State-of-the-Art Review

Steel Slag for Roadway Construction: A Review of Material

Characteristics and Application Mechanisms
Jinzhou Liu, S.M.ASCE 1; Jian Xu, Ph.D. 2; Qi Liu 3; Shuyi Wang, S.M.ASCE 4; and Bin Yu 5
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Abstract: Steel slag (SS) is regarded as a potentially promising alternative material for road construction, which could ameliorate the
shortage of high-quality aggregate and environmental pollution of SS accumulation simultaneously. However, except for some developed
countries, the comprehensive utilization rate of SS in developing countries is particularly limited, especially in road construction. This is
attributed to the concerns and uncertainties of environmental and mechanical properties caused by the incorporation of SS into pavement.
Therefore, a systematic literature review is conducted to explore the status quo and challenges of SS application in road domain to help
develop appropriate utilization strategies. Thanks to the excellent antiabrasion, rich angularity, rough texture, and high hardness, SS aggregate
possesses favorable interlocking capability that can be utilized in subgrade, base, and surface course. Additionally, when used in surface, it
can be considered as a functional material, for instance for antiskidding, noise reduction, and conductive concrete for crack healing and ice
melting. The current investigations are still widely interested in performance verification and expansion treatment, but lack relevant
mechanism-based analysis. Further rational studies are required in terms of gelation activation technology, adhesion injury, mesoscale skel-
eton optimization, evaluation of healing efficiency, and long-term performance. Moreover, the environmental assessments including heavy
metal and leachate contaminations are necessary for the adoption of SS in pavement. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004230.
© 2022 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Steel slag (SS); Physiochemical characteristics; Subgrade activation; Base course; Asphalt concrete; Environmental
assessment.

Introduction imbalance (Piao et al. 2021). At present, alleviating the negative

In the process of extending the scale of road construction and main-
tenance, large amounts of natural stones are consumed, resulting in
irreversible harm to environment and ecology. The shortage of
high-quality stone resources has become increasingly prominent,
and there is an urgent need to seek alternative materials. Mean-
while, with the continuous development of the steel-making indus-
try, a type of steel-making by-product called steel slag (SS) has
become cumulatively attractive. With the deepening of comprehen-
sion, rapid development of smelting technology, and harmless treat-
ment technology, SS has witnessed broad application in road
construction, cement industry, metallurgical recycling, soil amend-
ment, nutrient supplement of chemical fertilizer and reduction of
greenhouse emissions. According to the USGS (2020), global SS
production is expected to be between 190 million and 280 million
tons in 2019. However, the application of SS exhibits regional
1
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Transportation, Southeast Univ., Sipailou
#2, Nanjing 210096, China. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4494
-4340. Email: liujz@seu.edu.cn
2
Engineer, Housing and Urban-Rural Construction Dept. of Jiangsu
Province, Security Support Center for Urban Water Supply of Jiangsu
Province, Nanjing 210036, China. Email: xujianjscin@sina.com
3
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Transportation, Southeast Univ., Sipailou
#2, Nanjing 210096, China. Email: liuqi_@seu.edu.cn
4
Ph.D. Candidate, School of Transportation, Southeast Univ., Sipailou
#2, Nanjing 210096, China. Email: sywangseuer@seu.edu.cn
5
Professor, School of Transportation, Southeast Univ., Sipailou #2,
Nanjing 210096, China (corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid
.org/0000-0002-4978-362X. Email: yb@seu.edu.cn
Note. This manuscript was published online on March 17, 2022. Dis-
cussion period open until August 17, 2022; separate discussions must be
submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Ma-
terials in Civil Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
impact on ecological environment and realizing the recycling of
SS are still in the demand of unremitting efforts.
The characteristic parameters are distinct from those of natural
aggregates (NA), which are mainly reflected in aggregate proper-
ties, chemical composition, mineral composition, and volume sta-
bility. Thanks to good wear resistance, rough surface texture, and
potential gelation properties (containing C3 S, C2 S, C3 A, and
C4 AF), considerable progress has been made in the utilization
of SS (Poulikakos et al. 2017). SS has a broad utilization range
in road engineering, where it can be used as aggregate for asphalt
pavement and base course as well as cementitious material in sub-
grade stability (Palankar et al. 2016). When used in asphalt pave-
ment, the unique properties give it the potential to realize pavement
functionalization. It can be utilized in self-healing and ice removal
for asphalt concrete in consequence of rich iron-related elements.
With the benefit of rich surface texture, SS has the capability to
improve the skid resistance and noise reduction of pavement.
However, large-scale promotion is still limited by its volume
instability and porous properties. The surface porosity increases
the amount of asphalt, meanwhile the higher density triggers the
rise of transportation and paving costs. Performance and environ-
mental concerns during construction and service have plagued re-
searchers as well, the fundamental risks of which involve swelling
(Ma et al. 2020; Teixeira et al. 2019) and leaching of hazardous
elements (Al-Kawari and Hushari 2019; Hu et al. 2020). The exist-
ence of free expansive compounds (f-CaO, f-MgO) in SS will in-
flict detrimental effects on pavement, resulting in expansion and
accelerated deterioration. There are several instances in terms of
stabilization techniques (exposure to weathering, use of additives,
water quenching or spraying, high-temperature steam treatment,
and accelerated carbonization) for the reduction of volume insta-
bility (Pan et al. 2016). Some authors (Santamaria et al. 2018;

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 Sorlini et al. 2012) suggest a minimum aging of 4–6 months as
necessary for stabilizing swelling components. Furthermore, with
respect to hazardous elements, heavy metals may be leached, thus
leading to the contamination of soil and groundwater.
SS possesses complicated interactions with NA, and these
properties vary widely with different sources and steel-making
processes. At present, due to the lack of cognition of acting mecha-
nism and relevant long-term behaviors, road constructors normally
have doubts on the incorporation of SS, which also leads to the
inadequate utilization in road construction. Therefore, by exploring
the classification, physicochemical characteristics, and its utiliza-
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tion advance as well as potential hidden dangers, this review will

comprehensively analyze and summarize the available studies of
SS at various courses during recent years, aiming to fill the knowl-
edge gaps of SS application in road engineering, and provide clear
Fig. 1. SS (left) and NA (right) aggregate.
and systematic understanding of the utilization prospect for man-
agement departments, road constructors, and pollution managers of
steel mills. Furthermore, at the end of the review, in view of the
Table 1. Yield and recycling approaches of SS in Europe, Japan, China,
dilemmas and challenges faced by current studies, we propose
and US
some suggestions for future research directions.
Yield
(million Recycling Utilization
Classification and Current Utilization Continent/country tons/year) approaches rate (%)
Europe 15.7 Road construction 69.9
In general, SS can be divided into three categories according to (EUROSLAG 2018) Metallurgical use 13.4
the difference of factory source and steelmaking process, namely Cement/concrete additive 5.5
electric-arc furnace slag (EAFS), basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS), Others 5.3
and ladle furnace slag (LFS) (Skaf et al. 2017; Ziaee and Behnia Fertilizer 4.6
2020). Fig. 1 shows the comparison of SS and NA aggregate. Note Hydraulic engineering 1.3
that there is another type of slag in production process: blast furnace Japan (Nippon Slag 13.7 Road construction 32.4
slag (BFS). BFS is formed when hot metal is produced by thermal- Association 2017) Civil 30.9
chemical reduction in a blast furnace and is not within the scope of Internal recycling 20.8
this review. Others 7.0
Table 1 collects the distribution of production utilization within Agriculture 3.9
the main SS producing countries. The global application of SS dis- Cement production 3.4
plays regional imbalance. In developed countries such as the United Final disposal 1.6
States, Japan, and in Europe, the comprehensive utilization rate China (Guo et al. 2018) 101.3 Landfill 70.5
reaches over 85%, and more than 50% is used for road construc- Civil engineering 10.1
tion. However, China’s total SS production has reached 100 million Cement production 9.3
tons in 2018. Unlike the high utilization rate in developed coun- Internal recycling 7.5
tries, nearly 70% SS in China is still in landfills, among which less Road construction 2.6
than 5% is used in road construction. Studies have verified that un- US (USGS 2020) 14 Road bases/surfaces 40.8
treated SS disposal will lead to unrecoverable deterioration of eco- Asphaltic concrete 15.1
logical environment and groundwater resources (Guo et al. 2018). Oher or unspecified 24.7
Landfill 14.8
Clinker raw material 2.4
Physiochemical Properties and Implications Miscellaneous 2.0
for Road Application Concrete products 0.4

