An Introduction to Semantics

An Introduction to
Semantics
SAUDI SADIQ
BA, MA, PHD, CELTA, AFHE
1
What is
semantics?
2
Language
Language is “a system of conventional spoken,
manual (signed), or written symbols by means of
which human beings, as members of a social group
and participants in its culture, express themselves”
(Britanica, 2023).
"‫ اللغة "أصوات يعب بها كل قوم عن أغراضهم‬:‫تعريف ابن جن‬
)‫ هـ‬391 ،‫(الخصائص‬
3
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific
study of language, including
its structure, use, and
evolution. It encompasses
several branches that focus
on different aspects of
language.
4
Semantics
Semantics is the study of
meaning in language. Even
though looks superficially
easy, it is indeed NOT.
Now, what is the meaning
of ‫ عي‬in Arabic?
5
‫‪Semantics‬‬
‫‪Now, think of the‬‬ ‫تعبان قوي يا ماما‪.‬‬
‫ي‬ ‫عين‬
‫ي‬
‫‪following and‬‬ ‫الزم تروح للدكتور يشوف عي السمكة‬ ‫‪.1‬‬
‫‪decide whether the‬‬ ‫الل ف رجلك دي‪.‬‬
‫‪ /‬عيون ‪meaning of‬‬ ‫قولوا لعي الشمس ما تحماش‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬‬
‫‪ as ‘eye/s’ in the‬عي‬
‫‪flowing sentences‬‬ ‫من عين يا حبين‪.‬‬ ‫‪.3‬‬
‫‪can still be the‬‬ ‫عيون ماما! يا سالم! هو فيه كام ريــهام؟‬ ‫‪.4‬‬
‫?‪meaning‬‬ ‫عل حبة عين يا بنن وهللا‪.‬‬ ‫‪.5‬‬
‫‪6‬‬
‫‪ .6‬هو بعينه ابن اللذينا‪.‬‬
‫‪ .7‬يا عين عليك يا ابن‪.‬‬
‫‪ .8‬حط عينك وسط رأسك‪ ،‬دي بلد كلها حرامية‪.‬‬
‫ّ‬
‫‪ .9‬أول ما شافن حط عينه عليه وجه ألبويا يخطبن‪.‬‬
‫‪ .10‬دي ست عينها قوية‪ ،‬وجوزها عينه فارغة‪.‬‬
‫‪ .11‬أل‪ ،‬دول ناس عينيها مليانة‪ ،‬والد ناس يعن‪.‬‬
‫‪7‬‬
‫‪ .12‬الزم تجيب لها هدية تمل عينها‪.‬‬
‫‪ .13‬جوزي ده ما يلزمنيش؛ خالص نزل من عين‪.‬‬
‫‪ .14‬وهللا ألروحله وأطلع الفلوس من عينه‪ /‬من حباب عينيه‪.‬‬
‫‪ .15‬وال تشيل هم‪ ،‬يا عم‪ .‬بنتك ف عين‪.‬‬
‫‪ .16‬طب‪ ،‬عين ف عينك كده!‬
‫‪ .17‬ملوخية تحفة! يا عين‪ ،‬يا عين! ‪ /‬يا عين عل الجمال!‬
‫‪8‬‬
‫‪ - .18‬بق عايز ألف جنيه؟ بعينك؟‬
‫‪ - .19‬وفضل باصص ل كده عين عينك‪.‬‬
‫‪ - .20‬ده واقف يبيع بانجو ف الشارع‪ ،‬عل عينك يا تاجر‪.‬‬
‫‪ - .21‬لسة ليك عي تقاوح؟‬
‫‪ - .22‬مؤدب؟!! دي عينه تندب فيه رصاصة!‬
‫‪ - .23‬ضبن عل عين‪ ،‬وعينك ما تشوف إال النور‪ ،‬ما كنتش شايف‬
‫حاجة خالص‪.‬‬
‫‪9‬‬
‫العي بصبة واإليد قصبة‪.‬‬ ‫‪.24‬‬
‫العي تكره الل أحسن منها‪.‬‬ ‫‪.25‬‬
‫هأوريك العي الحمرا يا ابن ‪!...‬‬ ‫‪.26‬‬
‫ده راجل عينه صفرا‪.‬‬ ‫‪.27‬‬
‫الل يبص ل بعي‪ ،‬أبص له باتني! هه!‬ ‫‪.28‬‬
‫بيض عيون‬ ‫‪.29‬‬
‫فقب‪ ،‬إخييه‪ .‬ده عي من أعيان البلد‪.‬‬ ‫‪.30‬‬
‫‪10‬‬
Word meaning and speaker meaning
➢ You can see that the word ‫ عي‬does mean
)‫"عضو اإلبصار لإلنسان وغبه من الحيوان" (المعجم الوسيط‬
This the word/dictionary meaning.
➢ But you can see through the numerous examples given above, each
within an imagined scenario very common in Egyptian culture, that
‫ عي‬can also be used by speakers to mean something different from
the word/dictionary meaning. This is called the speaker meaning.
11
Word meaning
➢ Accordingly, word meaning (or by extension sentence meaning) is the

agreed-upon meaning of a word usually given in dictionaries or
circulated among the native speakers of a given language variety
(dialect).
➢ This is why it is also called dictionary meaning or linguistic meaning.
➢ For example, the word meaning of nice means “giving pleasure or
satisfaction; pleasant or attractive” (Oxford English Dictionary).
12
Speaker meaning
➢ Speaker meaning is the Have a nice day!
meaning expressed or
Have a nice day!
conveyed by a speaker in a
given context when using a
piece of language.
➢ The expression ‘Have a nice
day!’ in these two images have
the same language piece but
expressing different speaker
meanings.
13
Speaker meaning
➢ As is seen in the two images above, the
same thing said (utterance) can have
different meanings based on the speaker’s
intentions.
➢ Now, think of three situations in which
‫ر‬
you may use ‫ كب ألف خبك‬and tell us the
intended (speaker) meaning in each.
14
Speaker meaning
➢ Speaker meaning requires a context and the speaker + hearer/s must be

