LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL - I PUC PHYSICS (NCERT Electric Charges and Plelds

CHAPTER-1

ELECTRIC CHARGESAND FIELDs

Electric chargesDeted vdStatic Statennt

AditivityZO8DobN aReolwe Applicatiot

Quantization 5OLRIeleGAton
Conservation Electric ficldbgEStructt
Mention 3uz35eczExprestion Matter

Superpositiondan BPincipleRNErive B5F8

SystemS GontinuusooRub
S

Dipale 67DeivationSEFur
Rquatoria REsTYector AROEAmber.
Element Infinite503NCurrentSE3
Detérmined Magnitude38 AvailableCAdE
Possessed |3aRRRS Reside2OZN isolated sstein
Accumulatescas))ScalarBasic:
proportionaladet
Directly RcoAEOReplsive Pennittivity
Exerted a6East Sourcet
Radialy 9eatSDimensiond Location
Physical MaterialsORGR FAxial
significance

Simüariy Approaches Torque

Unstable DEquilibrium
Opor
Sketch Pair Intersect

Normialy Component eo7e Space

However Vacam
Density Surface 2EConducto
SState, TRfinite

k Electricity
It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of electriccharges.
It is divided into two branches. They are
1) Electrostatics or Static electricity and 2)Current electricity.

Electrostatics or Static Electricity

It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of charges at rest.

Current Electricity
It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of charges in motion,

Historical developmentof electricity

One of the Greek scientists Thales of Miletus (600 B.C) discovered that, when
the amber rubbed with fur, the amber acquires the property of attracting ight
objects like dust, light feathers, lint etc..

William (1544-1603) made a systematic study

Gilbert on this
phenomenon. His study showed that, many other substances behaved in this
manner when they rubbed suitably. He named this phenomenon as electrification.
He introduced the word "electricity" which is derived from Greek word 'elektron'
meaning is amber.Amber Fossilized resin found near the seashore, Fur A kind
of wool.
 PUC PHYSICs (NCERT-Electric Charges and Fields
LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIA-

Modern concept of matter

Electron

Orbit of an electron ' -Nucleus

Nucleons (protons and

neutrons)

Structure of an atom

1). Matter is made up atoms. The atom consists of positively charged nucleus at
of

the centre and negatively charged electrons revolving around the nucleusS in
different orbits.

2) The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. They togethercalled as nucleons.

3) Mass of proton m=
1.673x1027kg, mass of neutron, m,-1.675x1027kg and
mas of electron, m,= 9.1x10-31kg.
4) The smallestcharge available in the nature is charge on the electron. It is equal
to -1.6x10-19C. This was experimentallydetermined by Millikan.
5) The magnitude of charge on proton is same as that on the electron but opposite
in sign.
6) In an atom number of electrons is equal to the number protons and hence an
of

atom is said to be electrically neutral.

7) The neutrons have no charge.
8) A body is said to be charged if it has less (deficiency or shortage) electrons or
more (surplus or excess) electrons.
9) A body is said to be positively charged if it has less number ofelectrons.
10) A body is said to-be negatively charged if it has more number of electrons.

11) Two identical bodies, one with positive charge and.the other with negative
charge have different masses.
12) Mass of the body with positive charge is slightly less than the mass of a body
with negativecharge.

How will you show that there are two kinds of charges? Explain with diagrams.
Experiment -1

Silk Silk
threads Silk
|threads
threads

Glass Glass Ebonite

Ebonite rod
rods rod
rods

Figure-1
Figure-2 Figure-3

1) When two glass rods rubbed with a piece of silk cloth are brought close to each
other, they repel each other. It is shown in the figure-1.
2) When two ebonite rods (plastic rods) rubbed with a fur (wool) are brought close
to each other,they repel each other. It is shown in the figure-2.

3) When a glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk cloth and a ebonite rod rubbed with
a fur are brought close to each other, they attract each other. It is shown in the
figure-3.
 LEGENDS (MGDN)STUDY MATERIAL -II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Electric Charges and Flelds
Experiment -2

)
Figure-1 Figure-2 Figure-3

When a glass rod rubbed with a piece of silk cloth is made to touch with two pith
balls suspended by silk threads, the balls repel each other as shown in the
figure-1.

2) When a ebonite rod rubbed with fur is made to touch with two pith balls
suspended by sillk threads, the balls repel each other as shown in the figure-2.
3) When one pith ball is touched with charged glass rod and the other pith ball is
touched with a charged ebonite rod, the balls attract each other as shown in the
figure-3.

Conclusion of the above experiments

One kind of electric charge is produced on glass rod when rubbed with silk and
other kind of electric charge isproduced on the ebonite rod when rubbed with fur.
Benjamin Franklin named the charge on the glass rod and fur as positive charge
and that on the ebonite rod and silk as negative charge. The same convention is
used even today. From above observations it is found that the like charges repel
each other and unlike charges attract each other.

What is electrificationPExplain.
I+is the process of making a body to loseor gain the electrons.

(MBxplanation
Electrification is according to the law of conservation of charge. When two

suitablesubstances are rubbed one against another, due to friction, the transfer of
electrons takes place from one substance to another. The substance that loses the
electronsis said to be positively charged and the substance tht gains the electrons
b negatively charged.
is said to
A substance is said to be charged if there is shortage or excess of electrons.
For example, when a plastic comb is run through the dry hair, the comb acquires
charge by friction.

X What is lightning?
It isthe heavy electric discharge between clouds and clouds or clouds and the
ground.

.LDuring lightning you are safer inside a house than under a tree.wiy?
When we stand under a tree, we provide an easy path for the lightning to pass
through our body. Butwhen we are in the house, discharge due to lightning may be
conducted to the ground through iron pipes/ walls etc. Therefore weare safer.

t Conductors and insulators

The substances are divided into three types based on their ability to conduct
electric charges.
They are 1) conductors and 2) insulators and 3) semiconductors.
 LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT)}-Electric Charges and Fields

X Conductors
These are the substances which allow electric charges to pass through them easily.

Examples: gold,silver, copper, iron, earth, human body, mercury, etc.

