Sampling is a fundamental concept in research methods and refers to the process of selecting a

subset of individuals or units from a larger population for study or analysis. Here are some basic
concepts related to sampling in research methods:
Population: The population refers to the entire group of individuals or units that a researcher is
interested in studying. It is the larger group to which the research findings are intended to be
generalized.
Sample: A sample is a smaller subset of the population that is actually studied or analyzed. The
sample is selected to represent the larger population, and the findings from the sample are then
generalized to the population.
Sampling Frame: The sampling frame is a list or representation of the individuals or units in the
population from which the sample is drawn. It serves as a reference for the researcher to identify
potential participants for the study.
Sampling Method: The sampling method is the technique or approach used to select the
individuals or units for inclusion in the sample. There are various sampling methods, including
probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is a method of sampling in which every individual or
unit in the population has a known chance or probability of being selected for the sample.
Examples of probability sampling methods include simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling, and cluster sampling.
Non-probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling is a method of sampling in which the
probability of an individual or unit being selected for the sample is unknown or not equal for all
members of the population. Examples of non-probability sampling methods include convenience
sampling, purposive sampling, and snowball sampling.
Sample Size: The sample size refers to the number of individuals or units included in the sample.
It is an important consideration in research methods as it can affect the generalizability and
statistical power of the study.
Sampling Bias: Sampling bias refers to any systematic error in the process of selecting a sample
that results in the sample not being representative of the population. Sampling bias can introduce
error and reduce the external validity of a study.
Random Sampling: Random sampling is a type of probability sampling in which each individual
or unit in the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected for the sample.
Random sampling helps to ensure that the sample is representative of the population and reduces
sampling bias.
Sampling Validity: Sampling validity refers to the extent to which the sample selected is a true
representation of the population of interest. A sample with high sampling validity increases the
generalizability of research findings to the larger population.
These are some of the basic concepts related to sampling in research methods. Proper sampling is
crucial for ensuring the validity and reliability of research findings, and researchers need to
carefully consider the appropriate sampling method and sample size based on the research
question and study design.

Introduction to Sampling Techniques | Different Sampling Types and Techniques

Sampling:
Sampling is the process of selecting a group of individuals from a population to study them and
characterize the population as a whole.
The population includes all members from a specified group, all possible outcomes or
measurements that are of interest. The exact population will depend on the scope of the study.
The sample consists of some observations drawn from the population, so a part of a subset of the
population. The sample is the group of elements who participated in the study.
The sampling frame is the information that locates and defines the dimensions of the universe.
A good sample should satisfy the below conditions-
Representativeness: The sample should be the best representative of the population under study.
Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An
accurate (unbiased) sample is one that exactly represents the population.
Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliability.
Different types of Sampling techniques:
There are several different sampling techniques available, and they can be subdivided into two
groups-
1. Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make statistical inferences
about the whole group.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques
Simple random sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
2. Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other
criteria, allowing you to easily collect initial data. There are four types of Non-probability
sampling techniques.
Convenience sampling
Judgmental or purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
Quota sampling
Choosing Between Probability and Non-Probability Samples
The choice between using a probability or a non-probability approach to sampling depends on a
variety of factors:
Objectives and scope of the study
Method of data collection
Precision of the results
Availability of a sampling frame and resources required to maintain the frame
Availability of extra information about the members of the population
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is normally preferred when conducting major studies, especially when a
population frame is available, ensuring that we can select and contact each unit in the population.
Probability sampling allows us to quantify the standard error of estimates, confidence intervals to
be formed and hypotheses to be formally tested.
The main disadvantage is Bias in selecting the sample and the costs involved in the survey.
Simple random sampling
In Simple Random Sampling, each observation in the population is given an equal probability of
selection, and every possible sample of a given size has the same probability of being selected.
One possible method of selecting a simple random sample is to number each unit on the
sampling frame sequentially and make the selections by generating numbers from a random
number generator.