familiar with cultural norms where the intended meaning is used.
Otherwise, this meaning could be taken literally and miscommunication
may occur.
➢ Just imagine saying ‫ ممكن تليفونك‬to an Arab for whom ‫ تليفون‬means
the ‘phone’ as a device not the ‘phone number’. The reply could be a
question why you need his/her phone device?
15
Speaker meaning
➢ Because speaker meaning relies on the intention of the
speaker and the hearer’s ability to understand the context, any
stretch of words that make no (literal) sense can be used to
express a meaning.
➢This is so common close friends who usually agree on a
secret language (code) that may not mean anything for
outsiders. Do you have anything to share with us?
16
Semantics and Pragmatics
➢ Semantics is the scientific study of

word/sentence meaning.
➢ Pragmatics is the scientific study of speaker
meaning.
17
Sentence,
utterance, and
proposition
18
Sentence
➢ A sentence is a grammatically complete group of words
expressing a complete thought.
Examples:
1. I washed my hands before dinner.
2. I ate the ice cream, and then I had some cake.
3. After I had breakfast, I brushed my teeth.
4. I am here.
5. He seems nice.
19
Sentence
➢ All the previous examples follow the rules of English grammar.
No component is missing, and all components together express
full thoughts.
➢ All the examples above categorized under one type of sentence
(i.e., declarative sentence/statement).
➢ They are all structured as
Subject (S) + Transitive Verb (V) + Object (O): 1, 2 & 3
Subject (S) + Intransitive Verb (V) + Complement (C): 4 & 5
20
Sentence
➢ Other types of sentences include:
❖ Interrogative sentence/question: yes/no question (Are you a
student?) or wh-question (Why did you come late yesterday?)
❖ Imperative sentence/order (Open the book.)
❖ Exclamatory sentence/ exclamation (What a beautiful sunset!)
➢ All sentences of all types express a full thought. If not, they are
run-on sentences (e.g., After I had breakfast). Run-on sentences may
have a subject, a verb inflected in a tense, an object or complement
but there is no full thought.
21
Sentence
Even though some sentences are grammatically incomplete, they express
a full thought. Think of this:
1. A: Would you like tea or coffee? 2. A: When did you arrive?
B: Tea, please. B: An hour ago.
‘Tea, please’ and ‘An hour ago’ are not grammatically well-formed
sentences; some components are missing (no subject or verb exists). But
the full thoughts expressed by these incomplete sentences as the hearer
relates them to the context (i.e., he/she understands ‘Tea, please’ as ‘I like
tea, please’).
22
Utterance
➢ Try saying this in two ways.
Way 1: I cannot do this now or later.
Way 2: I cannot do this (pause for 1 second) now or later.
In Way 1, there is one utterance. In Way 2, there are two utterances.
➢ An utterance is any stretch of talk, by one person, before and
after which there is silence on the part of that person.
➢ But does it have to be a full sentence as in the example above?
NO.
23
Utterance
➢ How are you? ➢ Hi!

➢ The nice boy ➢!‫أي‬
➢ !‫أي‬ ➢He is was start
➢ This is ➢B
➢ My name is ‫ كفتة‬and Je ➢ ... ‫يا ابن الـ‬
suis
24
Utterance
➢ Accordingly, an utterance can be defined as

any stretch of talk whether it is 1) a sentence or more
than one sentence, 2) a phrase or more, 3) a word or 4)
even a single sound said by one person, before and
after which there is silence on the part of that person.
Thus, an utterance is molded in an accent and reveals a
voice quality.
25
Proposition
➢ Now, think of the following:

1. Mary gave John a book.
2. John was given a book by Mary.
In these two sentences (and utterances if pronounced), do
we have the same idea/meaning?
YES or NO?
26
Proposition
➢ YES. This means that we have 2 sentences, but 1
proposition.
➢ A proposition is the meaning or information conveyed by
a sentence or an utterance.
27
Proposition
➢ While sentences and utterances belong to a specific language,
propositions ARE NOT related to a specific language. This is why
translation is possible among different languages with different
grammar and phonology.
➢ Although all types of sentences involve propositions, only the
declarative sentence/statement asserts the proposition truth
expressed through it.
➢ For example, ‘I am a student’ asserts the fact the speaker is a
student.
28
Proposition
➢In the other types of sentences, there is no assertion of the truth
of the proposition, but there IS a proposition.
➢ For example, in saying, ‘John can go’ a speaker asserts the
proposition that John can go.
➢ But in saying, ‘Can John go?’, he mentions the same
proposition but questions its truth. Here, it could be said that
corresponding declaratives and interrogatives have the same
propositional content.
29
Proposition
➢ Fill in the chart below with ‘+’ or ‘_’ as appropriate. Thus, for example,
if it makes sense to think of a proposition being in a particular regional
accent, put a ‘+’ in the appropriate box; if not, put a ‘_’.
30
Proposition
31
Sense and
reference
32
Review
➢ Answer the following with “Yes” or “No”.

1. Can a sentence be true or false?
2. Is an utterance tied to a particular time and place?
3. Is a sentence tied to a particular time and place?
4. Can a proposition be said to be in any particular
language?
5. Can an utterance be true or false?
33
Review
➢ Answer the following with “Yes” or “No”.
1. Can a sentence be true or false? Yes

2. Is an utterance tied to a particular time and place? Yes
3. Is a sentence tied to a particular time and place? No
4. Can a proposition be said to be in any particular
language? No
5. Can an utterance be true or false? Yes
34
Reference
➢ Reference is a phrase/expression which refers to person
/thing/ animal/plant.
➢ This phrase or expression is called ‘referring
phrase/expression’.
➢ This means that reference is a relationship between parts
of a language and things outside the language (in the world).
➢Things/animals/plants or people referred to are called
referents.
35
Raise your hand
If this teacher is saying

to her students, “Raise
your hand”, how many
referring phrases/
expressions are there?
How nanny referents?
36
Raise your hand
➢ There is 1 phrase/expression: “Raise your
hand.”
➢ ‘your hand’ is part of the language (this
time English).
➢ The physical hand/s raised is/are not part
of the language; it is/they are part of the
world. Language has no hands.
➢ There are 6 referents = 6 hands raised.
They could be even more.
37
Reference
➢ The same referring phrase/ expression can be used to
refer to different things (referents).
Orange
38
Reference
➢ What are the referents in the following

sentences?
1. Mary saw a beautiful flower. She picked it up
gently.
2. John had a big red ball. He bounced it in the
park.
39
Reference
➢ What are the referents in the following sentences?
1. Mary saw a beautiful flower. She picked it up

gently.
2. John had a big red ball. He kicked it in the park.
40
Reference: Constant vs. variable
➢ Reference can be constant or variable. Have a look at

these examples and decide which underline expression
is a constant reference and which is a variable reference.
- Palestine is an Arab country.