The electrons revolving in the outer most orbit of an atom are called valence
electrons. The valence electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus in metallic
conductors. Even for small raise in temperature, the valence electron detaches from
the atom and they can jump from atom to atom inside the metal. These detached
electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons. In metals, there is very

large number of free electrons which act as carriers of charge. In electrolytes, the
charge carriers are both positive and negative ions:
Insulators
These are the substances which do not allow electric charges to pass through
them easily.
Examples: glass, plstic, nylon, ebonite, rubber, dry wood, et.
In nsulators, each electron is stronglybound (attached)to a particular atom and'
is not free to move in the body of insulator. Hence, insulatorsdo not allow charges
to pass through them. If some charge is put on an insulator,the charge stays at
the
same place. But when some charge is put on conductor, it gets distributed over the
surface of the conductor.

Electric charge () sT ynit C

It is the property possessed by the material objects by virtue of which electrical
and other related effects are produced.

Mention the properties of electriccharges.

2
HCharge is
Chrge
3)Charge is
conserved.
is quantízed.
additive.
Basic properies

Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
5) A charged body uncharged bodies.
attracts light
6) Charges always reside on the outer surfac of theconductor.
) Charges always accumulate at thesharp edges on the conductor.
8) Magnitude of charges does not depend on its motion.
91 Charges produce magnetic field when they are in motion.

xWhat is meant by conservation of charge? Explain.

Total charge of an isolated system always remains constant. This is
known as conservation of charge.
Explanation
We know that the charge on the neutron is zero. When it decays a proton
into

and an electron, the total charge is zero: This is because, the proton énd an
electron have eqyal and opposite charges. Therefore, the total charge of a system
remains constant.

xWhat is meant by quantization of charge? Explain.

All free charges are the integral multiple of charge on an electron or proton.

This is known as quantization of charge.

Explanation
A charge q on the body is given by, q = tne
where n =1, 2, 3,......... and e charge on an electron or proten.
 LhGRNDS (MGDN) STUDYMATERIAL-I PUC PHYSICS (NCERD),Electrie Charges and Flelds

Consider three charged body A, B and c. If A and B repel each other

attracts C, what is the nature of force between B and C?
Attractive force.Because B and C will carry oppositecharges.

Can ever the whole charge of the body be transferred to the other? 1f
and if not, why? yes,
ho
Yes. If the charged conductor is enclosed by another conductor and t
connected by a conducting wire, whole charge on the inner body transferred
outer conducting body. toth

Explain with diagrams, the method of charging two metal spher

induction.

B B

Figure-1 Figure-2
Figure-3

Figure-4 Figure-5

Consider two metal spheres A and B

supported on insulating standsandheld ir
contact with each other as shown in figure-1.When a positively
charged plastic ro
is brought near the sphere A, the free electrons in the both thespheres mo
towards the rod due to the attractive force and positive charges move away from rod
due to the repulsive force as shown in the figure (2). If the spheres A and B
separated by a small distance in the presence of rod, the two
a
spheres carry opposit
charges as shown in the figure-3.If the rod is removed,thecharges on the
sphere
rearranged as shown in the figure-4.. If the two spheres are separated widely, th
charges will distribute uniformly on them as shown in the figure-5.Hence both th
spheres get oppositely charged by induction.

How can you charge a metal sphere positively without touching it? Expla
with diagrams.

Figure-1 Figure-2 Figure-3 Figure-4

Consider a metal sphere on an insulatingstand as shown in the figure-1.

When a negatively charged plastic rod is brought closeto the sphere, thenegative
 LeGENDs (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT- Electric Chargesand Fielda
Electric field
lines
These are the
imaginary lines or smooth curves along which
charge moves or tends unit
posi
to move.
Sketch and explain the
electric field lines of
1) a positive
point charge(q>0),
2) a negative point
charge (q<0),
S) a pair of two equal and opposite
point charges
4) a pair of equal positive (a dipole,q1qz<0)
5) a pair of equal point charges(q1q220),
negative point
charges(qiqz>0),

Isolated positive charge Isolated negative

charge Two equal and opposite charp

Two equal positive

charges
Two equal negative
3M)Mention theproperties of charges

C1) They do not form electric field lines.

closed loops.
2) They never intersect each
3)They can pass through a other.

4) They do not pass throughnon-conductor (dielectric).

a conductor.
5) They are normal to the
surface of the charged
6) Due to an isolated positive conductor.
charge, they start from the
infinity. charge and endsat
VI) Due to an "isolated
negative charge, they start
charge. from infinity and ends on the
8) Due to a pair of
equal and opposite charges,
positive charge and ends electric field lines start from
9) Number of field on the negative charge.
lines passing normally
of electric field. through unit area depends
on strength
10)In charge free region, electric
field lines can be taken to be
without any breaks. continuous curves
11) They seem to contract
unlike charges. longitudinally due to the force of attractign between
.** 12) They seem to exert
lateral pressure due to the force
charges. of repulsion between like

No two electric field lines can

intersect each other. Why?
This is because at the point of
two lines of force. Therefore there intersection,two tangents can be drawn to the
would be two directions electric field at the
same point, which is not possible. of
 LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-II PIC PHYSIcs INCERT-Electric Chargesand Fields

From triangle law of vector addition, iy-(p-) and Iy2-(T|-)

From coulomb's law,

Force exerted on q by gp is given by, Fi2 =-2 4tE,

i2 ---->(1)

Force exerted on q2 by
qi is given by, F21 =
4nE

F21 = 9192 since fz1=-2

(-i2)---->(2)

On comparing equations (1) and (2), we get

( F21 = -F12
The forces exerted by two charges on each other are equal and opposite.
Therefore Coulomb's law agrees with the Newton's
third law.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject)

Importance of Coulomb's law
1) The forcesexerted by two charges on each Therefore
other are equal and opposite
2)Coulomb's law agrees with the Newton's third law
3)The forcesact along thelinejoining the two charges and hence these
are
centralforces.

Permittivity of a medium
Permittivíty is the ability of the medium to allowthe electric field lines to pass
through it. Permittivity is defined only for dielectrics (insulators).

( Relative permittivity or Dielectric constant (ErorK)

Consider two charges q and q2 are placed in free space (air orvacuum) and
separated by a distance of r.

