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Final YEAR Project Graph Coloring 123456789

Project (University of Kerala)

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ABSTRACT
Graph coloring is one of the most important concepts in graph
theory and it has huge number of application in daily life. Graph
coloring is still a very active field of research. The proper coloring of
a graph G is the coloring of the vertices and edges with minimum
numbers of colors. Such that no two vertices should have the same
color .The minimum number of color is called the Chromatic number
(G) and the graph G is called Properly Colored Graph. The
chromatic polynomial is a graph polynomial studied in algebraic
graph theory. It counts the number of graph colorings as a function
of the number of colors. This paper also presents the application of
graph coloring and its importance in various fields.
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

INTRODUCTION 1

1 PRELIMINARIES 3

2 GRAPH COLORING 10

3 CHROMATIC NUMBER,

CHROMATIC POLYNOMIAL, 23

GREEDY ALGORITHM

4 APPLICATION OF GRAPH 34

COLORING

CONCLUSION 39

BIBILIOGRAPHY 40
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INTRODUCTION

Graph theory is a branch of Mathematics that deals with

graphs which are the set of vertices and associated set of edges. Here
we introduce Graph Coloring which is an interesting topic in Graph
theory.

In graph theory, graph coloring is a special case of graph

labeling; it is an assignment of labels traditionally called “colors” to
elements of a graph subject to certain constrains. In its simplest
form, it is a way of coloring the vertices of a graph such that no two
adjacent vertices are of the same color; this is called a vertex
Coloring. Similarly, an edge coloring assigns a color to each edge so
that no two adjacent edges are of the same color.

The Chromatic number of a graph is the smallest number of

colors with which the graph can be properly colored. The Chromatic
Polynomial is a graph polynomial studied in algebraic graph theory.
It counts the number of graph colorings as a function of the number
of colors and was originally defined by George Wavid Birkhoff to
study the four color problem. Greedy Algorithm is used for finding
chromatic number of any given graph.

Graph coloring enjoys many practical applications as well as

theoretical challenges. Beside the classical types of problems,
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different limitations can also be set on the graph, or on the way a

color is assigned, or even on the color itself. It has even reached
popularity with the general public in the form of the popular number
puzzle Sudoku. Graph coloring is still a very active field of research.

The Graph coloring problem has numerous applications in

Making Schedule or Time table, Sudoku, Aircraft Scheduling, GSM
Mobile phone Network and more.

This Project consist of four chapter. In the first chapter we will

discuss some basic definition example that describes the preliminary
concepts that lays down a basis for the theory of Graph coloring.

In the second chapter deals with Graph coloring, Vertex

coloring, Edge coloring and also contains definition, theorem and
there sub related example. Third chapter explains Chromatic
number, Chromatic Polynomial, Greedy Algorithm and also contains
definition, theorem and problems.

Finally we moves to the last chapter of this project which

concern with the application of Graph coloring in various field of
science.
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CHAPTER-1

PRELIMINARIES

DEFINITION 1.1

A graph consists of pair (V (G), E (G)) where V (G) is a non-

empty finite set whose elements are vertices or points and E (G) is a
set of unordered pair of distinct element of V (G).

DEFINITION 1.2

The number of vertices in a graph is called its order. We denote

the order of a graph by ‘n’.

DEFINITION 1.3

The number of edges in a graph is called its size. We denote the

size of a graph by ‘m’.

DEFINITION 1.4

A Subgraph of a graph is a graph whose vertex set and edge

set are subsets of those of

DEFINITION 1.5

The degree of a vertex v is the number of edges that are

incident on v.
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DEFINITION 1.6

If two distinct edges incident with a common vertex then they

are called adjacent edges.

EXAMPLE 1

In the figure, vertex E has degree 0, vertex B has degree 1,

vertex C and B, each have degree 2 and vertex A has degree 3.