- The American president usually has an impact on the
Arab-Israeli conflict.
41
- Palestine is an Arab
country.
‘Palestine’ is a constant
reference since it does not
change. Whenever
‘Palestine’ is mentioned, it
is the same referent/country.
42
Reference: Constant vs.
variable
- The American president usually

has an impact on the Arab-Israeli
conflict.
‘The American president’ is a
variable reference since the
referent/president could be anyone
from George Washington to Biden
‫بايضن‬.
43
- This means that the reference of

an expression changes based on
(a) the context, such as the
situation and time in which it is
used, and
(b) the subject matter discussed in
the conversation where the
expression is used.
44
➢ Often, reference is variable in language;

constant variable is not that common.
➢ Also, there could be more than one expression
but have the same referent.
- John is the science teacher and my husband.
45
Sense
➢ Are there any referents in the following?
1. The boy is smart.

2. The book and the door are tired and need to have
some rest.
3. Mohamed Salah showed his support for Palestine.
46
Sense
➢ Are there any referents in the following?

some rest.
3. Mohamed Salah showed his support for Palestine.
47
Sense: Does it make sense?
➢ Does any of the following make sense?

some rest.
3. Bassem Yousef showed his support for Palestine.
48
Sense
➢ Does any of the following make sense?
1. The boy is smart. Yes

some rest. No
3. Bassem Yousef showed his support for Palestine.
Yes
49
Sense
➢ Now, can you give the same sense of

‘The boy is smart.’
in different ways?
50
Sense
➢ ‘The boy is smart.’
▪ The boy is intelligent. ▪ The boy is astute.

▪ The boy is bright. ▪ The boy is brainy.
▪ The boy is sharp. ▪ The boy is sharp-minded.
▪ The boy is quick- ▪ The boy is intellectually
witted. gifted.
51
Sense
➢ Sense is the inherent meaning/mental image of a word or more in

relation to other words. Have a look at these two examples:
1. Muhammad is a fast runner. 2. Muslims fast in Ramadan.
The sense of ‘fast’ in Sentence 1 is “moving or capable of moving at high
speed” (OED), and this could be understood from the semantic
relationship between ‘fast’ and ‘runner’. The sense of ‘fast’ in Sentence 2
as “abstain from all or some kinds of food or drink, especially as a
religious observance” (OED) is also understood from the semantic
relatship between ‘fast’ and ‘Muslims’ and ‘Ramadan’.
52
Sense
➢ If there is no harmonious/ logical relationship between
words in the sentence, we say that the sentence does not
make sense, even if it is well-formed grammatically or if it
has referents.
➢ So, ‘The book and the door are tired and need to have
some rest.’ does not make sense; because ‘tired and need to
have some rest’ are expressions that do not match ‘The book
and the door’.
53
Reference and sense
Have a look at these two
sentences.
1. The king in Britain is known
for his extensive charity work.
2. The king in Morocco is
known for his commitment to
economic development in the
country.
54
Reference and sense
➢ The referring expression in the two sentences ‘The king’ has
different referents (in S 1: King Charles, while in S 2: King
Muhammad VI), but the sense of ‘king’ is the same: “a male
ruler of an independent state” (OED).
➢ This means that while the referent of a referring
phrase/expression may change in different contexts/sentences,
the sense of a word (like ‘king’) does not change every time
the word takes on a new referent.
55
Sense
➢ It should be made clear that the same word may have

more than one sense.
- Muhammad is a fast runner.

- Muslims fast in Ramadan.
- You should save your money in a bank.
- Meet me at the other bank of the river.
56
Sense
➢ Also, the same sentence may have more than one

sense.
- The chicken is ready to eat.
- He greeted the boy with a smile.
- I saw the man with the telescope.
- The bank is on the river.
Clarify the different senses.
57
Sense
➢ Sense is not tied to a reference. Words could have a
sense and do not have to refer to anything in the real
world.
➢ For example:
and, if, above, on, oh dear!
All these have sense, but they do not refer to anything
in the real world.
58
Sense
➢ As with ‘proposition’, sense does not belong to a