From Coulomb's Law, F. =12

41E r“
----> (1)

When the charges are placed in a dielectric medium other than free space at
the same distance,

Fm =-19192 ----2), (1) Pa E

=&r ---->Relativepermittivity.
4nE r (2)

Two smnall balls having equal positive charge are suspended by two q coulomb
insulating strings of equal length L metre from a hook fixed to a stand. The
whole set up is taken in a satellite into space where there is no gravitý. What
is the angle between the two strings and tension in each string?
The angle is 180°. In satellite there is no effect of gravity on the balls. Due to
electrostatic repulsive force between the balls, the strings would come in straight
line.
=
Tension in each string Electrostaticforce of repulsion between the balls

1
T= q

4E0 (2L)?
 Charges and Flelds
PKCPsIYSKCS NCERT-Electric
eENDS (MGDN)STUDYMATERAL-n

q 2a
E

P = eleectricdipole
1
E= qx2a p moment

the electric field and dipole moment are in

Where negative sign indicates that

opposite directions.

field in vector format a point on the equatorial

line o
Expression for electric
1
the dipole

on the eguatorial line at the midpoint of the

Electric field due to a dipole
dipole
E= 1_p (: At mid point, r =0)
4nE, a

Electric field at large distances on the dipole)

toal line (for a short
For r>>a. a2 can be
Or large distances,
.. E 1 p form E 1 p
4nE 3 In vector 3

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject)

Diferences between electric intensity due to a point charge and thatdue to a dipole
Electric field dueto a point charge Electric field due to a dipole
1it the proportional tothe magnitude

2Itis
is directly.

inversely
proportional

proportional
o
magnitude of the point charge. ie Exq.ofthe dipole moment
to theIt is inversely
ie
Ttis directly

proportional to the cbe ofl

Ep
square of the distance betweenthe the distance between the centre the of

point chargeand the pont

of dipole and the point of observation
observation. ie Ecl/ ie c1/r3 E

Point dipole
BWhen the distance between the twO
charges of a dipole approaches zero, then the

dipole is said to be point dipole.

Dipole in a uniform external electric field
placed in uniform electric field, net force on the dipole is
When an electric dipole is

net force on the dipole

zero.When an electric dipole is placed in non-uiform electric field,

is not zero. A torque acts on the dipoleplaced

ina uniform non- uniform electric field
or till

along the direction of electric field.

the dipole is completely aligned

Physical significance of dipoles

Most of the molecules have zero moment.However they develop dipole
dipole

moment when they are placed in an external electric field. But in some molecules
even in the absence of electric field.
there is permanent electric dipole moment
used in important
substances having this type of molecules are
The
of external clecric field.
applications in he presence or absence
 PUC PHYSICS (NCERT- Electric Charges and Fields
LEGENDs' (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-H

State superposition for forces. Apply

principle it to find the force on a
point
charge due to system of 'n'point charges.

Statement q3
The resultant force on any point charge due to a number of point charges is the
vector sum of all the forces due to number of point
charges.
Consider a system (group)of n point charges q, q2, q3 ...qn at distetces b:
I3 T4 .........n respectively from a charge q.

The forceon qu due to q2,

The force on q due to q3, Fia= 993;

13

Similarly,theforce on q due to gn, Fn = 1 49nfn

4nE, Tin
From superposition principle,
The resultant force, F F2 + F13 + F4 + .............+Fin

1_A193 ,+ ...* 1 4nf,n

4

where ip, i3, fh4 ..... are the unit vectors.

The vector sum is obtained hy the paratlelogtam aw of vector addition for two forces
and polygon lawof vector addiion for more thantwo forces

Electric Field (E)

It is the region in which the charged particles experience electrostatic force.

.blectric field strength (E)

Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the force

experienced by the unit positive charge placed at that point.

Force
E=
Charge

What is the value of electric field at a point at infinitedistance from the point
Answer: Zero
charge?
 LEGENDS" (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL -II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Electric Charges and Fields

When a charged rod is touched with the metal sphere, the charge is transferrea
to the gold leaves through the rod. The leaves repel each other due to the samne kina
of charge and diverge as shown in the figure. The divergence in the leaves depende
On the amount of charge on them. By measuring the divergence of leaves, the
amount of charge on the body can be estimated.

Why a charged glass rod does attract a piece of paper? Explain.

Paper is a dielectric. When a positively charged glass rod is brought near it
atoms of paper get polarised, with centre of negativecharge of atoms coming closer
to glass rod. Therefore, force of attraction between glass rod and piece of paper
becomes greater than the force of repulsion between the glass rod and the piece of
paper. 1his resultsin attraction of the piece of paper towards the glass rod.

(M)stateand explain Coulomb's Law in Electrostatics

Statement
The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the squareof the
distance between them. The direction of this force isalong the line joining the two
charges.
Explanation
F ---F

Let qi and q2 be the magnitudes of two charges separated by a

distance r. Let F be the force between them.

From Coulomb's Law, F oc H2 F = 1_492

4nE, r2
where Eo is the absolute permittivity of free space.

9MWrite coulomb's law in vector form and explain the symbols.

1

4ne, r
where f is the unit vector in the direction of F

qiand q2 are the magnitudes of the charges,

r is the distance between the charges.

(a Limitations of Coulomb's Law

1) Coulomb's law is applicable only for point charges.
2) It is applicable when the distance between thepoint
charges is greater than
10-15m

IMJMention the SIunit of charge.

'coulomb' is the unit of charge. Its
symbol is C.

iM) Definecoulomb
'coulomb' or define unit of charge.
l the charge which repels another identical
is
charge with a forceof
9x10N, when placed at a distance of 1metre in free space.

NOTE: To define coulomnb

ConsiderFit2 p9xL09 9,42
Itaiga=1coulomb,r1m. then F910N
Aeo
 LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDYMATERIAL-IPC PHYSS(NCER) Electrie Charges and Fields

In the figure,
E is the electric at the point P,
field

q is charge in the Gaussian cylinder,

r is the radius of Gaussian cylinder,
1 is the length of the Gaussian cylinder.

AA is the area element around the point P.

The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
E AA cose
=E AA cos®--->1)

The angle 0 between E and AA is 00 cos00 =1 ---2)

Here, Electric flux through the end faces is zero.

.: E AA =area of the curved surface of Gaussian cylinder -2rr l --3)

(2) & (3)in (1) »= Ex 2rl --1)
From Gausslaw, =->(5)
On comparing the equations (4) & (5), we get,
Ex 2rr l

E
2n E,r

Linear charge density

2Er
The direction of E is perpendicular to the wire and directed away from the wire.