Figure 1

DEFINITION 1.7

The degree of vertex in a graph with the most edges incident

on it is called the maximum degree. The maximum degree of graph
in Figure 3 is 3.

DEFINITION 1.8

A path is a sequence of vertices {V1,V2,....Vk-1,Vk} in a graph such

that for each vertex Vi ,with i = 1,2,3,….k-1 in the sequence there
exists an edge such that the edge is incident on both Vi and Vi+1.
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EXAMPLE 2

In figure 2 v1e1v2e2v3e3v4 is a path.

Figure 2

DEFINITION 1.9

Two vertices U and V are connected if there exist a path from

U to V. A connected graph is a graph in which every distinct pair of
vertices is connected .The graph not connected is called
disconnected.

EXAMPLE 3

In figure 3, vertices ‘d’ and ‘a’ are connected, as their exist a path
between them, such as the path.

In figure 4, vertices ‘a’ and ‘c’ are not connected, as there is no path
between them .We conclude that the graph is disconnected.
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Figure 3 Figure 4

TABLE 1

Vertex 1 Vertex 2 PATH of PATH of

figure 3 figure 4

a b ab ab

a c a b c, a c Not Available

a d a b c d, a c d Not Available

b c b d c, b c Not Available

c d cd cd

DEFINITION 1.10

A graph with no Self loop and no parallel edges is called a

simple graph.
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DEFINITION 1.11

A graph whose edge set is empty is a null graph.

DEFINITON 1.12

A graph in which any two distinct vertices are adjacent is

called a complete graph. The complete graph with n vertices is
denoted by Kn.

DEFINITION 1.13

A graph is called planar if one can draw the graph such that no
two edge cross.

DEFINITION 1.14

A bipartite graph is a graph whose vertices can be divided into

two disjoint sets U and V such that every edge connects a vertex in
U to one in V .Vertex sets U and V are usually called the parts of the
graph.

Figure 3
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DEFINITION 1.15

A circuit is a path in which given the paths vertex sequence

{v1, v2,··· ,vk−1,vk }, Vi ≠ Vj , for i ≠ j.

A graph composed of a single circuit is called a Cycle.

Figure 4 : Cycle with six vertices; C6

DEFINITION 1.16

A tree is a connected graph that contains no circuits. A

tree of a graph G is a subgraph of G that is a tree.
An example tree is shown in the Figure 7

Figure 5
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DEFINITION 1.17
A complete graph is a graph G in which every vertex is
adjacent to every other vertex in G. A complete graph containing
n vertices is referred to as the complete graph on n vertices and
is denoted Kn.
Some example of a complete graphs are shown in Figure 8

Figure 6. From left to right, the complete graphs on four, five,

two vertices.
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CHAPTER 2

GRAPH COLORING

2. GRAPH COLORING

Graph coloring is one of the most important concepts in graph

theory and is used in many real time applications in computer
science. The proper coloring of a graph is the coloring of the vertices
and edges with minimal number of colors such that no two vertices
should have the same color. An edge coloring assigns a color to each
edge.so that no two adjacent edges are of the same color.

Figure 7

2.1 VERTEX COLORING

Vertex coloring is usually used to introduce graph coloring

problems can be transformed into a vertex coloring instance, For
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example, an edge coloring of a graph is just a vertex coloring of its

line graph

Figure 8

We have assigned to each vertex a number .We shall call these

numbers as colors. Notice that no two adjacent vertices have the
same color .Thus we define a coloring of G be an assignment of
coloring to the vertices have the same color.

DEFINITION 2.1.1

Let G be a loop less graph. A K-coloring of G is an assignment

of K colors to the vertices of G in such a way that adjacent vertices
are received different colors. If G has a K-colourable. The chromatic
number of G, denoted by (G), is the smallest number K for which G
is K-colourable.
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EXAMPLE 2.1.2

Determine the chromatic number of the graph given in the

figure

G1 G2 G3
(a) (b) (c)

G4 G5 G6
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 9

a) (G1)=6
b) (G2)=3
c) (G3)=2
d) (G4)=2
e) (G5)=3
f) (G6)=4
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THEOREM 2.1.3 (The four color theorem)

The chromatic number of every planar graph is at most 4.