specific language because it is a mental concept. So,
the same sense can belong to different languages,
which makes translation from languages possible.
- I am hungry. ‫أنا جوعان‬/ ‫أنا أشعر بالجوع‬/ ‫أنا عل لحم بطن‬
59
Referring
expressions
60
Review
Answer the following questions:
(1) Give an example of an expression that might be used to refer
to the President of Egypt in 1973 and another in 2023.
(2) Give an example of an expression that could have variable
reference.
(3) Give an example of an expression that always (in normal
everyday conversation) has constant reference.
(4) Give an example of different expressions having one referent.
61
Review
Answer the following questions:
(5) Give an example of an expression that has no reference.
(6) Which of the following is a correct description of ‘reference’?
(a) a relationship between expressions and other expressions which
have the same meaning
(b) the set of all objects which can potentially be referred to by an
expression
(c) a relationship between a particular object in the world and an
expression used in an utterance to pick that object out
62
Review
Answers:
(1) Sadat / Sisi
(2) my house, that school, etc.
(3) Gaza, etc.
(4) ‫ المتحدث العسكري باسم كتائب القسام‬،‫أبو عبيدة‬, etc.
(5) from, on, with, etc.
(6) (c)
63
Referring expressions
➢ A referring expression is any expression used in an
utterance to refer to something or someone (or a clearly
defined collection of things or people), i.e., used with a
particular referent in mind.
➢ For example, in uttering
Sayyid kicked the ball.
the speaker has a particular person in mind -- ‘Sayyid’. So,
‘Sayyid’ is a referring expression.
64
➢ But in uttering
I do not like to call my son Sayyid.
the speaker does not have a particular person in mind – no one called
Sayyid exists in the real world. So, ‘Sayyid’ here is not a referring
expression.
➢ Do you think that ‫ أحمد‬in uttering
‫أحمد زي الحاج أحمد‬
(said by many Egyptians in situations where something is not much
different from another) is a referring expression?
65
➢ Could the following possibly be used as referring expressions?
(1) John Yes / No
(2) My uncle Yes / No
(3) and Yes / No
(4) the girl sitting on the wall by the bus stop Yes / No
(5) a man Yes / No
(6) my parents Yes / No
(7) send Yes / No
(8) under Yes / No
66
➢ Could the following possibly be used as referring expressions?
(1) John Yes / No
(2) My uncle Yes / No
(3) and Yes / No
(4) the girl sitting on the wall by the bus stop Yes / No
(5) a man Yes / No
(6) my parents Yes / No
(7) send Yes / No
(8) under Yes / No
67
Referring expressions; referring
interpretation & indefinite noun phrases
➢ Again, the same expression may be a referring
expression or not.
➢ If it is used as a referring expression, it means that it has
a ‘referring interpretation’. If it is used NOT as a referring
expression, it lacks the 'referring interpretation’.
➢ In all cases, this depends on the context.
➢ This is true of indefinite noun phrases.
68
Answer the following with Yes or No.
(1) When a speaker says, ‘A man was in here looking for you last
night’ is ‘a man’ being used to refer to a particular man?
(2) So, in the above example, is ‘a man’ a referring expression?
(3) When a speaker says, ‘This cake is very small; it is no bigger
than a man’s hand’, is ‘a man’ being used to refer to a particular
man?
(4) Is ‘a man’ in this example a referring expression?
69
(1) When a speaker says, ‘A man was in here looking for you last
night’ is ‘a man’ being used to refer to a particular man? Yes
(2) So, in the above example, is ‘a man’ a referring expression? Yes
(3) When a speaker says, ‘This cake is very small; it is no bigger than
a man’s hand’, is ‘a man’ being used to refer to a particular man? No
(4) Is ‘a man’ in this example a referring expression? No
70
(5) Is ‘Three students’ used in ‘Three students in my
classroom got A in Semantics’ a referring expression?
(6) Is ‘three students’ used in ‘Ahmad can do this task
much better than three students’ or ‘I think three students
can do the task better than two’ a referring expression?
71
(5) Is ‘Three students’ used in ‘Three students in my classroom
got A in Semantics’ a referring expression? Yes
(6) Is ‘three students’ used in ‘Ahmad can do this task much
better than three students’ or ‘I think three students can do the
task better than two’ a referring expression? No
The context in the last 6 examples clarifies which expression has
a referring interpretation and which does not.
72
➢ However, sometimes it’s not clear if an indefinite noun phrase has a
referring interpretation (i.e., a referring expression) if the linguistic
context can be interpreted in different ways as in:
She wants to marry an Egyptian.
➢ ‘an Egyptian’ here could mean
1. ‘a man she knows, and he is Egyptian’ (i.e., ‘an Egyptian’ here is a
referring expressions as it refers to a referent in the speaker’s mind).
2. ‘any man from Egypt’ (i.e., ‘an Egyptian’ here is NOT a referring
expression).
73
interpretation & definite noun phrases
➢ A definite noun phrase is a group of words that includes a noun and
provides specific information about the noun, making it clear which
particular thing or person is being referred to.
➢ A definite noun phrase can be
1) a name (e.g., Muhmmad, John)
2) a pronoun (e.g., he, us)
3) a long descriptive expression (e.g., the woman with blue eyes, the student
holding a book)
4) possessive expressions (e.g., Ahmad’s house)
74
➢ Are the following definite noun phrases used below as referring expression
(i.e., do they have a referring interpretation)? Yes or No?
(1) ‘Ali’ in ‘Ali is my best friend.’
(2) ‘he’ in ‘He’s a very polite man.’, said by a husband to his wife in a
conversation about their bank manager.
(3) ‘it’ in ‘It’s off!’ used in a conversation about a fan which has been switched
off.
(4) ‘the man who opened the door’ in ‘The man who opened the door is
Hesham’s father.’
75
➢ Are the following definite noun phrases used below as referring expression
(1) ‘Ali’ in ‘Ali is my best friend.’ Yes
(2) ‘he’ in ‘He’s a very polite man.’, said by a husband to his wife in a
conversation about their bank manager. Yes
(3) ‘it’ in ‘It’s off!’ used in a conversation about a fan which has been switched
off. Yes
(4) ‘the man who opened the door’ in ‘The man who opened the door is
Hesham’s father.’ Yes
76
➢ But, even with definite noun phrases, there are examples in which they are not
(or not clearly) referring expressions.
- Are the following definite noun phrases used below as referring expression
(1) ‘he’ in ‘If anyone ever marries Nancy, he will be in trouble’ (meaning that
whoever marries Nancy will be in trouble).
(2) ‘it’ in ‘Every man who owns a donkey beats it’.
(3) ‘the person who cooked this’ in ‘The person who cooked this must be insane’,
spoken by someone in a restaurant on discovering how horrible a dish is, where
the speaker has no idea who cooked it.
77
1. he in ‘If anyone ever marries Nancy, he will be in trouble’ (meaning that
whoever marries Nancy will be in trouble). No
- The speaker has no particular person in mind as Nancy’s possible future husband.
2. ‘it’ in ‘Every man who owns a donkey beats it’ No
-- ‘it’ doesn’t refer to any particular donkey here.
3. ‘the person who cooked this’ in ‘The person who cooked this must be insane’,
spoken by someone in a restaurant on discovering how horrible a dish is, where
the speaker has no idea who cooked it. No
- ‘the person who cooked this’ is not a particular person in the speaker’s mind.
78
➢ However, if Example 3 above is said by a husband at home
(knowing that his wife cooked the horrible dish),
‘The person who cooked this must be insane’
‘the person who cooked this’ here would be a particular person in the
speaker’s mind (i.e., his wife). So, this expression is a referring
expression.
➢ Once more, even when it comes to definite noun phrases, we must
consider whether they have a referring meaning or not based on the
context.
79
Equative/equational sentence
➢ An equative sentence is one which is used to assert the identity
of the referents of two referring expressions, i.e., to assert that two
referring expressions have the same referent.
Joe Biden is the President of the United States.
➢ Here ‘Joe Biden’ is equal and can be exchanged with ‘the
President of the United States’. So, the sentence can be reversed,
and the meaning is still the same:
The President of the United States is Joe Biden .
80
➢ Equative sentences are ➢ Equative sentences can be
employed differently across employed in sentences where
languages. English, for instance, comparison between two
employs copula (verb to be) in referents involve identicality in a
the present tense, while Arabic feature.
does not rely on copula. So,
Ahmad is as clever as Ali.
Cairo is the largest city in Africa. Here, reversal means the same:
.‫القاهرة أكب مدينة ف أفريقيا‬
Ali is as clever as Ahmad.
81
➢ Now, decide whether the following sentences are equative:
(1) John is the person in the corner. Yes / No