Physical Features
The common physical properties of SS are distinct from those of
NA, including specific gravity, porosity, water absorption, crushing
value, etc. In general, the bulk specific gravity (BSG) of basalt and
limestone is between 2.6 and 2.8, while the BSG of SS is univer-
sally greater than 3, ranging from 3.2 to 3.8 (Chen et al. 2016b;
Yang et al. 2021; Yildirim and Prezzi 2020). This can be attributed
to the high iron oxide content in SS (Table 2). The higher BSG
indicates that SS mixture is prone to develop segregation issues
if NA are substituted (Poh et al. 2006; Shiha et al. 2020).
Influenced from cooling technologies such as slagging and hot
splashing in slag making process, the surface of SS presents a
vesicular porous structure. Therefore, its porosity is up to 6%, lead-
ing to a high-water absorption consequently. Degradation such as
carbonation may occur in aggregates when exposed to acidic
sources (i.e., CO2 or H2 CO3 ). For the higher water absorption
(1.2%–2.6%) reported (Pathak et al. 2020b; Yang et al. 2021),
this is due to abundant open voids on its surface. Compared with
NA, the special smelting craft results in the formation of porous
structure.
The crushing value (CV) is to evaluate crushing resistance of
aggregate under load. The CVof SS is generally 3%–6% lower than
that of NA recorded in the literature (Gao et al. 2017; Hasita et al.
2020), which signifies that SS aggregates have higher strength
under loads and pose a positive role in dense traffic resistance.
However, the higher crushing resistance and roughness induce
the challenging compaction in construction. Such concerns have
been previously reported (Skaf et al. 2019) as the compaction of
EAFS mixture is more complicated and requires more compacting
energies.

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 Table 2. Chemical components of SS
Oxide composition (%)
Slag type Sources CaO SiO2 Al2 O3 MgO Fe2 O3 SO3 MnO TiO2 P2 O 5 K2 O References
EAFS US 26.22 14.67 5.64 9.82 36.12 n.d. 5.51 0.49 n.d. n.d. Yildirim and Prezzi (2020)
Spain 22.39 15.64 12.14 7.96 25.32 0.07 4.60 0.75 0.10 0.02 Ferreira et al. (2016)
Italy 18.28 18.90 5.80 2.53 37.71 n.d. 2.55 0.24 0.35 n.d. Autelitano and Giuliani (2016)
Iran 38.86 17.47 4.03 5.01 25.75 0.48 2.32 2.11 1.5 0.25 Kavussi and Qazizadeh (2014)
India 30.70 12.77 12.0 7.72 31.05 n.d. 0.48 n.d. 0.42 0.08 Pattanaik et al. (2021)
BOFS UK 41.44 15.26 4.35 8.06 23.19 n.d. 5.20 0.72 1.15 0.42 Poh et al. (2006)
France 45.0 10.8 1.9 4.5 32.0 0.4 2.6 0.5 1.4 n.d. Belhadj et al. (2012)
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India 52.266 14.692 2.796 2.746 22.870 0.427 0.828 0.697 2.205 0.062 Swathi et al. (2021)
Iran 45.17 18.46 4.59 4.67 15.57 0.749 3.03 2.44 1.69 0.29 Qazizadeh et al. (2018)
US 39.4 11.97 2.16 9.69 30.23 0.12 2.74 0.4 1 0.05 Yildirim and Prezzi (2015)
LFS Spain 56.7 17.7 6.6 9.6 2.2 0.86 n.d. 0.34 n.d. 0.1 Manso et al. (2013)
Greece 55.6 23.0 1.3 6.7 1.7 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.3 Papayianni and Anastasiou (2012)
Italy 50.36 21.64 9.36 13.06 1.47 1.63 0.2 2.04 0.03 0.01 Bocci (2018)
Spain 56.7 17.7 6.6 9.6 2.2 0.9 n.d. 0.3 n.d. n.d. Skaf et al. (2016)
Spain 40.19 12.49 7.29 19.38 2.38 0.548 0.936 0.486 0.0179 0.0506 Terrones-Saeta et al. (2020)
Note: n.d. = no data.

Chemical and Mineral Components
Oxide Composition
The composition of SS varies irregularly with different additives,
steelmaking processes, and cooling procedures. Table 2 summarizes
its chemical composition obtained from literatures. SS is mainly
composed of calcium, iron, silicon, magnesium and bits of alumi-
num, manganese, phosphorus, and other oxides.
The chemical composition of EAFS is similar to that of BOFS.
In general, the content of Fe2 O3 in LFS is much lower than that of
EAFS, while the corresponding content of CaO is higher than that
of BOFS and EAFS. There are some common composition char-
acteristics among three slags, that is, the main oxide components
are CaO, SiO2 , MgO, Fe2 O3 . It is reported (Gökalp et al. 2018) that
this reflects the quaternary chemical system of SS. These four ox-
ides account for approximately 80% of overall oxides. CaO is the
largest mass component that contributes to SS, which represents its
strong alkalinity. SiO2 or Fe2 O3 constitutes the second component
with the difference of steelmaking process (Pan et al. 2016). When
iron content is not taken into account, SS and cement are found to
be very similar in composition. The large proportion of Fe2 O3
weakens the hydraulic potential of SS, which can be attributed
to the inertness of iron-related phase in contact with water.
However, it is precisely because of the presence of iron oxide that
endows the slag with profitable thermal conductivity, which may be
useful in deicing or crack healing.
Mineralogical Nature
Through the summarization of SS mineral composition from
diverse types and batches, researchers found that the diffraction
peaks of mineral phases detected by X-ray diffraction (XRD)
are complex and severely overlapped, indicating that the composi-
tion is complicated. Its mineral composition involves tricalcium
silicate, dicalcium silicate, calcium magnesite, calcium aluminate,
calcium olivine, and solid solution formed by oxides of silicon, mag-
nesium, iron, manganese, and phosphorus. There is also a small
amount of free calcium oxide and iron-related phases (Ca2 Fe2 O5 ,
Fe2 O3 ), fluorapatite, and so on. The mineral composition shifts
as SS’s basicity varies. A higher calcite content has been detected
in SS at intervals (Terrones-Saeta et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2011),
which may be caused by the carbonization of CaðOHÞ2 during
weathering.
A total of three types of crystal forms (α, β, γ) have been de-
tected in various SS samples (Table 3). On the contrary, C3 S is more
likely to present in alkaline SS when CaO=SiO2 is greater than 2.7

Table 3. Mineral constituents of SS

Mineral phase Molecular formula References
β-dicalcium silicate (β-C2 S) Belhadj et al. (2012), Ko et al. (2015), and Pan et al. (2016)
α-dicalcium silicate (α-C2 S) Kambole et al. (2017)
γ-dicalcium silicate (γ-C2 S) Chen et al. (2014) and Zhang et al. (2011)
Calcite CaCO3 Ko et al. (2015), Terrones-Saeta et al. (2021), and Zhang et al. (2011)
Monticellite CaMgðSiO4 Þ Terrones-Saeta et al. (2021)
RO phase MgO-FeO-MnO solid solution Sun et al. (2020), Wang et al. (2011), and Zhang et al. (2011)
Calcium aluminates CaAl2 O4 Ferreira et al. (2016) and Skaf et al. (2019)
Akermanite Ca2 MgSi2 O7 Poh et al. (2006)
Alite C3 S Chen et al. (2014), Ko et al. (2015), and Wang et al. (2011)
Magnetite Fe3 O4 Autelitano and Giuliani (2016), Awed et al. (2020), and Gao et al. (2017)
Hematite Fe2 O3 Awed et al. (2020) and Pan et al. (2016)
Dicalcium ferrite Ca2 Fe2 O5 Belhadj et al. (2012) and Ko et al. (2015)
Calcium hydroxide CaðOHÞ2 Belhadj et al. (2012) and Ko et al. (2015)
Tetra calcium aluminoferrite C4 AF Sun et al. (2020)
Lime CaO Ko et al. (2015)