NOTE
22
1Atcan also be written as, D In vector form,E
2E
wheren is the radial unit, véCtor in plane perpendicular to the wire passing

through the
2 The clectric hield dueto a line charge

of finite long wire,

3)The aboveexpression is approximately true for central portions a

wheretheend effects may be ignored.

in tension.
A charged bead capable of sliding through a sting held verticallý
is
at rest
An electric field is applied parallel to the string so that the bead stays
if the electric field is switched off
in the middle of the string. What happens
momentarily and switched on?
reaches the bottom
The bead moves down wards with constant velocity till it

of the string as the net force acting

on the bead is zero.(due to inertia)
 LEGENDS' (MGDNSTUDY MATERIAL- II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) Electric Charges and Fields
13
Mention the expression for electric in free space
field due toa point charge
and explain the symbols.

E=
4xE, r
.where, iis the unit vector in the direction of E,
q is the magnitude of the charge,
ris the distancebetween q and the point of consideration,

Eo is the permittivity of free space.

Mention an expression for force F experienced by a charged particleof charge

q in an electric field of strength E.
F=Eq
NOTE
The SI unit of electric field is NCI Or Vmi 2)Electricfield is avector quantity.
Uniform electric field
Itis the electric field in which unit positive charge experience the same force at all points.
Non-uniform electric field
Itis the electric field in which unit positive charge experience different forces at different
points.

Uniform electric field

Non uniform electric fields

Source charge
It isthe charge which produces the electric fed'hat we define, The source charge
can be single charge or a group charges or anyc
a
y contínuous distribution
chargeR of
of
Unit positive charge (qo) or Unit positive test charge (qo)
Itis thecharge which tests the effect of source charge. Test charge should not affect
the clectric field produced by thesource charge. The location of the sourcecharge must be
fxëd.However,when a test charge is placed at the observation point, the source charge
experience electric force and it will tend to move. This would alter the field at the|
observation point. To avoid this, the tëst charge is assumed to be negligibly(vanishingly)
small. Then the force F experienced by the test charge qo is negligible but the ratio is

F
finite,Therefore, accuratedefinition of electric field is given by the relation,E mit

Limit
Physicalsignificanceof qo0,
The limit q. >0 indicates that the test charge is infinitesimally small sothat it does not

change originat field configutation (arangement). But, minimum valuefofs charge is the
charge on the proton or electron (1.6x1019). Therefore, in classical and microscopic
situations, we can safely ignore this problern. The test charge is merely introduced for
measurement ofelectric field in convenientmanner

The magnitude of electric fheld depends only on the source charge and the distance of
the testchargefrom source charge. It does not depend on the magnitude test charge. of

It the source charge is positive, the direction electric fheld is directed radially| of

outward îromlne source charge,

c
r hesource charge is negaive,the Girecion o elcetric

field is directed radially inwards (towards the source charge).

 LEGENDs MGDN)STUDY MATERIAL-I PUCPHYSICS (NCERD Electric Charges and Eielle

What is an electricdipole moment?

+20 2a

the product of magnitude of either charge of the dipole and the

It is distance
between the two charges of the dipole.

where q is
pqx2a
the magnitude of either charge and P=tX2a
2a is the distancebetween the charges.

Vector form of dipole moment -hx2a

p=qx2a p where p is the unit vector

NOTE
i) The moment is coulomb metre' or
SI unit of dipole m.
2) Dimensionalformula [ATI L1 is

3) Another unit of dipole moment is debye. ldebye 3.3331030 Cm.

4) The net charge of anelectric dipole is zero but electric field is not zero.
5) The line joining the two charges iscalled as dipole-axis.
6) The midpoint of location of -q and tq called the centreis the dipole.

of
quantity. The direction dipole moment is along the
7) The dipole moment vector is a
of
tq ofthe
dipole axis. By convention, thedirection from -q to is said to be the direction

dipole.

Physical significance of dipoles

BNThe
study of the electric dipole is

1) Used in the study of the effect electric ieid on the insulator, and
of

the study radiation of energy from anantenna.

2) Used in of
chargesdo not
In some molecules, the center ofpositive charges and megative and they are
a
dipole noment
coincideTherefore, these molecules have perimanent
electric

permanent dipoles.
water, ammonia, HCI, HI, and
Co
Molecules
Such molecules are called polarmolecules.
of

hematerials give rise to interesting

of this type. with
poatRelectric field
aresone examnples in the presence or
applications
properties and important charges and negative charges
coincide
In most molecules, the centers of positivemolecüles are called non-polar molecules
is zero. Such
Therefore, their dipole moment molecules. However, they
of H2, O, N2, CO2 and NH&are examples such of
is
applied, butit
not|
Molecules when an electric ield is

developan induced dipole moment

permanenta

produced by an electric
dipole.
is the electric field is not zero.
Dipole field It
but electric
dipole iszero (-q t q=0),
field

The net charge of an electric

separationbetween the charges.
This field arises due to slight

Axial line of a dipole (end-on position) and extended on either side. It

charges of dipole
is the line joining the centers of two
It
is also known as end-on position.

Equatorial line (perpendicular bisector) It|

of the dipole and perpendicular to its length
Itis the line passing through the center
also known as perpendicular bisector
or broad-on position.
is
 LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-l PUC PHYSICS (NCERT Electric Charges and Fields

State superposition principle of electric fields. Apply it to find electrie

due to system of n point charges.
Statement
The resultant electric field at a point due to number point charges of i..
vector sum of all the electric fields due to number of point charges.

Application of the E
principle

P\

Let q,

respectively
q2, q3...*....qn
from a point
Electric field
P.

at P due
be the point charges

to charge q, E =
at distances

1
,, 3 ......

Electric field at P due to charge q2, E2 = 1

Similarly, Electric at P due to charge gn, En

field
= n

From superposition 4E In
principle,
The resultant electric field, E- Ej+ E,+ Ej+ ........En

E= i+
1n
where i,

The vector sum is obtained by

,
the
g....... .,are the unit vectors.

NOTE
parallelogram law of vector
and polygon law of vector addition addition for two electric fields
for more than two
electric fields.

-Physical significance of electric field

Electric field Eat any point around a charge
calculate the force F experienced by unit positive (or system of charges) is used to
test charge qoat that point.
ie F= Ex qo
What is an electric dipole?
It is a pair of equal
and opposite charges separated by
small distance.
Examples: molecules of water, ammonia, HCl and CO.
 Charges and Fields
PUC PHYSICS (NCERT-Electric
LEGENDS (MGDN)STUDY MATERIAL-II 16

Expression for electric field at a point on the axis of the dipole

E- E;E -E
(SM)
A|< a >k a B Ej P E2
2a

r
In the figure,
-q and tq are the magnitudes of the charges of the dipole,
O is the midpoint of the dipole
P is the point on the
axial line,
r is the distance between points O
and P.
2a is the distancebetween the
charges,
P is the electric dipole
moment,
Electric field at P due to

E, = 1 1
along PA.
4nE, AP2 4nE, (r+a)
Electric field at P due to tq,
1
E, = 1

BP2 along BP produced.