Assume the four color conjecture holds and let G be any plane
map.

Let G the underlying graph of the geometric dual of G.

Since two regions of G are adjacent if and only if the

corresponding vertices of G are adjacent, map G is 4-colourable
because graph G is 4-colourable.

Conversely, assume that every plane map is 4-colourable and

let H be any planar graph.

Without loss of generality, we suppose H is a connected plane

graph.

Let H be the dual of H. So drawn that each region of H

encloses precisely one vertex of H .The connected plane Pseudo
graph H can be converted into a plane graph H´ by introducing two
vertices into two loop of H and adding a new vertex into each edge
in asset of multiple edges.

The 4-colorability of H´ now implies that H is 4-colorable

completing the verification of the equivalence.
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If the four color conjecture is ever proved, the result will be best
possible, for it is easy to give examples of planar graphs which are 4-
chromatic, such as K4 and W6 (see Figure 10 below)

Figure 10

THEOREM 2.1.4

Every planar graph with fewer than 4 triangles is 3-colourable.

COROLLARY 2.1.5

Every planar graph without triangle is 3-colorable.

THEOREM 2.1.6

The four color conjecture holds if and only if every cubic

bridgeless plane map is 4-colorable.

Proof

We already seen that every plane map is four colorable if and

only if the four color conjecture holds.
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This is also equivalent to the statement that every bridgeless

plane the end vertices of a bridge affects neither the number of
region in the map nor the adjacency of any of the regions.

Certainly, if every bridgeless plane map is 4-colourable, then

every cubic bridgeless plane map is 4-colourable.

In order to verify the converse, let G be a bridgeless plane map

and assume all cubic bridgeless plane map are 4-colourable.

Since G is bridgeless, it has no end vertices.

If G contains a vertex v of degree 2 incident with edges y and

z, denotes the subdivision vertices by u and w respectively.

We now remove v, identify u with one of the vertices of degree

2 in a copy of the graph K4-x and identify w with the other vertex of
degree 2 in K4-x.

Observe that each new vertex added has degree 3 in figure 11.

If G contains a vertex v0 of degree n≥4 incident with edges x1, x2, ...
xn , arranged cyclically about v0 , we subdivided each xi producing a new
vertex vi .

We remove v0 and add the new edges v1v2, v2v3 , …, vn-1vn,vnv1.

Again each of the vertices .so added has degree 3.

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After
deg v =2
y Before z y z

u w
x1 x2 x1 x2
v1 v2
deg v0 = n≥4 v0
x3 vn v3
x4 xn x4 v4 x3

Figure 11 conversion of a graph into a cubic graph

Denote the resulting bridgeless cubic plane map by G´, which

by hypothesis, is 4-colorable.

If for each vertex v of G with deg v≠3, we identify all the newly
added vertices associates with v in the formation of G´, we arrive at
G once again .Thus, let there be given a 4-colouring of G´. The above
mentioned contradiction of G´ into G induces an m-coloring of G,
m≤4, which complete the proof.

THEOREM 2.1.7

The four color conjecture holds if and only if every Hamiltonian

planar graph is 4-colorable.
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THEOREM 2.1.8

For any Graph G, the line Chromatic number satisfies the

inequalities,

∆ ≤ ´ ≤ ∆+1

´=∆ ´=∆+1
Figure 12 The two values for the line chromatic number

THEOREM 2.1.9 (Five color Theorem)

Every planar graph is 5-colorable.

Proof

Assume, to the contrary, that this statement is false. Then

among all planar graphs that are not 5-colorable, let G the one of
smallest order. Since G is not 5-colorable, the order of G is
necessarily 6 or more.