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 (Belhadj et al. 2012). The presence of C3 S, C2 S, C4 AF, and a small
amount of C2 F endows SS with cementitious properties similar to
cement. Nevertheless, the content of silicate minerals is relatively
low, in which C3 S is readily converted into C2 S and secondary
f-CaO. Hence the C3 S that actually participates in chemical reac-
tion is inadequate, resulting in a much fainter primeval hydration
rate than that of cement (Sun et al. 2020). In a word, the content of
diverse components in SS varies considerably depending on the
type of furnace, steel, and smelting stages, and thus poses distinct
impacts on the utilization of road engineering.
Similar to the composition of oxides, several alkaline minerals
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in SS denote favorable adhesion and potential volume instability as
road aggregate. According to some researchers (Özkök et al. 2016),
the high alkalinity also has some environmental hazards. If un-
treated SS is directly discarded in landfills, and the precipitation
of vanadate and carbonate may potentially threaten the water qual-
ity in soil. This implies the serious consequences in landfills and
highlights the urgent necessity for recycling SS. When recycling SS
from steel mills, acid, CO2 , or CaCl2 can be added to reduce alka-
linity. The basicity release capacity of SS can be further diminished
by accelerated carbonation process. Moreover, as mentioned pre-
viously, the cementitious composition of SS is relatively low, hence
SS is normally mixed with cement or lime to stimulate its activity.
The mixed cement or asphalt binder exhibits wrapping effect on SS,
which can inhibit the release of alkali elements (Teixeira et al.
2019). Due to the concern of high alkaline leachate, as a type of
by-product, aluminum hydroxide-based water treatment residual
(WTR) (Özkök et al. 2016, 2019) can be incorporated to SS as well.
The formation of ettringite and monosulfate is able to change the
basicity controlled by CaðOHÞ2 in hydrated SS and thus reduce the
hazard to soil and underground water.
Dimension Instability
The instability of SS is due to the contained unhydrated parts,
i.e., f-CaO and f-MgO. The volumes of CaðOHÞ2 and MgðOHÞ2
generated by the hydration of f-CaO and f-MgO are reported to
expand fabulously by 127.78% and 148%, respectively (Jiang
et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2010). This is the main reason that SS
is rarely applied in asphalt concrete, base, and subgrade. In general,
SS fines and fillers contain more f-CaO than coarse aggregate (Li
et al. 2017), and the volume expansion behavior can be tested by
immersion expansion test. These unfavorable factors can be solved
by improving steelmaking and optimizing SS treatment process. It
is also possible to improve the stability in later stage through mea-
sures such as aging treatment and adding modifiers.
Aging treatment can be categorized into natural weathering and
high-pressure steam treatment. Due to the lower cost, simplicity,
and effectiveness, natural weathering (Sorlini et al. 2012) is cur-
rently the most common method for bulk SS. The content of
Fig. 2. Volume model of pores and solids.
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f-CaO is generally less than 3% after 6 months of weathering, while
can be hardly detected after 12 months. Most of the literatures agree
that (Santamaria et al. 2018; Sorlini et al. 2012) it is recommended
to store SS for at least 3 months to ensure acceptable volume sta-
bility. Stocked in the specialized warehouse prevents the pollution
to the land by the scouring of rain. During this period, the mechanical
watering and open storage are merely required, thus it is economi-
cally and environmentally feasible. Several scholars (Bocci 2018;
Zhao et al. 2016) have further developed an emerging aging method
of high-pressure steam treatment. The immersion expansion de-
creases from 3.46% to 0.70% after it is treated with 350 kg · h−1
steam for 6 days, which is equivalent to that of natural weathering
for 6 months.
The expansion shifts the chemical properties of SS, which may
influence the design of volume parameters for asphalt mixtures
(Teixeira et al. 2019). Since the variables affecting the swelling
behavior are abundant, there are currently limited methods to theo-
retically predict the expansion of SS (Kuo and Shu 2014; Wang
et al. 2010) The expansion mechanism can be comprehended using
a volume model of pore enlargement due to physical change of free
lime, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Previous studies (Autelitano and
Giuliani 2015) have shown that the cumulative process of ex-
pansion can be divided into three different stages, and the final ex-
pansion depends on the effects of aging and inherent physical
elements.
Researchers have devoted unremitting efforts to reduce or elimi-
nate the inherent instability of SS. The surface modification treat-
ment can reduce its instability. A hydrophobic surface structure
is proposed to reduce volume expansion (Jiang et al. 2020).
Compared with unmodified SS, 46.0% and 21.2% reduction of
expansion within 4.75–9.5 mm and 9.5–13.2 mm are observed
in treated SS, respectively. From another study (Chen et al. 2020b),
through modifying weathered SS coarse aggregate with silicone
resin meanwhile adding cement filler, its immersion expansion
is less than 0.6%.
In summary, the pretreatment technology improves the stability
from the source and avoids the demand of further aging treatment to
the maximum extent. For SS that has been piled up in large quan-
tities but not yet aged, it is suggested to use high-pressure steam
treatment to substantially shorten the aging time, thereby minimiz-
ing environmental issues such as land occupation.
Application in Road Engineering
SS in Subgrade
The mechanical properties of fillers are directly related to the de-
formation and stability of subgrade. Recently, it is found that SS
possesses advantageous particle nature and engineering filling
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 characteristics. The chemical composition and mechanical proper-
ties are conducive to the enhancement of subgrade strength and
bearing capacity, thus it is increasingly used in the stabilization
of soil.
SS as a filler used in subgrade has many advantages. First, when
used to strengthen soft foundation, the most evident benefit for en-
gineering is to improve bearing capacity, thereby reducing uneven
settlement. The blend of SS can effectively prevent grouting and
swelling (Yildirim and Prezzi 2017). Second, large internal friction
force will form after compaction attributed to rich angularity, which
improves the shear resistance of subgrade (Cheng et al. 2016).
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remarkably higher than that of lower foundation soil, thus the stress
diffusion phenomenon will occur to reduce the additional stress on
the lower course. SS possesses profitable water permeability and
can be regarded as a drainage channel for compression consolida-
tion of foundation soil, which is beneficial for the early consolida-
tion of foundation (Zaika and Djakfar 2016).
Table 4 summarizes the roles of SS/SS powder in the stabiliza-
tion of subgrade soil. Most studies have investigated the influence
of SS contents on subgrade soil compaction and strength, among
them unconfined compression strength (UCS) and California bearing
ratio (CBR) tests are normally recommended since they can con-

Moreover, the resilient modulus of SS-stabilized subgrade is veniently evaluate the strength of stabilized soil (Gu et al. 2018;

Table 4. Stabilization of SS in subgrade

Slag type Level of input Observations References
SS Original phosphogypsum∶slag∶portland Best overall performance: Gu et al. (2021)
cement ¼ 6∶3∶1;
Blended with 5% micro silica fume and 3‰ 60-day compressive strength ¼ 28.8 MPa;
hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose softening coefficient ¼ 0.9; and
expansion rate = −0.2%
SS Clay soil þ 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% SS Most recommended SS dosage 25%; Ospina-García et al.
plasticity index, CBR, UCS (2020)
SS 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% 20% FSS: Aldeeky and Al
weight of fine SS (FSS) in high plastic 26.3% reduction of plasticity index; Hattamleh (2017)
subgrade soil 58.3% reduction of free swell;
100% increase of UCS; and
154% increment of CBR
SS 30%, 50%, and 80% SS to lime soil 50% SS, 45% soil, and 5% lime display the Gu et al. (2018)
best performance
SS Clayey soil þ 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% SS 75% soil þ 25% SS: Hirapure and Dalvi
maximum UCS; (2018)
liquid limit, decrease to 18%;
plastic limit, decrease to 22%;
plasticity index, decrease to 13%
SS Fly ash=SS ¼ 1∶1, Phosphogypsum 28-day UCS ¼ 8 MPa; Shen et al. (2009)
dosage ¼ 2.5% 60-day UCS ¼ 12 MPa;
resilient modulus ¼ 1,987 MPa;
spitting strength ¼ 0.82 MPa
EAFS/BFS Soil-7% EAFS-3% BFS; Effective in suppressing swelling; Yildirim and Prezzi
Soil-7% EAFS-3% Class C FA satisfactory strength performance (2020)
EAFS Powai soil from 20% to 70% by weight 30% slag and 70% soil: Athulya et al. (2017)
optimum UCS and CBR
EAFS EAFS þ 5% − 10% Class C FA After 15 months: Yildirim and Prezzi
5% Class C FA, maximum volumetric strains (2017)
reduced from 0.91% to 0.15%;
10% Class C FA, maximum swelling strain of
9.1 × 10−3
BOFS 50%, 60%,70%, and 80% BOFS to the soil 70% BOFS þ 30% soil: Magalhães et al.
high CBR and maximum dry density; (2020)
low-plasticity, nonexpansion
BOFS BOFS, quick lime, and sodium metasilicate 15%–20% of BOFS fines: Poh et al. (2006)
very low initial strength levels but rapid
increase rate after 7 days
LFS LFS + low quality natural soils Magnesium oxide, a predictor of long-term Montenegro-Cooper
expansion; et al. (2019)
expansion: soil-slag mixture <soil and slag
LFS Five different kinds of LFS to the soil Recommended slags containing lime and Ortega-López et al.
portlandite; (2014)
for high-alumina slags, minimum spontaneous
weathering