:
4nE, 4nE, (r-a?
Resultant electric field at P,
E - E2- Ei E2 > Ei because (r-a)<(rta)
E = 1
1

4nE,(r-a (r+a
9(+a'-(r-a?) For reference
4nE, (r-a(r+a)
I:(r+a'-(r-a'=4ar
E = 4ar
& (r-a)'(r+a' =(-a'y?
4nE, (r-a
E = 1
q4ar.
4ne,(r°-a??

E 1 q 2a 2r 1 2 rp
4ns, (r²-ap
E-=
4n8, (r²-a??
:q2a =p
where electric field and dipole moment are in same direction.
Expression for electric field ata point on the axisof
the dipolein the veçtor form
2 rp
4ne, (r?-a??
Electric field at large
distances on the axis of the dipole (For
For large distances,r >>a, a? a short dipole)
can be
E =
3
2p
In
neglected.

vector form. E= 2p
 LEGENDS' (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT-Electric Charges and Fields

.(1) » E= 1

4rE,
4
R²
->(2)

We have, surface density of charge, o

Charge Charge = GX area
Area

But area of the shell = 4nR2., q=o 4n R2--->(2)

s4nR"
Equation (2) in (1) E E =
4n8,R?

where is the surface density of charge,

Eo is the permittivityof free space.

What is the value of electric field at any point inside the shell?
Electric field at any point inside the shell is zero. This is because the charge
enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero.

NOTE
Graphica representation of variation of electric fleld with distance from centre of
uníformly charged thin spherical shel.,

Distence fromthe centie

Electric

Lwhen
2Ewhen

when
held

tR
R

Rthen
then

then E9
atdifferentpolnts
E0 tRradius ot the shell),

is Tnysey propotaonal tu

wien

Obtain an expression for electric field due to an infinitely long straight

uniformly charged wire by using Gauss's law.

Gaussian cylinder

AAp
End face-1, End face-2
Long wire
++
 LRGENDS' (MGDN) STUDYMATERIAL- II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT) ElectricCharges and Fields
17

for electric field at a point on the equatorial line of the dipole

Expression

isinO
Ea cos® 0XP
E- E;cos +E,cos
E cose 09 AP'= BP-(r2+ a? )

AP= BP=+a?

6,Bing
==
cos
a

a
2a
In the figure,
-q and tq are the magnitudes of the charges of the dipole,

O is the midpoint of the dipole,

P is the point on the equatorial line,
r is the distancebetween O and P,
2a is the distance between the charges,
P is the electric dipole moment,
e is the smallerangle between the directions ofE, and p or E, and p.
ZPAO =ZAPR (alternating angles), PBO =ZQPR (correspondingangles)
1
Electric fild atP due to -q, E= 4nE AP?
along PA ---->(1)

From triangle POA, AP2= (r2+a?) (By applying Pythagoras theorem)

1
=

(
.. (1) Ej
4ne, (r+a2).2)
1 q
Similarly, electric field at P due to tq, E2 = along BPQ
4ne, +a')
From resolution of vectors,
Ej cos is the component of Ej along PR
Ez cos® the,component of E2 along PR

: is

Resultant electric field at P, E-E1 cos®+ E2 cos

But E= E2, .. E =2 E1cose ---->(3)
(2) in (3) =E = 2 1 q cos---->(4)

From triangle POA, cose=

AP 04 [: AP2 -(a2+ r) AP -+a)]
E =2 1 9
(4)
4ne, (+a) +a)
 LRGENps(MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-II PUC
PHYSICS (NCERT Electric Charges and Fielde
23
Electric field at the point P2, E22) A,

(2) E, O,A(3)
A

Erom figure, it is observed that the number of field lines in a given solid
is constant. ie 2 angle

E
.(3) > A2.-.-(4)
E, A

A
2
We have, solid

Substitute for A1 and A2

angle, A2

in (4) >
or

A1
A AQ

= A2 and A2 =A2 ;
E,

AM)
State and explain Gauss's law in electrostatics.

4Statement
The total electric flux through a closed surface in free space is equal to 1/Eo
timesthe total charge enclosedby the surface.
Explanation
Let q be the total charge enclosed by the surface.
=
Then from Gauss's law, total electric flux,

where Eo Permittivity of free space.

(N Gaussian surface
It is an imaginary closed surface containing the charged body chosen for

application of Gauss's law.

NOTE
Consider the Gaussian surface containing the charges asshownin
the figure. From Gaüss's law, electric flux,
5q qt42 93
q where q 4142+43

Proof of the Gauss's law E

AA

A
 -I PUC PHYSICS(NCERT)Electric Charges and Fields
LEGENDS'(MGDN)STUDY MATERIAL,

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understanding the subject)

a pure
(Relative permittivity) has no unit and dimnensions.
It is
1) Dielectric constant
number.
2) The value of dielectric constant depends upon the temperature.
constant is also called as specific inductive capacity
themedium. of
3) Dielectric

Differences between mass.and charge

Mass
Charge
Thechargemay be positive or negative. The mass is always positive.

2 It does not vary with velocity. It increases with increase in velocity.

3 It is conserved. It is (because, mass can be

not conserved
converted into energy and vice-versa).
4 It is quantized. It is not considered to be quantized.
5It plays animportant role in electricity.It plays animportant role in gravitation.
6Charge does not exist without mass. Mass can exist without net charge.
In SI system, isa derived physical n SI system,it is a fundamental physical
it
quantity. quantity.
8 Its SI unit is coulomb. Its SIunit is kg.

In Coulomb's law, the value of depends on thenature of the

proportionality constant
medium. In Newton'slaw of gravitation, the value of proportionality constant does not
depend on the nature of the medium as it is universal constant.
Differences between Coulomb force and gravitatíonal force
Coulomb force 4Gravitational force
It depends on the magnitude of It depends onnthe magnitude of masses.
charges.
2It may be attractive or repulsive. It is alwaysattractive.
3 Neforcc may bezero Net force never bee zero
4 It dependson the nature of the medium It does not depend on the nature of the
between the charges. medium between the charges.
5 Itismuch stronger thanthe 1t is weakest foroein nature.
gravitational force. S

Relative permittivity or Dielectric constant in terms of permittivities

It is the ratio of permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of free space

Relative permittivity or Dielectric constant in terms of forces

It is the ratio of force between two point charges separated by some
distance in free space to the force between the same
two charges separated by the
same distance in a dielectric medium other than free space.