(2) Henry the Eighth is the current President of the USA. Yes / No
(3) Cairo is not the largest city in Africa. Yes / No
(4) Cairo is a large city. Yes / No
(5) Dr. Jekyll is Mr. Hyde. Yes / No
82
➢ Now, decide whether the following sentences are equative:
(1) John is the person in the corner. Yes / No
(2) Henry the Eighth is the current President of the USA. Yes / No
Equative sentences can be false.
(3) Cairo is not the largest city in Africa. Yes / No
This is negation, not assertion .
(4) Cairo is a large city. Yes / No
This sentence does not state identity of reference.
(5) Dr. Jekyll is Mr. Hyde. Yes / No
83
➢ The reversal test (clarified above, the Biden sentence) does not always
work perfectly when trying to tell if a sentence is equative or not.
➢ For example,
What I need is a glass of water.
This sentence is perfectly reversible:
A glass of water is what I need.
But ‘a glass of water’ is not even a referring expression as the speaker does
not have a particular glass of water in mind.
84
Predicates
85
Review
(1) Which of the following is the phrase a tall tree?
(a) a referring expression
(b) not a referring expression
(c) sometimes a referring expression and sometimes not, depending on
context and circumstances of use
(2) Is the following statement correct (Yes) or incorrect (No)?
Whether a sentence contains any referring expressions or not depends on
the time and place at which the sentence occurs. Yes / No
86
Review
(1) Which of the following is the phrase a tall tree?
(a) a referring expression
(b) not a referring expression
(c) sometimes a referring expression and sometimes not, depending on
context and circumstances of use
(2) Is the following statement correct (Yes) or incorrect (No)?
Whether a sentence contains any referring expressions or not depends on the
time and place at which the sentence occurs. Yes / No
If ‘sentence’ is replaced with ‘utterance’, 2 would be ‘Yes’.
87
Review
(3) Which of the following sentences is equative?
(a) Mahmoud is an Egyptian.
(b) I was telling you about Mahmoud the Egyptian.
(c) Mahmoud is the Egyptian I was telling you about.
(d) Mahmoud is a genius.
(4) Does if have sense in the same way that dog has sense?
Yes/ No
88
Review
(3) Which of the following sentences is equative?
(a) Mahmoud is an Egyptian.
(b) I was telling you about Mahmoud the Egyptian.
(c) Mahmoud is the Egyptian I was telling you about.
(d) Mahmoud is a genius.
(4) Does if have sense in the same way that dog has sense?
Yes/ No
89
Review
(5) Do the expressions big and large have essentially the
same sense in the following sentences?
I live in a big house.
I live in a large house. Yes / No
(6) Circle those of the following words which can be
referring expressions (in normal everyday English).
John, below, Venus, swims, round, beautiful, under, went
90
Review
(5) Do the expressions big and large have essentially the
same sense in the following sentences?
I live in a big house.
I live in a large house. Yes / No
(6) Circle those of the following words which can be
referring expressions (in normal everyday English).
John, below, Venus, swims, round, beautiful, under, went
91
Predicator
In the following sentences, delete the referring expressions and write
down the remainder to the right of the example.
- Sayyid kicked the ball. ______kicked_____
(1) Nancy is washing Ahmad’s white shirt. ________________
(2) Cairo is in Africa. ________________
(3) Libya is between Egypt and Tunisia. ________________
(4) This place stinks. ________________
(5) Ali’s car is red. ________________
(6) Zweil was a genius. ________________
92
Predicator
In the following sentences, delete the referring expressions and write
down the remainder to the right of the example.
(1) Nancy is washing Ahmad’s white shirt. ___ is washing _____
(2) Cairo is in Africa. _____ is in _______
(3) Libya is between Egypt and Tunisia. _ is between __ and _
(4) This place stinks. ___ stinks _____
(5) Ali’s car is red. _____is red________
(6) Zweill was a genius. ____was a genius___
93
Predicator
➢ In all the examples above, some elements in the word or
words that remained after deleting the referring expressions
are more important in conveying the meaning than other
elements.
➢ For example, in No. 1 above the main verb ‘wash’ carries
more meaning that the auxiliary verb ‘is’ and the bound
morpheme ‘ing’.
94
Predicator
➢ Now, have a look at the previous examples and write down the
single word (or part of a word) which carries the most specific
information.
(1) is washing
(2) is in
(3) is between --- and
(4) stinks
(5) is red
(6) was a genius
95
Predicator
➢ Now, have a look at the previous examples and write down the
single word (or part of a word) which carries the most specific
information.
(1) is wash ing
(2) is in
(3) is between --- and
(4) stink s
(5) is red
(6) was a genius
96
Predicator
➢ Those words above (wash -in - between - stink - red - genius) are
predicators.
➢ In a simple declarative sentence, the predicator is the part that is
not a referring expression.
➢ Among the remaining words in the sentence, it conveys the most
specific information about the sentence’s meaning.
➢ The predicator essentially describes the state or process in which
the referring expressions are involved.
97
Predicator
➢ Decide the predicator in each sentence and explain:
1. Ali is smart.
2. Our old neighbor is feeding his dog.
3. My uncle loved his wife.
98
Predicator
➢ Decide the predicator in each sentence and explain:
1. Ali is smart.
This is a description of Ali’s state as ‘smart’.
2. Our old neighbor is feeding his dog.
This is an action performed by the first referring expression ‘Our old
neighbor’ to the second referring expression ‘his dog’.
3. My uncle loved his wife.
This is the emotional process that the two referring expressions ‘My