Simple random sampling can involve the units being selected either with or without replacement.
Replacement sampling allows the units to be selected multiple times whilst without replacement
only allows a unit to be selected once. Without replacement, sampling is the most commonly
used method.
Ex: If a sample of 20 needs to be collected from a population of 100. Assign unique numbers to
population members and randomly select 20 members with a random generator. Train and test
split in ML problems.
Applications
Train and test split in machine learning problems
Lottery methods
Advantages
Minimum sampling bias as the samples are collected randomly
Selection of samples is simple as random generators are used
The results can be generalized due to representativeness
Disadvantages
The potential availability of all respondents can be costly and time consuming
Larger sample sizes
Systematic sampling
In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item from the
population. Then, the researcher will select each nth item from the list. The procedure involved
in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done manually. The results are
representative of the population unless certain characteristics of the population are repeated for
every nth individual.
Steps in selecting a systematic random sample:
Calculate the sampling interval (the number of observations in the population divided by the
number of observations needed for the sample)
Select a random start between 1 and sampling interval
Repeatedly add sampling interval to select subsequent households
Ex: If a sample of 20 needs to be collected from a population of 100. Divide the population into
20 groups with a members of (100/20) = 5. Select a random number from the first group and get
every 5th member from the random number.
Applications
Quality Control: The systematic sampling is extensively used in manufacturing industries for
statistical quality control of their products. Here a sample is obtained by taking an item from the
current production stream at regular intervals.
In Auditing: In auditing the savings accounts, the most natural way to sample a list of accounts to
check compliance with accounting procedures.
Advantages
Cost and time efficient
Spreads the sample more evenly over the population
Disadvantages
Complete population should be known
Sample bias If there are periodic patterns within the dataset
Stratified random sampling
In Stratified random sampling, the entire population is divided into multiple non-overlapping,
homogeneous groups (strata) and randomly choose final members from the various strata for
research. Members in each of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all groups
get equal opportunity to be selected using simple probability.
There are three types of stratified random sampling-
1. Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size of the
stratum when viewed against the entire population. For example, you have 3 strata with 10, 20
and 30 population sizes respectively and the sampling fraction is 0.5 then the random samples
are 5, 10 and 15 from each stratum respectively.
2. Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling
The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling is
their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different strata have different
sampling fractions.
3. Optimal stratified sampling
The size of the strata is proportional to the standard deviation of the variables being studied.
Ex: A company wants to do an employee satisfaction survey and the company has 300k
employees and planned to collect a sample of 1000 employees for the survey. So the sample
should contain all the levels of employees and from all the locations. So create different strata or
groups and select the sample from each strata.
Advantages
Greater level of representation from all the groups
If there is homogeneity within strata and heterogeneity between strata, the estimates can be as
accurate
Disadvantages
Requires the knowledge of strata membership
Might take longer and more expensive
Complex methodology
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling divides the population into multiple clusters for research. Researchers then
select random groups with a simple random or systematic random sampling technique for data
collection and data analysis.
Steps involved in cluster sampling:
Create the clusters from the population data
Select each cluster as a sampling frame
Number each cluster
Select the random clusters
After selecting the clusters, either complete clusters will be used for the study or apply the other
sampling methods to pick the sample elements from the clusters.
Ex: A researcher wants to conduct an academic performance of engineering students under a
particular university. He can divide the entire population into multiple engineering colleges
(Which are clusters) and randomly pick up some clusters for the study.
Types of cluster sampling:
One-stage cluster : From the above example, selecting the entire students from the random
engineering colleges is one stage cluster
Two-Stage Cluster: From the same example, picking up the random students from the each
cluster by random or systematic sampling is Two-Stage Cluster
Advantages
Saves time and money
It is very easy to use from the practical standpoint
Larger sample sizes can be used
Disadvantages
High sampling error
May fail to reflect the diversity in the sampling frame
Non-probability sampling
Non-Probability samples are preferred when accuracy in the results is not important. These are
inexpensive, easy to run and no frame is required. If a non-probability sample is carried out
carefully, then the bias in the results can be reduced.