Give two examples which illustrate

that electrical forces are (very stronger
than gravitational force.
1) When a
plastic comb is run through the
dry hair, the comb acquires
friction. This charged comb charge by
lifts a piece of paper
attraction between the comb and the upwards. The electrostatic
piece of paper overcomes
gravity exerted by the entire the force of
earth on the paper.
2) When we hold a
.book in our hand, the electric
palm of our hand and the book (frictional) forces between
the
easily overcome the
book due to the entire earth. gravitational force on the
I8
LEGENDs (MGDN)STUDY
MATERIAL- I1 PUC PHYSICS
(NCERT-Electric Charges and Fields
nressionfor torque (couple) on 19
a dipole placed in uniform
electric field

2a
9

F
In the figure,
-q and tq are the magnitudes of charges of the dipole,
2a is the distancebetween the charges,
E is the uniform electric field in which dipole is placed,
p is the dipole moment, 0 is the angle between the directions of E and p.
Force acting on'+q, F Eq along E
Force acting on -q, F= Eq opposite to E,
These two forces constitute a couple and hence a dipole experiences torque.
We have, torque =
magnitude of either force x perpendiculardistance
t= Eq x BO ---->(1)
To find BO
From triangle, BOA, sine = BO
AB
BO = AB sin BO = 2a sin ---->(2) AB =2a
(2)in (1) = Eqx 2a sin

t=Ep sine "qx 2a =p

Write the vector form of torque acting on the electric dipole moment.

where p = Electric dipole moment, E- Electric field.

When will be the torque acting on the electric dipole maximum and
minimum?
We have, t=p sin0
Case 1: If0 = 0
then sin00= 0
E

--> minimum torque

=
Case 2:If0 900 then sin900 =1 .. T= pE --> maximum torque

NOTE
Unstable equilibrium condition
Case 3: If 0=180 then sin180 =01=0 minimum torque
whenP and are in oppositedirections, torque is zero. In this case, theelectric ipole
E
is in unstableequilibrium.
1 The SI unit of torque is newton metre orNm.
2) The directionof torque is given by right handed screw and cork rule.
t) Torque is yector quantity.
4 Its direction is perpendicular to the plane containing p and E
 LECENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL-II PUC
PHYSS (NCERT-Electric Charges and Fielde

Area vector
AA =AAñ AA =AAñ

Area =AA

Planar areaelement
Area elementon a curved surface

A small planar area element AA

can be represented as a vector AA = AA
area vector is represented by an ñ. The
arrow drawn perpendicular to the
This arrow is along the area element.
normal drawn outward. is the unit vector ñn
normal (drawn outward) to the area. along the
In case of curved surface, the
surface is imagined to be divided in
of area elements. large number
Each area element is treated as a planar
area element.

m)Electrie flux (9)

Electric flux is defined as the product of
component of Electric field lines
field along the
electric
normal of the surfaceand area element.
Surface
=EAcose
where 0 is the angel between the directions of E and A

Alternate definitionof Electricflux

It is the number of electric field lines
passing normally across unit area.

NOTE
The conceptof electrio held ines was introducedby Michae Faraday0eXpl2n
existence ofelectrio field.
The term ux borrowed from hydrodynamics:Thistern implies some iand o fow
(m) Electric field in terms of electric flux
Electric field is theelectric flux per unit area.
E= Electric
Area
flux
E9 -EA
Expression for electricflux through a given surface

Ecos®
Area element
st
ff
Let be the angle between E and AA. Ecose is the component of E alongthe
normal. m
Fux through thearea element, A¢ cos AA =E
The total flux through any given surfaceisgiven by,

¢= A¢ - E AA cos8
 Charges and Fielde
PUC PHYSICS (NCERT-Electric
LhGENDS(MGDN) STUDY MATERAL-II

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Actual expression for total electriclux, cOs® )EAA
1he approximation sign put in the above equation because electricintensi
(e) is
takento be constant area element. This relation
the
becomes exact when we
Over t
imit AA 0 and the summation can be written as anintegral.

Important points
1)

2)
If e-00,

If0
then
900, then
cos01
cos900
SE
=00 AA

minimum
maximum
electric
electric

tux
flux

3) Electric flux is a scalar quantity. In vector form EA

4) The SI unit of electric flux is Nm?/C

What is density of field lines? What is the relation between electric

strength (electricintensity)and density of field
lines?

Region of strong field

Region of weak

Density of field
lines is the number of
field lines passing
Consider the electric field lines normally per unit a
the figure. Near the charge, due to a point charge q placed at as
the field lines are closer. sho O

lines and hence electric Therefore,the density d

field both are more.
well separated. Away fromthe charge,
Therefore, the density of field lines electric link
less. and hence electric field bt

Therefore, Eectric field cdensity of field lines.

Prove that dependence of electric field of a point charge is consistent
the concept of electric field lines

Region of strong field

P2 Region of weak field

+4 A2

OP;=r1 and OP2= I2

Consider the electric field lines due to a

the figure. These field lines forms a cone of
point charge placed at as show g O
solid angle A2. Consider two
and P2 at distances ri and rz respectivelyfrom the points

charge. Let E1 and Ez be

electric fields and Aj and A2 be the
area of cross-sections at the points P ana
respectively.

We have Flux
electric field, E =
Area A
Electric field at the point Pi, Ej = ---->(1)
A
 LEGENDS'(MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL -il PUC PHYSIcS (NCERT) Electric Charges and Fields 27

Obtain an expression for electric field at a point outside a charged thin

spherical shell by using Gauss's law.