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 Montenegro-Cooper et al. 2019). It is widely agreed that reasonable
incorporation of SS (no more than 50%) plays a positive effect on
enhancing the bearing capacity of soil. Regarding the dynamic re-
sponse and deformation characteristics, several existing studies
(Ashango and Ranjan 2016; Cheng et al. 2016) have also exhibited
gratifying results. Overall, SS-stabilized soil subgrade has satisfac-
tory deformation properties.
Despite that SS can partially or completely substitute lime or ce-
ment, some studies have reported that SS filler exhibits insufficient
activity in subgrade stabilization (Cheng and Yan 2011), as the con-
tent of C3 S in SS is much lower and has deficient hydraulic activity
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in the initial stage of reaction. Therefore, researchers have endeav-
ored to improve the effect of SS on subgrade stabilization through
chemical measures, which can be categorized into three types.
The first approach is to blend SS with other stabilizing materials
to promote the effect of subgrade improvement. It is found that after
7 days of curing treatment, CBR increased from 3.524% to 26.14%
while the plasticity index decreased to 4.57% after mixing 20% fly
ash (FA) and 20% SS with soil (Mina et al. 2019). Apart from fly
ash, red mud (Zhang et al. 2020), metal kaolin (Deng et al. 2017),
and gypsum powder (Cho and Choi 2016) have been used to assist
in enhancing the strength and structural stability of SS-stabilized
clay as well. These materials are supposed to promote the secon-
dary hydration of cement and SS.
The second approach is to incorporate activators to form hydra-
tion products [e.g., calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium alumi-
nate hydrate (CAH), and/or calcium aluminum silicate hydrate
(CASH)]. Calcium chloride dihydrate (CaCl2 · 2H2 O99 þ %),
NaOH, NaCl, and Na2 SO4 were respectively employed to investi-
gate the activation of SS (Belhadj et al. 2012; Gu et al. 2018; Wu
et al. 2019). Based on the observation of CBR, UCS, consistency
limit and microstructure, the cementitious effect is considered to be
sufficiently improved.
The last method is to alter the mineral composition of SS. Since
the activity is closely related to the proportion of cementitious and
inert phase. During reconstruction, increasing the proportion of ce-
mentitious component is an approach worth considering. However,
there are opinions (Wang et al. 2011) argued that it is insufficient to
merely raise the ratio of cementitious phase to the inert one, since
the cementitious phase of SS is not adequately active in early stage
(compared with cement). Thereby steel-making process should
be simultaneously optimized.
In fact, even if the promising uses reported for subgrade, the het-
erogeneity and expansion of SS are still major issues that restrict its
application during stabilization. Without treatment, BOFS, EAFS,
and LFS are prone to present volumetric instability in contact with
water. This hidden trouble deserves serious attention.
Recently researchers have endeavored to reveal the strength de-
velopment mechanism of SS-stabilized subgrade soil. Techniques
including mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), and XRD are exploited to unveil their micro-
structure. Abundant reticulated and fibrous CSH are observed to
constitute the bonding source (Deng et al. 2017). The discovery
of hydration products such as CSH, CASH, and CAH as well as
the bonding of fine particles within soils enhanced the stiffness and
strength properties (Mozejko and Francisca 2020). These results
demonstrate the cementitious effect of SS and provide reference
for understanding its strengthening mechanism.
SS in Base Course
Considering the sound abrasion resistance, breakage resistance,
and hydraulic stiffness, SS is considered to be a potential substitute
for NA to transfer wheel load and provide outstanding perfor-
mance. As expected, past findings (Androjić and Dimter 2012;
© ASCE 03122001-6
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2022, 34(6): 03122001
Fig. 3. SEM images of mixture incorporating SS.
Barišić et al. 2015, 2016, 2019; Maghool et al. 2017b; Satyajit and
Shahu 2016) have demonstrated that the strength, stiffness, and
other mechanical properties of SS mixture are comparable to or
better than those of NA when SS is substituted for NA in whole
or in part.
Previous studies have compared the feasibility of SS with
various contents in cement treated base (Liu et al. 2020b), and
satisfactory mechanical properties can be obtained when SS repla-
ces coarse aggregate by 50%. SS contains cementitious compo-
nents similar with cement, which can promote the formation of
strength and stiffness of cement stabilized base. Compared with
NA, microscale detections such as XRD and SEM have observed
a denser structure and more hydration products in SS mixture
(Al-Homidy et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2020b; Satyajit and Shahu
2016), as displayed in Fig. 3. During compaction, the rough texture
and angularity boost the mechanical interlocking effect among par-
ticles (Barišić et al. 2015). In fact, 3D digital image correlation
(DIC) (Barišić et al. 2015) technology and finite-element technol-
ogy (Behiry 2013) have been launched to accurately measure the
elastic modulus of SS mixture, the predominant interlocking
among SS particles is able to improve bearing capacity and
antideformability.
In fact, different types of SS may exhibit performance deviations
when applied to pavement base. Studies (Maghool et al. 2017a)
have found that the CBR of EAFS is lower than that of LFS,
and this scenario may be related to the cohesion among LFS par-
ticles. LFS is suitable for base, subbase, and fillers. The lack of
cohesion in EAFS indicates that it may not be appropriate in base
where load capacity is required. Similar conclusion is reported from
the investigation (Maghool et al. 2017b) that after curing for 7 days,
UCS of the mixture containing LFS skyrockets almost four times as
compared to NA. The strength of BOFS lies in between, and no
more than 40% of BOFS in road base can meet the requirements
of CBR and swelling (Chen et al. 2017a).
At present, there is still controversy about the effect of SS on
strength improvement under high cement contents. Previous studies
(Barišić et al. 2014, 2016) have reported that the compressive
strength and dynamic modulus depend on binder contents. With
low cement content (2%), the strength and modulus will be boosted
when SS increases to 50%, whereas this is inapplicable under high
cement contents. Such phenomenon can be attributed to the in-
crease of interfacial area caused by the filling of SS voids with higher
cement contents, which is the weak link in strength composition.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 In most cases, SS samples conform to the volume expansion
limit in road structure (Magalhães et al. 2020), which is possibly
because most of the selected SS has been weathered in open air for
a period of time (Rohde et al. 2003), as well as the accomplished
reaction between free components and water during sample prepa-
ration. Interestingly, it is found that SS also plays a positive effect
on delaying the cracking of cement mixture (Liu et al. 2020b), since
its expansion compensates for the partial shrinkage of concrete. The
regulation of temperature and humidity on shrinkage behavior of
SS mixtures were investigated (Liu et al. 2020b). They suppose
that drying shrinkage reduces with SS contents, while the opposite
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is true in terms of temperature shrinkage. The hydration products