uncle’ and ‘his wife’ were involved in.
99
Predicator
➢ Some of the words/parts of words removed above have
meaning, but they are semantically less important than the
predicator.
➢ For example, the tenses used have meaning, but their meaning
is less important than the predicator.
➢ Notice that the predicator in all the previous examples is NOT
any form of verb to be (is, was) whether used as a main or
auxiliary verb.
100
Predicator
➢ What is the predicator in the following sentences?
(1) Mona is asleep.
(2) Hesham is in Aswan.
(3) Our neighbor is a nurse.
(4) The woman who teaches chemistry is Indian.
(5) My house is behind El-Rahma Mosque.
101
Predicator
➢ What is the predicator in the following sentences?
(1) Mona is asleep.
(2) Hesham is in Aswan.
(3) Our neighbor is a nurse.
(4) The woman who teaches chemistry is Indian.
(5) My house is behind El-Rahma Mosque.
102
Predicator
➢The predicators in sentences can be of various parts of
speech:
- adjectives (red, asleep, Indian),
- verbs (wash, stink),
- prepositions (in, between, behind), and
- nouns (nurse, genius).
➢ Conjunctions (and, but, or) and articles (the, a) do not serve
as predicators
103
Predicator & argument
➢ As we have seen, a predicator is a semantic role played by a word/or
words which is/are not referring expressions.
➢ The semantic role played by referring expressions is the argument.
➢ Examples:
- Omar is Egyptian: argument: Omar/ predicator: Egyptian
- Hamza greeted Maher: argument: Hamza, Maher/ predicator: greet
- My father took Jana to Cairo: argument: my father, Jana, Cairo/
predicator: take
104
➢ Indicate the predicators and arguments as in the above examples:
1. Karim is a teacher.
predicator: _______________________ argument(s): ______________
2. Amina showed Ahmad her artwork.
predicator: _______________________ argument(s): _______________
3. Youssef is proud of his heritage.
4. Pharos University is in Alexandria.
105
➢ Indicate the predicators and arguments as in the above examples:
argument)s): Karim predicator: teacher
argument)s): Amina, Ahmad, her artwork predicator: show
argument)s): Youssef, his heritage predicator: proud
argument)s): Pharos University, Alexandria predicator: in
106
Predicator & Predicate
107
Grammatical predicate
➢ In traditional grammar, sentences are divided into:
subject + predicate
❖ The subject of a sentence is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase
that performs the action or is the focus of the sentence. It is what or
who the sentence is about. Let’s informally call it A.
❖ The predicate is the part of a sentence that tells what the subject
is doing or what the subject is. It typically includes a verb and any
other words or phrases that modify or complete the action of the
verb. Let’s informally call it B.
108
Grammatical predicate
➢ In traditional grammar, sentences are divided into:
subject + predicate
Examples:
Subject Predicate
I am fine.
The frog jumped
That gorgeous dress was expensive.
The boy who lives next door smashed a very expensive vase yesterday.
109
Semantic predicate
➢ Semantic predicate is any word (or a group of words) which,
in a given single sense, CAN function as the predicator of a
sentence.
This means that:
1. A semantic predicate can be one word such as wash in
She is washing the dishes.
2. It could also be more than one word such as wait for in
Ahmad will wait for you.
110
Semantic predicate
3. A predicate can have only one sense as decided by the
context such as the sense of book in the following
sentence as “to buy in advance” (OED).
He booked a ticket yesterday.
This word, book, has many senses, so it can have many
predicates but in different contexts.
A predicate can have only one sense.
111
Semantic predicate
4. Number 3 above means that a predicate identifies elements in the
language system, without being bound by particular example sentences.
So, the word book could have different predicates in different sentences.
1a- I need to return the library book by Friday.
1b- I need to read this book again. ‫كتاب‬
2a- Can you book a table for two at the restaurant for tonight?
2b- Book a ticket for me now. ‫يحجز‬
3a- The company’s financial records show a significant increase in their
books. (accounting records)
3b- Take those books to the company’s accountant. ‫دفاتر حسابات‬
112
Predicator & predicate
➢ As mentioned above, a predicator
- is not a referring expression; - describes the state/process involving
the referring expressions; - is a semantic role played by a word/or
words in a particular sentence.
This means that in a simple sentence, there is only one predicator.
➢ Semantic predicate is any word (or a group of words) which, in a
given single sense, CAN function as the predicator of a sentence.
➢ A simple sentence only has one predicator, although it may well
contain more than one predicate.
113
➢ A simple sentence only has one predicator, although it may well contain
more than one instance of a predicate, for example:
The tiny, curious kitten is in the factory.
Here, there is only one predicator (in). But tiny, curious, kitten and factory
all are predicates and can be used as predicators in other sentences:
- This book is tiny. - Ahmad is curious.
- This is a kitten. - Rowntree is a factory.
➢ Notice that in can also be used as a predicate, for example:
He traveled in March.
The predicator here is travel and the predicates are in and March.
114
Predicator, predicate & sense
➢ Some of you may be confused now, as you might find it challenging to
understand the difference between ‘predicate’ and ‘sense’ on one hand,
and the difference between ‘predicate’ and ‘predicator’ on the other. To
help you understand these differences, do the following exercise.
Decide which word is a predicator, which is a predicate, and which