Every planar graph contains a vertex of degree 5 or less, the

minimum degree of every planar graph never exceeds 5. Now let v
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Be a vertex of G such that deg v = ≤ 5. The

graph G-v is clearly planar and since the order of G-v is 5-colorable.
Let a 5-coloring of G-v be given. If either deg v ≤ 5 or deg v = 5 and
the number of colors used to color the neighbors of v is less than 5,
then one of these five color produces a 5-coloring of G, which is a
contradiction. Hence we may assume that deg v = 5 and all five colors
have been used for the neighbors of v. Consequently, we have the
situation pictured in figure 13

V1

V5 V2

V4 V3
Figure 13

Suppose that there is no V2 -V5 path G-v all of whose vertices are
colored red or blue. (So there is no red-blue kempe chain G-v
containing both V2 to V5).In this case, let’s be the set of all red and
blue vertices of G-v connected to V5 by red-blue path. Certainly
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V5∈S but, by assumption, V2∉ S. Now interchange the colors of the

vertices belonging to s .Therefore V5 is now colored red but V2
remains red .Hence the color blue is now available for v coloring v
blue produces a 5-coloring of G. However, this is impossible, so there
must be a V2-V5 red-blue path in G-V.

V5
V2 V1 V2 V5 V1

V5 V2 V5 V2

V2 V3 V4 V3

Figure 14

Since G-v contains a red-blue path from V2 to V5, there can be

no green-yellow path from V1 to V3. Let S´ be the set of vertices in G-
v connected V1 by a green-yellow path. Then V1 ∈ S´ but V3 ∉ S´. Inter
changinig the colors of the vertices in S´ results in V1 being colored
yellow but does not change the color of V3.

However, the color green is now available for v coloring v green

produces a 5-coloring of G.
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V1

V1

V5 V2 V5 V2

V4 V3 V4 V3

Figure 15

This contradicts the planarity of the graph and hence

concludes the proof.

2.2 EDGE COLORING

An edge coloring of a nonempty graph G is an assignment of

colors to the edges of G, one color to each edge, such that adjacent
edges are assigned different colors.

DEFINITION 2.2.1

Let G be a graph without loops. A K-edge coloring of G is an

assignment of K colors to the edges of G so that any two adjacent
edges must be received different colors. If G has a K- edge coloring,

then G is said to be K-edge colourable. The edge chromatic number

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of G, denoted by ´(G), is the minimum number K for which G is K-

edge colourable.

EXAMPLE 2.2.2

Consider the graphs displayed in Figure 16 and also find the

edge chromatic number ?

(a) (b)

Figure 16

The graph in figure (a) and (b) is 4-colourable.

THEOREM 2.2.3 (Vizing’s Theorem)

The number of colors needed to edge color a simple graph is

either its maximum degree ∆ or ∆+1.

Edge colorings have application in scheduling problem and in

frequency assignment for fiber optic networks.
For some graphs and high-degree planar graphs, the number of
colors may be as large as 3∆|2. There are polynomial time
algorithms that construct optimal colorings of bipartite graphs, and
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Colorings of non-bipartite graphs that use at most ∆+1 colors;

however, the general problem of finding an optical edge coloring is
NP-hard and the fastest known algorithms for it take exponential
time. Many variation of the edge-coloring problem, in which an
assignments of colors to edges must satisfy other conditions than
non-adjacency, have been studied.
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CHAPTER 3

CHROMATIC NUMBER, CHROMATIC POLYNOMIAL

GREEDY ALGORITHM

3.1 PROPERLY COLORING OF A GRAPH

DEFINITION 3.1.1

Painting all the vertices of a graph with colors such that no two
adjacent vertices have the same color is called the proper coloring of
a graph.

DEFINITION 3.1.2

A graph in which every vertex has been assigned a color

according to a proper coloring is called a properly colored graph.