are more sensitive to temperature, although swelling counteracts
partial shrinkage.
Various studies have testified that SS can be regarded as eco-
nomic material used in road base. However, few studies have evalu-
ated long-term behaviors of them. SS for base deserves rational
design to develop appropriate incorporation method. Previously,
five accelerated aging procedures, including hot water bath, high
pressure, freeze-thaw cycle, wet-dry cycle, and thermal shock, were
comprehensively considered to measure the durability of SS mix-
ture. The results suggest that the mixture only containing SS ag-
gregate performs unsatisfactory behaviors in terms of expansion
and mechanical properties. In contrast, samples mixed with fine
NA and coarse SS aggregates exhibit similar properties to NA
(Autelitano and Giuliani 2016). In short, the current research on
the long-term durability of SS road base under adverse conditions
is still lacking. More studies are necessary to verify the feasibility
of treating SS with inorganic binders.
SS in Asphalt Concrete
As green economy attracts more attention in recent years, the re-
search on SS in asphalt pavement has become increasingly popular.
This section mainly focuses on the performance design and mecha-
nism, while summarizing the advancement of SS asphalt mix-
ture (SSAM).
Mix Design and Road Performance
Because of the density characteristics, the design process of SSAM
is different from conventional asphalt mixture, which is elaborated
in Fig. 4. The following kernels should be highlighted during mix
ratio: incorporation approach and proportion of SS, revision of SS
gradation in asphalt mixture, and determination of optimal asphalt
content (OAC).
SS is not naturally graded well, hence it is commonly used to
substitute NA in part or in whole. Due to the increase of asphalt and
risk of volume stability (Amuchi et al. 2013), it is generally not
recommended to completely replace NA with SS in actual use,
while used as coarse aggregate (greater than 2.36 mm) (Skaf
et al. 2017) or fine aggregate (Hesami et al. 2015) is more reason-
able. Nevertheless, conflicting studies suggest that SS used as fine
aggregate will remarkably increase the absorption of binder (Ameri
et al. 2013), hence the common use of SS is to substitute coarse
aggregate.
For the design of asphalt mixture, the weight-based classifica-
tion method is used when the BSG of various aggregates is indis-
tinguishable. Since the density of SS is 15%–20% higher than that
of NA, there will be deviations within target gradation if conven-
tional method is adopted for preparing SSAM, which will conse-
quently lead to unreasonable composition of aggregate. Therefore,
it is necessary to modify original gradation by combining the vol-
ume proportion between SS and NA (Skaf et al. 2017). Compared
with NA, the porous structure of SS is prone to absorb excess as-
phalt, leading to an inevitable increase in its consumption (Kavussi
and Qazizadeh 2014; Masoudi et al. 2017). A 0.3% increase of
Fig. 4. Design process of SSAM.
OAC is observed when 50% limestone was replaced, and 1.1%
when 100% limestone is substituted (Kavussi and Qazizadeh
2014). Thus the initial asphalt content should be raised compared
with that of NA asphalt mixture (Skaf et al. 2017).
Table 5 summarizes the investigation of SS mixture in current
studies. After years of research, as a whole, the mechanical and
durable resistance of SSAM are related to content, particle size,
source, and gradation of SS. Most studies suggest that the perma-
nent deformation resistance, water susceptibility, fatigue crack re-
sistance, stiffness, and freeze-thaw resistance of SSAM can be
facilitated at an incorporation of 25%–75%. A stronger interlocking
skeleton and resistance to shear stress can be obtained among par-
ticles. The higher asphalt content and roughness contribute to the
improvement of resilience (Ahmedzade and Sengoz 2009). Be-
sides, the alkali active component of SS reacts with acidic groups
in asphalt, leading to sound adhesion. Therefore, asphalt pavement
with SS is considered to be suitable for areas such as heavy loads
and intersections where vehicles are braking and turning (Chen and
Wei 2016). While unacceptable performance degradation is nor-
mally observed within mixture containing 100% SS (Ziari et al.
2015). Excess SS with higher porosity and water absorption is
detrimental to the formation and development of strength.
However, the low-temperature performance of SSAM is still de-
bated (Fonseca et al. 2019; Groenniger et al. 2017; Motevalizadeh
et al. 2020; Wen et al. 2016), and SS used as filler similarly seems
to be detrimental to the low-temperature behaviors (Chen et al.
2020a; Kong et al. 2019). From another paper (Motevalizadeh
et al. 2020), the blend of EAFS is considered to trigger a decline
in the flexibility of mixture, SSAM thus being more prone to brittle
failure. The evaluation of low-temperature performance of SSAM
still demands further systematic studies.
Continuous attempts have been made to reduce the absorption
of asphalt on SS. The use of fibers is considered to be able to absorb
excess free asphalt. The OAC of SSAM treated with polypropylene
fibers sees a reduction of approximately 15% (Amuchi et al. 2013).

© ASCE 03122001-7 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2022, 34(6): 03122001

 Table 5. Investigation summary on road performance of SS mixture
Properties Incorporation method
Permanent SS as coarse and fine aggregates
deformation in stone mastic asphalt (SMA),
resistance respectively
0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
substitution of natural aggregate
Void range of 3.0%, 3.5%, 4.0%,
4.5%, and 5.0% for SS and
granite in hot mix asphalt
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Mastics and fine asphalt mortars:
LFS + asphalt;
asphalt + cement + siliceous fine
sand
Moisture SS as coarse and fine aggregate in
resistance SMA, respectively
0%, 20%, 40%, and 60%
substitution of basalt
0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
substitution of natural aggregate
0%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 100%
replacement of coarse aggregate
Freeze-thaw 0%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 100%
stability weight of overall coarse
aggregate
0%, 40% coarse SS þ 20%, 40%,
and 60% fine limestone þ 20%,
40% fine reclaimed asphalt
pavement (RAP)
EAFS + copper mine tailings
BOFS for aggregate larger than
2.36 mm
Fatigue 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
behavior substitution of limestone coarse
aggregate (>2.36 mm)
0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
substitution of natural aggregate
Mastics and fine asphalt mortars:
LFS+ asphalt;
asphalt + cement + siliceous fine
sand
HMA-limestone, warm mix
asphalt (WMA)-limestone,
WMA-SS (SS occupies 32% by
overall volume)
© ASCE
Test and evaluation index Observations References
Dynamic creep test; Hardness and bearing strength Behnood and
permanent deformation contribute to the lower rut depth Ameri (2012)
Static creep test, dynamic creep test; Substitution of EAFS is Pattanaik et al.
total strain; recovered strain; accumulated up to 75% (2021)
strain
Strength-against-deformation test 1.24 times higher than granite Kim et al.
(2018)
Multiple stress creep recovery test Mixture with LFS: Pasetto et al.
enhanced antirutting; and (2020)
reduced stress dependency
Tensile strength ratio (TSR); Better resistance when SS as Behnood and
Marshall stability ratio after immersed in coarse aggregate Ameri (2012)
water at 60°C for 40 min
Hamburg wheel-tracking test; Sound resistance due to the Wen et al.
pass numbers correspond to stripping presence of stripping inflection (2016)
inflection point point
Hamburg wheel-tracking test Substitution of EAFS is Pattanaik et al.
up to 75% (2019, 2021)
Dynamic water flushing test; Changed surface morphology Guo et al. (2020)
results in the variation of water
stability;
long-term dynamic water resistance 30% SS possesses optimal
coefficient dynamic water corrosion
resistance
Indirect tensile strength (ITS) test; Optimum short-term resistance Lyu et al. (2021)
with 30% SS;
5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 times of freeze–thaw split strength of 100% SS: 21%
cycles higher than mixture without SS
Three-point bending test; SS increased moisture Fakhri and
susceptibility; Ahmadi (2017)
1, 3, or 5 freeze–thaw cycles incorporation of both SS and
RAP are conducive to moisture
susceptibility
ITS test; Sound behavior in gap-graded Oluwasola et al.
retained strength index, durability index asphalt mixture (2016)
and TSR
Moisture-induced sensitivity tester; Volumetric characteristics of SS Cui et al. (2021)
contact number, length and orientation; mixture is less susceptible to
and hydrodynamic pressure
voids distribution obtained by CT
Four points bending fatigue tests; Increased fatigue life due to Kavussi et al.
sound adhesion between asphalt (2016), Kavussi
and slag; and Qazizadeh
fatigue lives do not vary (2014), and
obviously for aged mixture Qazizadeh et al.
stiffness ratio versus load cycles; (2018)
energy ratio versus load cycles; and
ratio of dissipated energy change method
Indirect tensile fatigue test Substitution of EAFS is Pattanaik et al.
up to 75% (2021)
Linear amplitude sweep tests; Mixture with LFS: Pasetto et al.
tensile strain εð106 Þ after 1 millionloading lowered mastic fatigue (2020)
cycles performance;
no significant effect on mortar’s
fatigue behavior
Dynamic shear rheometer test for mastic; Higher stiffening effect of fine SS Pasetto et al.
repeated indirect tensile fatigue test for results in lower fatigue (2017)
mixture; and performance
complete fracture as fatigue failure
criterion
03122001-8 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2022, 34(6): 03122001
 Table 5. (Continued.)
Properties Incorporation method Test and evaluation index Observations References
Mechanical 100% BOFS and conventional Cyclic indirect tensile test Minimal decrease in stiffness Groenniger et al.
performance aggregate (2017)
SS as coarse and fine aggregate, Resilient modulus Increase of 27%–31% when Behnood and
respectively in SMA replacing limestone with SS Ameri (2012)
0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% Indirect tensile stiffness modulus test Substitution of EAFS is Pattanaik et al.
substitution of natural aggregate up to 75% (2021)
Void range of 3.0%, 3.5%, 4.0%, Dynamic modulus test: 1.8 times higher than granite Kim et al.
4.5%, and 5.0% for SS and dynamic modulus; (2018)
granite in HMA phase angle master curve
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Crack 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
resistance volume replacement of basalt
50% EAFS fine aggregate for
HMA and WMA;
50% and 100% EAFS coarse
aggregate for HMA and WMA
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
replacement of coarse basalt
aggregate
Asphalt mortar:
SS filler: limestone
filler ¼ 0∶100; 25∶75; 50∶50;
75∶25
ITS test, acoustic emission (AE), and For 100% SS: Zhu et al. (2020)
low-temperature splitting test; enhanced cumulative AE energy;
rise angle (RA), average frequency (AF), reduced shear events and
and b-value restrained crack growth from
cumulative RA and AF curves
Semicircular bend test; EAFS in WMA reduce FE; Motevalizadeh
et al. (2020)
stress intensity factor, fracture energy Reduced flexibility containing
(FE), and flexibility index EAFS
ITS and AE tests: Higher ductility than natural Fonesca et al.
aggregates; (2019)
ITS, failure strain, and fracture energy optimum crack resistance with
100% SS; and
more uniform release of AE
energy in SS mixture
Bending beam rheometer test; Increased creep stiffness and Tao et al. (2019)
decreased m-value as SS filler
increases;
creep stiffness, m-value brittleness enhanced