The main disadvantage of Non-Probability sampling is “dangerous to make inferences about the
whole population.”
Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is the easiest method of sampling and the participants are selected based
on availability and willingness to participate in the survey. The results are prone to significant
bias as the sample may not be a representative of population.
Applications
Surveys conducted in social networking sites and offices
Examples: The polls conducted in Facebook or Youtube. The people who are interested in taking
the survey or polls will attend the survey and the results may not be accurate as the results are
prone to significant bias.
Advantages
It is easy to get the sample
Low cost and participants are readily available
Disadvantages
Can’t generalize the results
Possibility of under or over representation of the population
Significant bias
Quota sampling
This method is mainly used by market researchers. The researchers divide the survey population
into mutually exclusive subgroups. These subgroups are selected with respect to certain known
features, traits, or interests. Samples from each subgroup are selected by the researcher.
Quota sampling can be divided into two groups-
Controlled quota sampling involves introduction of certain restrictions in order to limit
researcher’s choice of samples.
Uncontrolled quota sampling resembles convenience sampling method in a way that researcher is
free to choose sample group members
Steps involved in Quota Sampling
Divide the population into exclusive sub groups
Identify the proportion of sub groups in the population
Select the subjects for each subgroup
Ensure the sample is the representative of population
Ex: A painting company wants to do research on one of their products. So the researcher uses the
quota sampling methods to pick up painters, builders, agents and retail painting shop owners.
Advantages
Cost effective
Doesn’t depend on sampling frames
Allows the researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study
Disadvantages
sample may be overrepresented
Unable to calculate the sampling error
Great potential for researcher bias and the quality of work may suffer due to researcher
incompetency and/or lack of experience
Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling
In Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling, a researcher relies on his or her judgment when choosing
members of the population to participate in the study. Researchers often believe that they can
obtain a representative sample by using sound judgment, which will result in saving time and
money.
As the researcher’s knowledge is instrumental in creating a sample in this sampling technique,
there are chances that the results obtained will be highly accurate with a minimum margin of
error.
Ex: A broadcasting company wants to research one of the TV shows. The researcher has an idea
of the target audience and he can choose the members of the population to participate in the
study.
Advantages
Cost and time effective sampling method
Allows researchers to approach their target market directly
Almost real-time results
Disadvantages
Vulnerability to errors in judgment by researcher
Low level of reliability and high levels of bias
Inability to generalize research findings
Snowball sampling
This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-reach groups.
Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases
in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when surveying risk behaviors amongst intravenous
drug users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.
This sampling method involves primary data sources nominating other potential primary data
sources to be used in the research. So the snowball sampling method is based on referrals from
initial subjects to generate additional subjects. Therefore, when applying this sampling method
members of the sample group are recruited via chain referral.
There are three patterns of Snowball Sampling-
Linear snowball sampling. Recruit only one subject and the subject provides only one referral
Exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling. Recruit only one subject and the subject
provides multiple referrals
Exponential discriminative snowball sampling. Recruit only one subject and the subject provides
multiple referrals. But only one subject is picked up from the referrals
Ex: Individuals with rare diseases. If a drug company is interested in doing research on the
individuals with rare diseases, it may be difficult to find these individuals. So the drug company
can find few individuals to participate in the study and request them to refer the individuals from
their contacts.
Advantages
Researchers can reach rare subjects in a particular population
Low-cost and easy to implement
It doesn’t require a recruitment team to recruit the additional subjects
Disadvantages
The sample may not be a representative
Sampling bias may occur
Because the sample is likely to be biased, it can be hard to draw conclusions about the larger
population with any confidence
Finally,
Reducing sampling error is the major goal of any selection technique.
A sample should be big enough to answer the research question, but not so big that the process of
sampling becomes uneconomical.
In general, the larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error, and the better job you can do.
Decide the appropriate sampling method based on the study or use case.