EXAMPLE 3.1.3

A Graph can be properly colored in many different ways

V5

V2

V1 V4

Figure (a) V3
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V5

V1 V4
V2

Figure (b) V3

V3

V1 V5
V2
Figure (c)
V4
The above figure shows: Proper coloring of a graph.
Figure 17

3.2 CHROMATIC NUMBER

DEFINITION 3.2.1

A graph G that requires K different colors for this proper

coloring, and no less, is called a K-chromatic graph. The number K is
called the chromatic number of G. The graph in Fig 17 is 3-chromatic
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Some observations that follow directly from the definitions just

introduced are

1. A graph consisting of only isolated vertices is 1-chromatic.

2. A graph with one or more edges is at least 2-chromatic.
3. A complete graph of n vertices is n-chromatic, as all its vertices
are adjacent. Hence a graph containing a complete graph of r
vertices is at least r -chromatic. For instance, every graph
having a triangle is at least 3-chromatic.
4. A graph consisting of simply one circuit with n ≥ 3 vertices is
2-chromatic if n is even and 3-chromatic if n is odd.

The chromatic number of a graph is the smallest number of colours

with which the graph can be properly coloured. The chromatic
number of a graph G is usually denoted by (G).

Rules:-

1. (G) ≤ │V│, where │V│ is the number of vertices of G.

2. A triangle always requires three colours, i.e. (X3) = 3
Generally, (Xn) = n where Kn is the complete graph on n
vertices.
3. If some subgraph of G requires K colors, Then (G) ≥ K.
4. (G) = maximum {(C)/C is a connected component of G}.
5. Every K-chromatic graph has at least K vertices V such that
degree (v) ≥ K−1.
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6. For any graph G, (G) ≤ 1+∆(G), where ∆(G) is the largest

degree of any vertex of G.
7. These are equivalent
i. A graph G is 2-colourable.
ii. G is bipartite.
iii. Every cycle of G has even length.
8.
│𝑉│
(G) ≥ − 𝛿(𝐺); Where │V│ is the no: of vertices of G.
│𝑉│

THEOREM 3.2.2

Every tree with n ≥ 2 vertices is 2-chromatic.

Proof

Let T be a tree with n ≥ 2 vertices. Consider any vertex v of T

and assume T to be rooted at vertex v (fig 18). Assign colour 1 to v.
Then assign colour 2 to all vertices which are adjacent to v. Let v1,
v2,v3 … vr be the vertices which have been assigned colour 2. Now
assign colour 1 to all vertices which adjacent to v1, v2, v3 … vr.

Continue this process till every vertex in T has been assigned

the colour. We observe that T all vertices at odd distances from v
have colour 2, and v and vertices at even distances from v have colour
1.Therefore along any path in T, the vertices are of alternating
colours. Since there is one and only a path between any two vertices
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in a tree, no two adjacent vertices have the same colour. Thus T is

coloured with two colours. T is 2-chromatic.

Figure 18

The converse of the above theorem is not true, i. e., every 2-chromatic
graph need not be a tree.

3.3 GREEDY ALGORITHM

DEFINITION 3.3.1
Greedy algorithm is used for finding chromatic number of any
given graph

Step 1:- Color first vertex with the first color.

Step 2:- Now considering the remaining (V-1) vertices one by one &
do the following

 Color the currently picked vertex with the lowest numbered

color if it has not been used to color any of it’s adjacent vertices.
 If it has been used, then choose the next least numbered color.
 If all the previously used colors have been used, then assign a
new color to the currently picked vertex.
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PROBLEM 3.3.2

Find the chromatic number of the following graph

Figure 19

Solution:-
Applying Greedy Algorithm, we have

Vertex: a b c d e f
Color: C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2

From here,

 Minimum number of colors used to color the given graph are 2.

 Therefore, Chromatic number of the given graph = 2.

The given graph may be properly colored using 2 colors are shown in
the next page.
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PROBLEM 3.3.3

Find the chromatic number of the following graph

Figure 20

Solution:-
Applying Greedy Algorithm, we have

Vertex: a b c d e f
Color: C1 C2 C2 C3 C3 C1
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From here,

 Minimum number of colors used to color the given graph are 3.