Cellulose fiber is further demonstrated to absorb extra asphalt
(Terrones-Saeta et al. 2020, 2021). A surface hydrophobic layer
based on silicone rubber emulsion is moreover developed to soak
SS. The OAC of SSAM is reduced from 5.3% to 4.8% after soaking
(Jiang et al. 2020). Furthermore, modifiers including cement slurry,
silicone waterproofing agent, and silane coupling agent are exerted
to create a water-isolating structure on SS surface (Ma et al. 2020).
diffusion, and distribution of asphalt components on SS were
studied (Liu et al. 2020a, 2021), the mechanism of which can
be seen in Fig. 5. The origin as well as development of adhesion
between asphalt and SS under water erosion is revealed. Asphalt
molecules and aggregate adhere owing to the mechanical bonding
and polarity. As a result, asphalt molecules are more steadily ab-
sorbed on SS surface. The microporous structure and plentiful Ca2þ

Interaction Mechanism
Recently, researchers have concentrated on the targeted examina-
tion of SS in asphalt pavement to thoroughly exploit its potential
and reveal the interaction mechanism.

Adhesion and Asphalt Absorption

Various methods, including surface free energy theory (Qazizadeh
et al. 2018), digital image processing (DIP) (Cui et al. 2019), have
been developed to explore the adhesion mechanism of SSAM. The
pull-off test (Shen et al. 2018), three-dimensional field microscopy
(Zhou et al. 2020), SEM, and net absorption force tests are utilized
to investigate the adhesion, interface microstructure, adsorption, and
desorption characteristics and chemical effects. From the results ob-
tained from infrared spectrometer and dynamic shear rheometer, a
chemical reaction occurred between the mineral components of SS
and asphalt, thereby improving the adhesion of interface (Liu et al.
2020c).
The benefit of high basicity of SS is additionally interpreted at
nanoscale. By using ultraviolet (UV) analysis and nanoindentation,
light components of asphalt, such as saturates and aromatics, are
considered to be preferably absorbed into the voids of SS, while
components with higher modulus tend to be distributed outside
Fig. 5. Adhesion work measured by molecular simulation: (a) steel
(Yang et al. 2020). Based on molecular dynamics simulation,
slag-asphalt; and (b) steel slag-200 water-asphalt.
the temperature and humidity sensitivity of interface adhesion,

© ASCE 03122001-9 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2022, 34(6): 03122001