has a sense?
The old neighbor walked for about two hours.

115
Predicator, predicate & sense
Now, decide which word is a predicator, which is a predicate, and which has
a sense?
predicator walk
predicate old neighbor walk two hour/s for about
Sense the old neighbor walk-ed for two about hours
Now, write a sentence in which every word identified as a predicate in the last
example serves as a predicator.
116
Now, write a sentence in which every word identified as a predicate in the
last example serves as a predicator.
Examples (not finite):
1. The teacher is old.
2. I am a neighbor.
3. I have walked for an hour.
4. My favorite number is ‘two’.
5. His favorite word is ‘hour’.
6. Her favorite reply is ‘hours’.
7. The discussion is about the new project.
117
1. In which of the following sentences does the predicate male function
as a predicator?
a) The male gorilla at the zoo had a nasty accident yesterday.
b) The gorilla at the zoo is a male.
c) The gorilla at the zoo is male.
2. In which of the following sentences does the predicate human
function as a predicator?
a) All humans are mortal.
b) Socrates was human.
c) These bones are human.
118
1. In which of the following sentences does the predicate male function
as a predicator?
a) The male gorilla at the zoo had a nasty accident yesterday.
b) The gorilla at the zoo is a male.
c) The gorilla at the zoo is male.
2. In which of the following sentences does the predicate human
function as predicator?
a) All humans are mortal.
b) Socrates was human.
c) These bones are human.
119
Predicator, predicate & sense: Summary
predicator walk
predicate old neighbor walk two hour/s for about
Sense the old neighbor walk-ed for two about hours
Summary:
▪ every predicator can be 1) used as a predicate, 2) it has a sense, and 3) it is
bound by the semantic role of a word or more in a particular example sentence .
▪ every predicate can be 1) used a predicator, 2) it has a sense, but 3) it is
bound by particular sentence.
▪ NOT every word that has a sense 1) can be used as a predicate and SO 2)
cannot be a predicator.
120
Degree of predicates
How many arguments are in the following sentences?
2. Ahmad is hungry.
4. This girl loves her father.
7. Minya is between Assiut and Beni Sueif.
121
How many arguments are in the following sentences?
2. Ahmad is hungry.
122
Decide the predicate in the following sentences?
2. Ahmad is hungry.
123
Decide the predicate in the following sentences?
2. Ahmad is hungry.
124
➢ The DEGREE of a predicate is a number indicating the number of
arguments it is normally understood to have in simple sentences.
➢ This means: the degree of predicates = the number of arguments.
✓ In Karim is a teacher, the predicate teacher is a 1-place predicate =
1 argument (Karim).
✓ In The girl loves her father, the predicate love is a two-place predicate
= 2 arguments (The girl and her father).
✓ In Amina showed Ahmad her artwork, the predicate show is a 3-place
predicate = 3 arguments (Amina, Ahmad, and her artwork).
125
Now, decide the degree of the predicate in the rest of
sentences.
1. Ahmad is hungry.
126
Now, decide the predicate degree in the rest of sentences.
1. Ahmad is hungry. 1-place predicate
2. Youssef is proud of his heritage. 2-place predicate
3. Pharos University is in Alexandria. 2-place predicate
4. Minya is between Assiut and Beni Sueif. 3-place predicate
Exercise: Write simple sentences using the following words as predicates:
beautiful, close to, run, call, give, in, beside, between, player, brother, and
mother. Then clarify the predicate degree.
127
Not finite
1. She is beautiful.
2. The school is close to my house.
3. I run every morning for exercise.
4. I called him for an hour yesterday.
5. He gave me a book yesterday.
6. The cat is in the garden.
7. The book is beside the lamp.
128
Not finite
8. The park is between the two buildings.

9. The school is between the bank and the hospital.
10. Salah is a player.
11. Ahmad is my brother.
12. Ali is the brother of Jana.
13. Basma is the mother of Husaam. = Basma is Husaam's
mother.
129
1. She is beautiful. 1-place predicate
2. The school is close to my house. 2-place predicate
3. I run every morning for exercise. 1-place predicate
4. I called him for an hour yesterday. 2-place predicate
5. He gave (give) me a book yesterday. 3-place predicate
6. The cat is in the garden. 2-place predicate
7. The book is beside the lamp. 2-place predicate
130
8. The park is between the two buildings. 2-place predicate
9. The school is between the bank and the 3-place predicate
hospital.
10. Salah is a player. 1-place predicate
11.Bassem is a father. 1-place predicate
12. Ali is a brother of Jana. 2-place predicate
13. Basma is the mother of Husaam. = Basma 2-place predicate
is Husaam's mother.
131
A note about proud of and close to
I am proud of you.
My house is close to the mosque.
Although the adjectives proud and close are followed by
prepositions in the previous examples, these prepositions are not
predicates themselves. They are just linking particles. So, proud
of and similar constructions should be considered complex or
multi-word predicates.
132
A note about ‘proud of’ and ‘close to’
I am proud of you.
My house is close to the mosque.
Although the adjectives proud and close are followed by
prepositions in the previous examples, these prepositions are not
predicates themselves. They are just linking particles. So, proud
of and similar constructions should be considered complex or
multi-word predicates.
133
The same degree but with a different part of speech:
Do the following pairs of sentences have the same degree?
1. Jasser is foolish. 2. Jasser is a fool.

1. Ali is afraid of cats. 2. Ali fears cats.
1. My parrot is a talker. 2. My parrot talks.
134
The same degree but with a different part of speech:
Yes.
1. Jasser is foolish. 2. Jasser is a fool. 1-place predicate
1. Ali is afraid of cats. 2. Ali fears cats. 2-place predicate
1. My parrot is a talker. 2. My parrot talks. 1-place predicate
135
Predicates &
referring
expressions
136
Predicator again
What is the predicator in the following:
1. Mr. Khan is my teacher.

2. Joe Biden is the President of the US.
3. The man over there is the teacher who teaches me
science.
137
Predicator again
Input from Professor Michael B. Smith
1. Mr. Khan is my teacher.
The predicator is the verb "is", a form of the verb "be",
because it is being used to signify the identity between the
referring expressions "Mr. Khan" and "my teacher". The
verb "be" here is the identity predicate and is being used
to signify the identity relation in an equative sentence.
138
Predicator again
2. Joe Biden is the President of the US.
The predicator is once again the verb "is", a form of the verb
"be", because it is being used to signify the identity between the
referring expressions "Joe Biden" and "the President of the US".
The reason is the same as for item (1) above: The verb "be" here
is being used to signify the identity relation.
139
Predicator again
3. The man over there is the teacher who teaches me
science.
Once again, the predicator is the verb "is", a form of the verb
"be", because it is being used to signify the identity between the
referring expressions "the man over there" and "the teacher who
teaches me science".
140
Predicator again
Each of your example sentences below exemplifies an equative
sentence, in which the identity relation signified by "be" asserts
the identity of the referents of two referring expressions.
Saudi: Can we say now that the predicator of a sentence is verb
to be only in equative sentences since it signifies the identity
relation?
Professor Michael B. Smith: Yes, this is correct.
141
Predicates & referring expressions
Use the following words

once as a referring
expression and another as a
predicator:
player, cat, on, Nancy,

write
142
Not finite As a referring expression As the predicator

Sharnouby attacked a player. Ali is a player.
Jana has a cat at home. This is a cat.
NA The book is on the table.
Nancy is my friend. NA
NA She writes a short story every week.
➢ Proper nouns are not used as predicators.
➢ Prepositions and verbs are never used as referring expressions.
➢Whether a word can be used as a referring expression or a predicator
depends on the context.
143
This looks like an exception, but it is NOT.

✓ Dr. Shaheer is a Zweil.
✓ She is an Um Kulthuum.
✓ Sheikh Ali is a Minshaawi.
These proper nouns are used figuratively and are not predicators,
and the real predicator here elided (it is similar to). So, Dr.
Shaheer is a Zweil could be understood as Dr. Shaheer is similar
to Zweil.
144
Predicates as part of referring expressions
Do the referring expressions in the following sentences

involve any predicates? Identify the referring expressions
and underline the predicates if found.
1. Dr. Ali is wonderful.
2. She is a nurse.
3. The High Dam is great.
145
1. Dr. Ali is wonderful.