Gaussian sphere

Thin spherical shell

AA

Shell

In the figure,
E is the electric field at the point P,

AA is the area element around the point P.

q charge in the Gaussian sphere
is
R the radius of thin spherical shel,
is
r is the radius of Gaussian sphere,

The electric flux through the Gaussian sphere is given by,

= AA cos0
E

= Ecos0 AA --(1)
Here, the angle 0 betweenE and AA is 00
=
X AA area of the Gaussian sphere
. cos00
=4nr2,
=1 ---->(2)
(2), & (3) in (1) = Ex4 rr? ---(4)
----->(3)

From Gausslaw, =--->(5)

On comparing the equations(4) & (5),we get,
Ex 4 I r2 =4
E The direction of E is along OP produced.
4Te, r

Obtain an expression for electric field at a point just outside a charged thin
spherical shellby using Gauss's law.
Gaussian surface & shell

In the figure,
E is the electric field,
R is the radius of a thin spherical shell of centre O,
P is a point at a distance R from O.
Let q be the charge uniformly distributed over
the surface of the shell,
We have,
Electric field at a point outside the
charged shellis given by,
1
E =
When the point lies just outside the shell, r sR---> radius of the shell.
 Electric Charges and Fields
DN) STUDY MATERIAL-I PUC PIYsICS (NCERT)

an isolated 1 positive point charge at O. Imagine a sphere of

Consider q
radius
with centre as shown in the figure. The magnitude of electric fieldE is same a
O

every point on the radially outward. Let

surface of the sphere and it is directed a
be the small area element on the surface of the sphere. Let S be the area ofM
sphere.
The flux through an area element AA is given by,

A E cos0 AA

A E AA ----(1) 000 and cos00 = 1

Flux through the sphericalGaussian surface of area A is given by,

Here, E
That is, -a¢ -E AA =E AA---(1)

and AA =4nr2 =area

:
> of Gaussian spherical surface.
4nE, r

(1) » 4xr?

= This is Gauss's theorem.

Verification of Gauss's law

To verify Gauss's law, let us

calculate electric flux
surface containing no through a closed cylindrical
charge. Let the cylinder be
electric field E along the held in an external
axis of the cylinder as uniform
Suppose ¢ and
2
and each of area A of the
2 shown in the figure.
represents the electric flux
passing through the surfaces 1
cylinder and ¢3 represent
3
curved surface of the cylinder. the flux passing through the

Total electric flux through the

cylindrical surface is given by
= 1t 2 t ¢3 --->(1)
We have, =E A cos

For surface-1, 0= 180°

cos180o =-1: 1 = -EA---->(2) fi
For surface-2, 0= 00 cos00 =1 :. 2= E A---->(3)
For curved surface, =90cos90
Equations (2), (3) and (4) in (1) =-EA+ E A +0 =0
The flux through the cylindrical
surface is zero because charge inside the
cylinder iszero. This verifies Gauss's theorem.
 LEGENDS(MGDN)
STUDYMATERIAL-II PUC PHYSICS
Important points on Gauss's (NCERT-Electric Charges and Fields
law
1) Gauss's law is 25

2) Gauss's law isapplicablefor any closed surface of any

applicable if the charge shape and size.
surface. may be anywhere inside
3) Gauss's law is the Gaussian
applicablefor both the
4) In the Gauss's law, stationary
the ternqrepresentsonly and moving charges.
surface.The charges the total charge
inside the closed
situated outside the
5) Gauss's law is closed surface are not
used most commonly for considered.
6) Gauss's law is based on symmetric charge
inverse configurations.
square law.

Continuous charge distribution.

ariace It is the system of
closely spaced charges.
Types of continuous charge distribution
1) Line density of charge or linear
density of
charge.
2) Surface density of charge or area
density of charge.
3) Volume density of charge.

Define line density of charge or

Define linear density of charge (2).
It is the charge per unit
length of a wire.

It is given by, à = 9.
where q is the charge on the wire and lis the length of the wire.

Mention the SI unit of line density of charge. coulomb per metre or C/n
2ADDITIONAL INFORMATION(ForCET and understandiig
TIf thedistribuion of chitgeis, non uitorm line density of chargei
cylnd using below relation
al
ur Limita Aq
Diflerenia torm

Bufa where is the charge on the

q
microscopically.small line elementAlonewire
TOU 2)For uniformlycharged thin cirenlar ring of radius length, 2

Surface density of charge o) (

It is the charge per unit area of a conductor.

Charge
It is given by, o
Area A
where q is the charge on the conductor and A is the area ofthe çonductor.

Mention the SI unit of surface density of charge.

C/m2 (it is read as coulomb per metre2)
How does the surface density of charge vary with the radius of curvature of
charged body?
Surface density of charge is inversely proportionalto the square of radius of
curvature of charged body.
 PUC PHYSICS (NCERT Electric Charges and Flelds
LEGENDS (MGDN)STUDY AATERIAL-I
16

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION (For CET and understandingthe subject)

1) IF the distribution of charge is non-uniform,surface density of charge is defined Lusi

below relation.
Limit
AA->0AA
Aq4Differential torm
Where Aq is the chargeon the microscopically small area element AA on the conducto

2) For uniformlycharged shellofradius r, area, A- 4r? 4n

Volume density of charge ( p)

It is the charge per unit volume of a conductor.

It is given by, p= where q is the charge and V is thevolume.

Mention the SI unit of volume density of charge. C/m3 or coulomb per metre

PADDITIONAL INFORMATION (ForCET and understanding the subject)

1) If the distribution of charge is non uniform,volume density of charge is
below relation.
definedusing
Limit Ag dq
>Differentialform
AV 0 AV dV
where Aq is the charge on the microscopically small volume
element AV of the conductor.
2) For uniformly charged shell radius r, volume,V of 3

4/3
How does the volume densityof charge vary with the radius
of charged
body?
Volume density of charge is inversely
proportionalto the cube radius of
charged body. of

Electric field in terms of volume density of charge

1 dV
E = p

4ne AAV r

where p the volume density of charge,

is

dV is the volume of the volume element,

r is the distance between the volume element and the
point.

NOTE
Applications of Gauss's law
Gauss's law is used to find electric intensity due to the charged conductor.
The method involves following threesteps.
1) Imagine Gaussian surfacesymmetrical to
given charged body.
2) Compute electric flux through this surface and equate this
flux to where qis the

total charge enclosed by thesurface.

NOTE
The electric field at a pointoutside a spherical charged shell is same as electric field
due to point charge. i.e. a charged spherical shell acts a point charge
 LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL -I1 PUC PHIYSICS (NCERT),Electrie Charges and Fields

charges (free electrons) in the sphere move away from the rod due to the repulsive
force and positive charges move towards rod due to the attractive force as shown in
the figure-2. When far end of the sphere is earthed, the negativecharges (electrons)
flow to the carth as shown in the figure-3. On removing the earth connection in
presence of rod, the conductor acquires positive charge. On removing rod, the
positive charges distribute themselves over the surface of the conductor as shown
in the figure-3.Hence the sphere gets charged positively by induction.