 on SS surface absorbs ample resin and asphaltene, so that the ad-
hesion of interface increases. In short, the strengthening mechanism
of SS and asphalt adhesion can be summed up as physical anchor-
ing and chemical adhesion.
Gradation Design and Skeleton Strengthening
The internal friction angle of weathered SS aggregate can reach
45°, which indicates that SS can provide satisfactory interlocking
characteristics in pavement structure. There is an increased demand
for asphalt when a weight-based approach is used to grade the par-
ticle size of each aggregate, which can be solved if a volume-based
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method is opted in aggregate gradation design. Currently, the gra-
dation design of SSAM lacks pertinence. A limited amount of re-
search has paid attention to the particularity of SS aggregate in
skeleton design.
Given the specific gravity distinctions between SS and NA ag-
gregate, the Bailey design method (Pasetto and Baldo 2016; Swathi
et al. 2021) is proposed to design gradations of SSAM to enhance
resistance to permanent deformation. The designed SSAM are sim-
ilar to NA asphalt mixture by controlling the volume of fine aggre-
gate using the Bailey method. Mixture characterized by skeleton
is able to provide higher permanent deformation resistance and
durability (Pasetto and Baldo 2014).
The internal structure of SS aggregate in hot mix asphalt (HMA)
has been preliminarily characterized by DIP previously. The con-
tact point and particle orientation of SS have been identified and
studied (Bessa et al. 2012). In a latest study, X-ray tomography
and DIP technology were combined to analyze the internal micro-
structure of SSAM before and after hydrodynamic damage. The
contact number, length, and orientation were selected to evaluate
the skeleton structure of SS coarse aggregates in AC, open-graded
friction course (OGFC), and SMA. Results manifest the interlock-
ing effect of SS aggregates can enhance the stability of skeleton in
asphalt mixture. SMA is the most suitable gradation for applying
SS to thin overlays (Cui et al. 2021).
However, it seems that the academic community has not realized
the uniqueness of skeleton design in SS, and there are few studies
on the stability evaluation of SS skeleton structure in HMA. SS
possesses rich angularity and rough surface texture, and the profile
and contact state of skeleton is bound to be deviated when replacing
NA. The interlocking behavior of SS may not be accurately de-
scribed singly by conventional contact indexes. Therefore, it is
of necessity to put forward suitable mesoparameters for evaluating
their contact characteristics.
Utilization for Functionalization
Antiskidding and Abrasion Course
Attributed to the surprising abrasion resistance and polishing prop-
erties (Bessa et al. 2014; Vaiana et al. 2019), the utilization of SS on
wearing course of asphalt pavement presents more convincing
behaviors than that of NA. Plentiful investigations on British pen-
dulum number (BPN) (Chen et al. 2016a), dynamic friction coef-
ficient (DFC) (Basri et al. 2020), and structural depth (Liapis and
Likoydis 2012; Pathak et al. 2020b; Skaf et al. 2019) have dem-
onstrated that SS wearing course exhibits perfect skid resistance
over time, which promotes its application to wearing courses with
heavy traffic and highway intersections (Asi 2007). It is believed
that the influence of time on abrasion resistance of SSAM is almost
nonexistent (Skaf et al. 2016). The long-term performance of aging
samples is similar to that of initial ones after 6 months of use.
Similar or better skid-proof performance to that of NA has been
© ASCE 03122001-10
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2022, 34(6): 03122001
Fig. 6. Difference between ordinary abrasion and alternating abrasion.
observed in the tests of EAFS pavements every 3 years in Spain
and Greece (Fonseca et al. 2013; Liapis and Likoydis 2012).
SS is also used for microsurfacing to enhance skid resistance
(Cui et al. 2020; Zalnezhad and Hesami 2020). The abrasion resis-
tance of mixture with 50% EAFS is increased by 19% (Keymanesh
et al. 2021). Wear capacity of SS microsurfacing is still more
encouraging than NA after 6 days of abrasion. SS aggregate in chip
seal is discussed as well (Basri et al. 2020). Investigation on the
skid resistance performance of several aggregates with various pol-
ishing levels using microdeval (MD) discovered that SS shows bet-
ter BPN and DFC, which can be used for antiskid pavement with
long-term demand (Uz and Gökalp 2017).
It is reported that the antiskid advantage of SS is related to its
physiochemical properties (Bessa et al. 2014), bonding behavior
with asphalt (Li et al. 2020), gradation types (Chen and Wei
2016), and incorporation methods (Li et al. 2020). Since the surface
course is normally exposed to the natural environment, there is con-
cern about the effect of rainwater acidity on the moisture sensitivity
of SSAM. Interestingly, the OGFC mixture with BOFS maintains
comforting resistance despite the potential exacerbation risk of
acidic wet circumstance (Pathak et al. 2020a).
When NA and SS are mixed, alternating abrasion has a positive
significance for maintaining the skid resistance of asphalt pavement
(Li et al. 2020), and provides an innovative idea for understanding
resistance improvement, as shown in Fig. 6. Compared with the
common abrasion course that singly uses one type of aggregate,
alternating abrasion takes advantage of the texture difference of ag-
gregates. Therefore, they can take turns in playing their respective
roles during the antiskid process. However, most of the current
studies are still focused on short-term performance verification,
and there are few studies on alternating abrasion at present. Exten-
sive tests at microscale should be developed to testify the alternat-
ing abrasion behavior of SS and NA asphalt pavement under
environmental and load driving.
Microwave Heating for Deicing and Self-Healing
Induction heating is an emerging preventive maintenance method
with the capability to remove snow and ice as well as remediate
asphalt mixtures. Due to the large amount of iron in SS, it exhibits
mostly metallic properties with relatively fast heat conduction
efficiency. SS is considered to be an outstanding microwave ab-
sorbing material. As a typical magnetic material, SS converts mi-
crowave energy into abounding heat energy, hence it is heated
at first under microwave radiation. Abundant heat is then trans-
ferred to NA through asphalt mortar coated on SS surface. With
the extension of heating time, the temperature of asphalt mixture
progressively rises. Li et al. (2018) indicated that incorporating SS
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 can remarkably enhance the deicing efficiency of asphalt pavement
and improve the microwave performance for crack healing. Such
behaviors have been examined in ultrathin abrasion course (Wan
et al. 2019) and chip seal (Wei et al. 2020), respectively.
Iron and Fe3 O4 are the effective components of SS that can be
heated in induction. Fe3 O4 is the dominating component of induc-
tion heating for micron SS (less than 75 μm). Nevertheless, the sur-
face of SS presents transition metal oxides, such as Fe2 O3 . To
enhance the thermal efficiency of heating, chemical coprecipitation
(Liu et al. 2017b) and activated carbon reduction method (Miao
et al. 2017) have been respectively developed to convert Fe2 O3 into
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magnetic Fe3 O4 . It is reported an increase of 34.1% in microwave
heating is observed compared with unmodified SS.
Recently, considering the microwave healing properties, re-
searchers have examined the use of SS for the synergistic rejuvena-
tion with RAP asphalt mixture. An encouraging study (Lizárraga
and Gallego 2020) signified that the innovative treatment not only
improved the heating and healing efficiency of RAP asphalt, but
also had a great remedial effect on mechanical properties. The
blend of 8% EAFS and 92% RAP mixture saved 69% of micro-
wave heating energy, and saw an astonishing 140% restoration
of mechanical characteristics.
SS used in asphalt pavement deicing and self-healing requires a
certain heating uniformity, otherwise it will not be conducive to the
overall deicing and healing effect (Lou et al. 2021). Similar to the pre-
vious research conclusions, the remediation efficiency of SSAM was
restricted by SS content (Lou et al. 2020), particle size, and heating
process (Sun et al. 2017). Based on the surface temperature and ther-
mal conductivity, it was found (Jiao et al. 2020a, b) that 0.6, 2.36, and
9.5 mm were the most effective sizes in microwave heating. The blend-
ing of 40%–60% SS in volume was suggested through the investiga-
tion of microwave heating uniformity and ice thawing efficiency.
To evaluate the heating uniformity as well as the efficiency of SS
used in microwave heating pavement, the surface temperature of
SSAM was recorded and evaluated using infrared thermal imaging
device (Lou et al. 2020). An uneven temperature distribution was
observed with a high content of SS (100%), and the local area even
reaches 140°C after heating. The authors recommended controlling
SS content and heating time to achieve consummate effect. CT
tomography technology was further used to assess spatial homo-
geneity of SS (Lou et al. 2020). By using a microwave vector
network analyzer system and semicircular bending test, the homo-
geneity of microwave heating was improved with mixture contain-
ing SS, since more uniform temperature distribution was observed
at the surface (Lou et al. 2021).
Indeed, the temperature of SSAM rapidly rises after microwave
heating, which may cause softening concerns of asphalt binder.
What is more, the adhesion of asphalt-SS interface is prone to fail-
ure when the temperature is extreme, which will extensively affect
other mechanical properties. However, existing studies (Gao et al.
2017) have shown that the heat transfer is a progressive process,
which denotes the heat accumulation of SS is accompanied by
the conduction to other aggregates as well as ice and snow. Never-
theless, attention should still be paid to careful operation to prevent
overheating at the same region for a long time.
Environmental and Economic Assessments
Overview of Life Cycle Assessment
and Life Cycle Cost Analysis
SS can be used in road construction as an alternative to reduce envi-
ronmental impact in related to the exploitation of natural aggregate
© ASCE 03122001-11
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2022, 34(6): 03122001
resources and the accumulation of untreated steel slag discarded in
landfills. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle cost analysis
(LCCA) are frequently employed to quantify the environmental and
economic impacts in whole life cycle. As a consequence of the in-
troduction of SS, the huge differences in its inherent properties
from conventional mixtures will lead to deviations in the sensitivity
of service stage and transportation distance. During use stage evalu-
ation, based on LCA tools, EAFS maximizes the environmental
sustainability of pavement through reducing the consumption of
NA as well as reducing CO2 emissions (Bonoli et al. 2020; Ferreira
et al. 2016).
Transportation distance may impact the LCA results of SS pave-
ment. SS only exists in fixed steel mills (Liu et al. 2020b), hence it
may consume more energy and produce more emissions during
transportation. Previous results present SS can replace NA within
a certain distance (Esther et al. 2020; Mladenovič et al. 2015).
Thereby the concept of critical transportation distance (CTD), de-
fined as the distance threshold for recycling solid waste to reduce
environmental burden, is hereby put forward and the corresponding
CTD for using SS instead of NA concrete pavement is 150 km
(Anastasiou et al. 2015).
It is foreseeable that the use of SS in road engineering will con-
siderably save economic costs. However, compared with LCA, rel-
evant LCCA analysis on SS pavement is deficient (Chen et al.
2019), which is predominantly due to the lack of quantitative in-
ventory data (Chen et al. 2017b). Therefore, it is recommended to
launch a broader and deeper economic evaluation of the application