 Therefore, Chromatic number of the given graph = 3.

The given graph may be properly colored using 3 colors are shown
below

PROBLEM 3.3.4

Find the chromatic number of the following graph

Figure 21
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Solution:-
Applying Greedy Algorithm, we have
Vertex a b c d e f g h i
Color C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2 C3

From here,

 Minimum number of colors used to color the given graph are 3.

 Therefore, Chromatic number of the given graph = 3.

The given graph may be properly colored using 3 colors are shown
below

3.4 CHROMATIC POLYNOMIAL

3.4.1 DEFINITION

In general, a given graph G of n vertices can be properly colored

in many different ways using a sufficiently large number of colors.
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This property of a graph is expressed elegantly by means of a

polynomial. The polynomial is called the Chromatic Polynomial of G
and is defined as follows:

The value of Chromatic polynomial Pn () of a graph with n

vertices gives the number of ways of properly coloring the graph,
Using  or fewer colors.

Let C1 be the different ways of properly coloring G using exactly

I colors can be chosen out of  colors in


( ) different ways,
𝑖

There are Ci (𝑖 ) different ways of properly coloring G using exactly I

colors out of  colors.

Since i can be any positive integer from 1 to n (it is not possible to

use more than n colors on n vertices), the chromatic polynomial is a
sum of these terms; that is
𝑛

𝑃𝑛 () = ∑ 𝐶𝑖 ( )
𝑖
𝑖=1

 (−1) (−1)(−2)
= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 +
1! 2! 3!
(−1)(−2)…(−𝑛+1)
… + 𝐶𝑛
𝑛!

Each Ci has to be evaluated individually for the given graph.

A graph with n vertices and using n different colors can be properly

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Colors can be properly colored in n! ways; that is,

𝐶𝑛 = 𝑛!

PROBLEM 3.4.2

Find the chromatic polynomial and hence the chromatic number for
the graph

a d

c f

G:

b e

Figure 22

Solution. Since G is made up of components of G1, G2, and G3 where

G1=K3, G2 is a linear graph and G3 is an isolated vertex.
Now G1 can be coloured in  (–1) (–2) ways, G2 can be coloured
(–1) ways and G3 in  ways.
Therefore, by the rule of product G can be coloured be
(–1)(–2) (–1) = 3(–1)2(–2).
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CHAPTER 4

APPLICATION OF GRAPH COLORING

Graph coloring problem is to assign colors to certain elements

of a graph subject to certain constraints. Here some problems that
can be solved by concepts of graph coloring methodologies.

4.1.1 SUDOKU

Sudoku is one of the most interested number placement-puzzle

and it is also a variation of Graph-coloring problem. The puzzle
consists of a 9×9 grid in which some of the entries of the grid have a
number from 1 to 9.

Filling the table with the numbers must follow these rules:

1. Numbers in rows are not repeated

2. Numbers in columns are not repeated
3. Numbers in 3 × 3 blocks are not repeated
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The graph will have 81 vertices with each vertex corresponding

to a cell in the grid. There is an edge between two distinct vertices
will be adjacent if and only if the corresponding cells in the grid are
either in the same row, or same column, or the same sub-grid. Each
completed Sudoku square then corresponds to a k-coloring of the
graph.
Solving Sudoku Puzzles
Fill in the blank cells so that each row, column and 2 × 2 box
has the characters 1 to 4 exactly once.

1 2 3 4

3 4 1 2

2 3 4 1

4 1 2 3

The above mentioned graph has 16 vertices and 56 edges.