Whatis grounding or earthing?

It is the process of sharingthecharges with the earth.

What is grounding importance?

Grounding provides the safety measure for electrical circuits and appliances.

NOTE
A thick metal plate is buried deep into the earth and thick wires are drawn from thís plate,
These wires are used in the buildings near the main supply for earthing The electrical
Wiring in houses has three wires. They are live, neutral and earth. The live and neutral
from the power station and the earth wire is connected to the buried
Carry elcctric current
metal plate, Metallic bodies appliances
of like refrigerator, electric iron, TV ete are

wire,If a wire touchesthe metallic body, the charges flow to the

connected to the carth live

Carth without damagjng thec appliance and without causing any injury to the persons who
touchesithem.

What is polarity of charge?

It is the property which differentiates the two kinds of electric charges.

(i.e ± sign of charges)

What is gold leaf electroscope (GLE)?

It is an instrument used to detect electric charge and its polarity.

Explain the construction and working of gold leaf electroscope.

Charged rod
Metalsphere

Cork

Metal rod

Bottle

Li L

The above figure represents a simple electroscope. It consists of a metal

rod
isattached to
in a glass bottle through a rubber cork. A small
fitted
metal sphere
foils (gold leaves)
upper end of the rod. Li and La are the extremely thin gold
of Gold have very lowmass per unit area and
attached to the lower end rod. foils

are flexible. Therefore,they respond very quickly to small electrostatic

forces.
 LKGENDs (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL- ll PUC PHYSICS (NCER)Electric Charges and Plelds

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION- To understand the quantizationof charge

When I electron is removed from a body, the charge on the body,
qle-1x 1.6x1019C
When 2 electrons are removed froma body, the charge on tho body,
q2e2x1.6x10-19C
When n electrons are removed from a body, the charge on the body,
qne nx1.6%10-19C

That is; the charge takes only discrete values but not continuous values, Thísis
nothing but the quantization of charge. The nümbers 1, 2, 3,are
not continuous
values
in 1912
Quantization of charge was experimentally dernornstrated by Millikan

NOTE: 6.25x101#electrons together constitute -1Cof charge.

What is meant by additivity of charge? Explain.

The total charge of system of point charges is the algebraic sum of all the
charges in the system. This is known as additivity of charge.

Explanation
If a system contains n charges q, q2, q3.......... qn

Then the total charge of theisystem,

9 qi t q2 + q3 .t qn

NOTE
Example for additivity of charge
Consider asystem of charges +10 4C and +6c asshownin the figure.
From additivity ofcharges,
The total charge, q 9 q2t 43+
q1+4) +6
+30

)Mention the methods of charging a body

They are 4 Charging by friction
(e Charging by conduction
(3}Charging by induction

NOTE
Explain the method of charging by friction. (Frictional electricity)
it with another suitably body.
It is the process of charging a body by rubbing

When two bodies are rubbed suítably one against another, due. to friction, the transfer
of electrons takes place from one body to another. The body that loses ithealectronsis said
to be positively charged and the body that gains the electrons is said to be negatively
charged
Example: When a comb is run through the dry hair, thecomb acquires charge by friction.
Explain themethod of charging by conduction.
of
the process charging a conductor by placing a charged bodyin contact waith it.
Itis

When a negatively charged body is placed in contact with an insulated condictor,the

electrons flowsfrom body to the conductor till the potential become equal. Hence the
conductor acquires negative charge. When a positively charged body is placed in contact
with the conductor,the conductor acquires positive charge.
 LRGENDS" (MGDN) STUDY MATERIAL -lI PUC PIYSICS (NCERID Electric Charges and Fields

big smaller units re used in practice.

coulomb' is very unit.

1) 1nC 100, uC is read as micro coulomb

2) 1nC =10PC, nc is read as nano coulomb,
3) ipl0 1C, pC is read as pico coulomb,

We have. F 92
When chargesare placed in free space (air or vacuum) and in Sl systém,

oxI0: Nm/C

8,85x1012C/Nm
where t is the absolute permittivity of free space. Its value is

)SF-9x10
When charges placed in a dielectric medium other than free space and in SIsystem/

k where E is the absolute permittivity the mediun. It is diforent for diferent

46
of
media.
dielectric Fi2 Fi2

42
Figure Figure 2
Coulomb'slaw is valid tor any sign and 4a If q and go are of same sign (either
of g

both positive or both negative), then the qi4p>0 and the force, is repulsive force as
produot
shown in the hgure-1 qr and ga are of opposite sign, then the product qtq2<0 and the

forceis attractive force asshown in thefigure2.

Coulomb's law in vector form in terms of position vectors of two charges.

Show that the Coulomb's law agrees with the Newton's third law of motion by
taking the position vectors of two charges.

F12 91

I2

Consider two point charges q and q2 located at two pointsinvacuum. Let and
I, be the position vectors of q and q2 respectively with reference to the origin o of
the three-dimensionalco-ordinatesystem.
 LEGENDS (MGDN) STUDYMATERIAL-II PUC PHYSICS (NCERT-Electric Charges and Fields
30

Obtain an expression for electric field due to uniformly charged infinite plane
sheet by using Gauss's law.
Gaussian cylinder
+
End face-1 A 4 End face-2

Charged plane sheet

In the figure,
E is the electric field on either side of the sheet,
r is the distance between the sheet and each end face of the cylinder.
q is the charge in the Gaussian cylinder.
A is the area of each end faces of Gaussian cylinder.

The electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,

=
AA cose E

6 E
AA cos0----->(1)
The angle between E and AA is 00 cos0 = 1 ----->(2)
Here, Electric flux through the curved surface is zero.
-
AA sum the areas of theend faces A+A-2A ----->(3)
of
=
(2) & (3) in (1) $= Ex 2A --(4)
From Gauss law, o >(5)

On comparing the equations (4) & (5), we get,

Ex 2A=4
)E =
2AE,

E
2 Eo
:g=A surface density of charge

What is the nature of the path traced by the electron projected perpendicular
to the uniform electricfield?
Ans: Parabola

NOTE

1) In vector form,
2eo
where n is theunit vector normal to the plane anddrected outwardi
The electric ield du to shéet does not depend on the T(distance from the sheet).

3)The above expression is approximately true for middleregion ef the finite large
sheet, where the end effects may be ignored.E