

*************?*****************:******
Distance from junction ***********

Potential energy barrier

(F-2207) Fig. 1.2.10