of SS in pavement surface, base, and subgrade so as to determine
the most appropriate solution.
Leaching Behaviors and Hazardous Concerns
Additionally, SS may contain radioactive toxic elements, which
may leach Cr, V, Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Sb, and Cd if used in road en-
gineering. The heavy metal could be released into soil and water
under natural weathering and rain, which could eventually pose
threat to human survival and ecological balance. Therefore, the
toxic effects of these emissions need to be included in the LCA
(Li et al. 2019).
In general, leaching tests are used to estimate the potential con-
tamination risk of SS, in which the progressive toxic characteristic
leaching procedure (TCLP) is applied to obtain the toxin release
concentration. Meanwhile the overall leaching test is popularly uti-
lized to detect the long-term leaching behavior (Hu et al. 2020).
Despite the heavy metal content, studies have proved that the leach-
ing percentage is normally low (Barišić et al. 2017). Moreover, as-
phalt wrapped in an SS surface displays a certain sealing effect,
which can effectively reduce the release of heavy metals (Hu
et al. 2020). Therefore, there is no need to be concerned about pol-
lution during short-term leaching. Yet it was found in TCLP that the
cumulative concentration of Cd and Ni in SS exceed the upper
limit, which may end in potential toxicity to underlying structure
and soil. Other studies (Al-Kawari and Hushari 2019) have sup-
posed the risk of contamination under acidic conditions is likely
to increase. Consequently, it is recommended to use SS under
the surface course to prevent direct contact with humans.
In summary, the leaching of toxic metals by SS highlights the
negative impact on environment during the usage, which is more
serious than other stages, and therefore cannot be ignored.
Cost Distinction from NA in Whole Life Cycle
Notwithstanding attainable advantages in SSAM, the higher
amount of asphalt required is still a matter of fact. Rich voids
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 on SS surface absorb excessive asphalt, leading to increased de-
mand for asphalt content, which undoubtedly raises the cost of road
construction. Owing to the high density, additional transportation
costs may occur during transportation (Mladenovič et al. 2015),
resulting in the fact that SS is more accepted around the area near
steel plants. Furthermore, its high hardness will increase energy
consumption, and raise the cost of various processes such as com-
paction, which handicaps the application to a certain extent.
Similarly, its excellent heat conservation behavior prolongs heat
retention and shortens the cooling velocity compared to NA (Liu
et al. 2017a). It has been estimated (Huang 2017) that it takes about
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by "Indian Institute of Technology, Patna" on 06/05/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
100 min for BOFS to cool in dense asphalt mixtures, while the time
is longer for SMA and porous asphalt mixtures. In this way, roads
normally require longer curing and hardening time before opening
when paving asphalt pavement containing SS (Skaf et al. 2017).
Nevertheless, at the material production stage, 30,000 t of natu-
ral aggregate will be consumed to build 1 km of new road. SS can
meet heavy demand of aggregate for roadway construction. The
introduction of SS reduces the exploitation and production of
raw materials, reduces the consumption of water, electricity, and
fuel, and thus lowers the production cost (Esther et al. 2020). It
may be of strategic significance for countries with no (or scarce)
aggregate resources but abundant in industry, as it avoids the need
to import high-quality aggregate resources from other countries and
saves the budget (Mladenovič et al. 2015). Conversely, in the ser-
vice stage of pavement, the mixture sees a stable or even strength-
ened overall performance after incorporating suitable SS, which is
beneficial for extending the service life of pavement structure and
saving of maintenance cost. When used for microwave heating, the
increased heating efficiency compared with NA saves energy cost.
In general, the economic benefits of SS are considerable from the
perspective of whole life cycle.
Challenges and Outlook
There have been several studies on the performance of SSAM;
while the acting mechanism is relatively inadequate, essential is-
sues including high density, volume instability, and excess asphalt
absorption have not been fundamentally solved. The uncertain
long-term performance is still an unfathomable problem plaguing
its application. Further studies are demanded to provide a basis for
the technical advantages and action mechanism of SS in asphalt
mixture and cementitious materials. After systematic literature re-
view, the following aspects should be considered for knowledge
advancement:
1. The low reactivity of SS is one of the dominating factors puz-
zling its large-scale application in subgrade and base (Nunes and
Borges 2021; Pan et al. 2016). There is still approximately 30%
RO phase in mineral composition, which is basically inactive
and has no promoting effect on strength. This restricts the en-
hancement of early activity. The chemical composition varies
from the distinctions of steel production, and research on its
use as active excitation material for subgrade is still in its in-
fancy. In the future, mineral separation technology can be used
to diversify the recovery solution of SS.
2. Another critical issue associated with SS is volume expansion.
SS enveloped by asphalt inhibits the hydration reaction of active
substances (Teixeira et al. 2019). However, the related mecha-
nism of long-term volumetric stability remains to be studied in
depth. A layer of carbonized CaCO3 is generated on SS surface
after exposing to humid environment for a long time (Chen et al.
2016b, 2020b), thereby the moisture resistance of SSAM is
deteriorated (Xie et al. 2020). There is still a lack of knowledge
© ASCE 03122001-12
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2022, 34(6): 03122001
about water penetration and failure mechanism. Moreover, the
envelopment sustainability is still unclear. When asphalt is
stripped, whether this adverse reaction occurs plays a decisive
role in SS application.
3. SS can be trustingly used since its potential toxic leaching is
within allowable range. Indeed, the envelopment is helpful to
alleviate toxin-leaching behavior. However, when SSAM is
eroded by hydrodynamic shock, the stripping of asphalt mem-
brane will inevitably expose SS aggregates directly to the natu-
ral environment, where the poison diffusion and accumulation
may be further intensified with the infiltration of rain. Currently,
there is no conclusive evidence of the long-term effect of toxin
release. Fortunately, a recent study (Xie et al. 2020) investigated
the leaching characteristics of SMA pavement containing SS
after 15 years of service. The concentration of heavy metals ex-
ceeded critical value, and the soil beneath the road structure was
considered to have produced serious pollution, among which Cd
is the most harmful element, followed by Pb and Cr. A similar
conclusion has been proved in another study (Hu et al. 2020).
More attention should be paid to the long-term leaching behav-
ior of SS in LCA model.
4. When considering texture and angularity of SS, how to employ
the unique advantages requires further mesoscopic measurement.
It is necessary to develop studies on the mesostructure scale to
identify the spatiotemporal distribution and contact behavior of
SS coarse aggregate under load and environment impacts, thereby
guiding the skeleton design of SSAM.
5. The development of innovative technological measures to im-
prove the wave absorption performance will remain the future
direction. Laboratory evaluation of SS in the efficiency of crack
healing, uniformity of microwave heating, consistency in field,
suitable content, and heating technology remain to be exten-
sively investigated (Sun et al. 2017). It will not be able to com-
pletely melt snow and ice on asphalt pavement if the heating
uniformity of SSAM is unguaranteed.
6. The heat conservation performance of SS means it will retain
heat for a longer time in summer, leading to the uncontrolled
aging tendency of asphalt mixture (Alnadish et al. 2020;
Masoudi et al. 2017). The high porosity increases the probabil-
ity of air contact with asphalt, and thus the possibility of asphalt
oxidation increases (Holleran et al. 2020), which may result in
the reduction of life expectancy. The life attenuation is a con-
fusing dilemma in microwave heating.
In general, the long-term performance of SS in road field de-
serves more comprehensive attention, including the development
of fatigue durability, leaching behavior of toxins, and especially
the duration of service life for functionalization purposes. Based
on the previous discussion, the authors suggest further relevant in-
vestigations to break a broader platform for the application of solid
waste in road construction and to develop innovative processes to
provide effective waste management, particularly in developing
countries.
Conclusions
Because of its inherent physicochemical properties, the trend of
using SS has been noticed within road constructions. In general,
SS can serve as an exemplary substitute and possesses great poten-
tial in a future-oriented, sustainable, green, and recycling road ecol-
ogy. A systematic literature review can provide researchers with a
broad and in-depth body of knowledge, as well as a promising op-
portunity to explore new uses. The following conclusions can be
obtained:
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 • The rough surface texture, rich angularity, and high hardness of
SS makes it suitable as aggregate for asphalt mixture and road
base. The cementitious properties provide a potential prospect in
the stability treatment of subgrade.
• The reason for preventing SS from becoming a value-added
material is the composition variations with steel production.
Volume swelling, insufficient gelling property, and heavy metal
leaching are still unavoidable topics, and studies on the quanti-
tative effects of SS components on road performance need to be
systematically conducted.
• A 100% replacement of NA is feasible, whereas SS is still rec-
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by "Indian Institute of Technology, Patna" on 06/05/22. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
ommended as coarse aggregate to prevent excess absorption of
asphalt and exaggerate crushing costs. The increased transpor-
tation costs and compaction energy consumed during construc-
tion deserve considerable attention.
• The multiscale characterization of SS morphology is interesting.
It is necessary to recognize that the skeleton composition and
contact behaviors of SS aggregates in HMA are distinctive.
And a new method to evaluate and optimize the skeleton design
for SSAM at mesoscale is required.
• SS has potential in microwave heating for snow and ice removal
as well as self-healing of cracks. Currently and in the future,
concentrating on improving the heating efficiency and uniform-
ity, and alleviating the negative impacts of aging caused by tem-
perature conservation are indispensable.
• It is critical to assess the economic performance of SS in roads.
The quantified cost composition helps promote the active use in
field by construction authorities.
• The laboratory results of SS applied in road construction exhibit
promising potential, while in general, there is a lack of evalu-
ation on long-term properties (durability, functionality, environ-
mental sustainability). The long-term mechanism of action and
degradation behavior needs to be revealed.
Data Availability Statement
No data, models, or code were generated or used during the study.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation
of China (Grant No. 51878163). The authors greatly appreciate
National Demonstration Center for Experimental Road and Traffic
Engineering Education (Southeast University) in Nanjing, China.
Supplemental Materials
Fig. S1 is available online in the ASCE Library (www.ascelibrary
.org).
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