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4.1.2 MAKING TIME TABLES OR SCHEDULING

Graph shading was utilized to make the undergraduate daily

program in an regular academy office. Various restrictions in daily
scheduling for instance, speechmaker requests, course hours and lab
assignments were stood up to and daily time tables were delivered
for undergraduates in a common period of six months. In an normal
period of six months, the sequence is mandatory to be planned at
various times so as to maintain a strategic distance from strife. The
issue of choosing the lowest number of programmed hours are
needed to list all the sequences subject to borders is a graph shading
problem.
A useful application of coloring occurs in certain kinds of scheduling
problems.
eg, The mathematics department of a certain college plans to
schedule the classes Graph Theory (GT), Statistics (S), Linear
Algebra (LA), Advanced Calculus (AC), Geometry (G), and Modern
Algebra (MA) this summer. Ten students (see below) have indicated
the courses they plan to take. With This information, use graph
theory to determine the minimum number of time periods needed to
offer these courses so that every two classes having a student in
common are taught at different time periods during the day. Of
course, two classes having no students in common can be taught
during the same period.
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Anden: LA, S Brynn: MA, LA, G

Chase: MA, G, LA Denise: G, LA, AC
Everett: AC, LA, S Francois: G, AC
Greg: GT, MA, LA Harper: LA, GT, S
Irene: AC, S, LA Jennie: GT, S

Solution. First, we construct a graph H whose vertices are the six

subjects. Two vertices (subjects) are joined by an edge if some
student is taking classes in these two subjects (see Figure 23). The
minimum number of time periods is (H). Since H contains the odd
cycle GT, S, AC, G, MA, GT, it follows that three colors are needed
to color the vertices on this cycle. Since LA is adjacent to all vertices
of this cycles, a fourth color is needed for LA. Thus (H) ≥ 4. However,
there is a 4-coloring of H shown in figure 23 and so (H) = 4. This
also tells us one way to schedule these six classes during four time
periods, namely, Period 1: Graph Theory, Advanced Calculus; Period
2: Geometry; Period 3: Statistics, Modern Algebra; Period 4: Linear
Algebra. 1 GT

3 3

MA S

H:

G 2 1 AC 4 LA
Figure 23
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4.1.3 AIRCRAFT SCHEDULING

Assuming that there are k Aircrafts and they have to be
assigned n flights. The ith flight should be during the time interval
(ai,bi). If two flights overlap, then the same aircraft cannot be
assigned to both the flights. The vertices of the graph correspond to
the flights. Two vertices will be connected .If the corresponding time
intervals overlap. Therefore, the graph is an interval graph that can
be colored optimally in polynomial time.

4.1.4 GSM MOBILE PHONE NRTWORK

GSM (Groups special Mobile) is a mobile phone Network where

the geographical area of this network is divided in to hexagonal
regions or cells. Each cell has a communication tower which connects
with mobile phones within the cells. All mobile phones connect to the
GSM network by searching for cells in the neighbors. Since GSM
operate only in four different frequency ranges, it is clear by the
concept of graph theory that only four colors can be used to color the
cellular regions. These four different colors are used for proper
coloring of the regions. Therefore, the vertex coloring algorithm may
be used to assign at most four different frequencies for any GSM
mobile phone network.
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CONCLUTION
The major purpose of our project is to study detailed about
Graph coloring. Graph coloring enjoys many practical applications
as well as theoretical challenges. The main aim of this paper is to
present the importance of various types of coloring, Chromatic
number, Chromatic polynomial, Greedy Algorithm. An overview is
presented especially to project the applications of graph coloring in
Graph theory. All related information and examples related to the
topic are shown throughout the project.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. C Vasudev, Graph theory with Application, New age

international Publishers.
2. G. Suresh Singh, Graph Theory, Prentice Hall
3. Gary Chartrand and Ping Zhang, Introduction to Graph
Theory, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
4. Narsingh Deo, Graph theory with applications to engineering
and computer science, Prentice Hall
5. R. Balakrishnan and K. Ranganathan, A textbook of Graph
theory, Spinger, 2nd ed.2014 edition (2 Oct. 2014)