Predicates: Dr. , Ali (a man holding a PhD, knowledgeable)
1. She is a nurse.
Predicates: she (female)
1. The High Dam is great.
Predicates: High, Dam (a great wall built across a river to stop
water)
146
Do the predicates contained in referring expressions help in

identifying the referent/s?
A. Who do you think will be the top of
the class?
B. The boy on the stairs will be the top of
the class.
Do you think that the predicate ‘boy’ here helps us to identify the
referent and why?
147
Do the predicates contained in referring

expressions to identify the referent/s?
Do you think that the predicate ‘boy’ here helps
us to identify the referent and why?
YES
Because the predicate ‘boy’ involves the sense
of ‘young male’. This is in contrast with ‘girl’ (young female).
➢ Words in a referring expression give clues which help the hearer
to identify its referent.
148
These are two pictures (A & B). In

both, there is a tall, handsome man.
Write a sentence about each
involving a referring expression that
has a predicate or more to help us
identify the referent. Remember that
you have 3 predicates: tall,
handsome, man. You can use some or
all of them.
149
A: The man is handsome.

B. The tall man is handsome.
150
Generic sentences
Do you think that ‘the whale’ in the following sentences
is a referring expression?
1. The whale I saw yesterday was beautiful.

2. The whale over there is huge.
3. Keep away from the whale behind you.
4. The whale is the largest mammal.
151
Generic sentences
A GENERIC SENTENCE is a sentence in which a statement is
made about an entire group of things rather than a specific one. It
can be introduced by a/an, the or nothing.
Accordingly, are the following generic sentences?
1. Gentlemen prefer blondes.
2. John is silly.
3. The male of the species guards the eggs.
4. A wasp makes its nest in a hole in a tree.
5. A wasp just stung me on the neck.
152
Generic sentences
Accordingly, are the following generic sentences?
1. Gentlemen prefer blondes. Yes
2. John is silly. No
3. The male of the species guards the eggs. Yes
4. A wasp makes its nest in a hole in a tree. Yes
5. A wasp just stung me on the neck. No
153
Redefining reference
➢ So far, we have been concerned with real things/people
that exists in the physical world (teacher, door, Cairo, etc.).
➢ Reference has been defined as a relationship between
parts of a language and things outside the language (in the
world).
➢ But we can use language in a similar way that suggests a
relationship between ‘parts of a language’ and things that
Do NOT EXIST.
154
Do the following expressions 5. one thousand one
refer to physical objects? hundred
6. 93 million miles
1. Christmas Day 1980 7. the distance between
the earth and the sun
2. one o’clock in the morning
3. when Eve was born 8. the British national
anthem
4. eleven hundred
155
Do the following expressions 5. one thousand one
refer to physical objects? hundred
1. Christmas Day 1980 6. 93 million miles
2. one o’clock in the morning 7. the distance between the
earth and the sun
3. when Eve was born
8. the British national
4. eleven hundred
anthem
➢ None of the above is a physical object.

156
➢ Redefining reference: a relationship between parts of a language
and things outside the language whether they exist in the physical
world or do not exist in the physical world.
➢ So, because language treats the previous expressions in a way exactly
parallel to referring expressions, we call them referring expressions as
well.
➢ The British national anthem is used to refer to a particular song,
eleven hundred is used to refer to a particular number, one o’clock to a
particular time, 93 million miles to a particular distance, etc.
157
➢ Language is a tool for discussing the real,
physical world and can also describe endless
abstract ideas and even things in imaginary worlds.
158
Word meanings
again
159
Word meanings again
➢ Words in any language can be used in different
ways to serve different functions. They can
1. be containers of meaning;
2. fulfil semantic roles;
3. have relationships with other words.
160
Containers of meaning
➢ Sense = a container of meanings
➢ We mentioned earlier that every word has sense;
this means that it is a like a container (bag, pot) of a
meaning or more.
➢ We can know the senses of many words by doing
componential analysis, which is an analysis of the
components of each word.
161
Containers of meaning; componential
analysis
➢ Componential analysis is a semantic methodology used
to break down the meaning of words into their basic
components or semantic features in order to identify the
minimal distinctive features that differentiate the
meanings of words.
➢ Task: What is the difference between these kinship
terms: man, woman, boy, and girl?
162
analysis
man woman boy girl child
human + + + + +
mature + + – – –
male + – + – +/–
female – + – + +/–
163
analysis
➢ Componential analysis has some issues:
✓ It cannot be easily applied to all words.
✓ Words like "advice," "threat," and "warning" may
pose difficulties in identifying distinct components.
✓ This view appears restrictive and limited in practical
use.
164
Semantic/thematic/case roles
➢ You may remember that we mentioned that an argument is
the semantic role played by a referring expression as in
- Omar is Egyptian.
argument: Omar
- Hamza greeted Maher.
arguments: Hamza, Maher
- My father took Jana to Cairo:
arguments: my father, Jana, Cairo
165
➢ In detail, arguments can be classified as agent, experiencer,
theme (aka patient) and instrument based on the meaning each
expresses.
➢ An agent is a referring expression/argument that performs
the action.
The boy kicked the ball.
The boy here is the agent since it is the referring
expression/argument that performs the action (kicking).
166
A them/patient is a referring expression/argument that is
involved in or affected by the action or being described.
The boy kicked the ball.
The ball here is the theme/patient since it is the referring
expression/argument that is affected (kicked).
The ball is red. / The ball is big. / The ball is old.
The ball here is the theme/patient since it is described as
being red, big or old.
167
➢ Identify the arguments that (5) The dog chased the boy.
serve as the agent and as the (6) Ahmad caught the dog.
theme/patient in the following. (7) Mona hit the car.
(1) The boy kicked the ball. (8) The old man hit a small cat.
(2) The wind blew the ball away.
(3) A car ran over the ball.
(4) The dog caught the ball.
168
➢ Identify the arguments that (5) The dog chased the boy.
serve as the agent and as the (6) Ahmad caught the dog.
theme/patient in the following. (7) Mona hit the car.
(1) The boy kicked the ball. (8) The old man hit a small cat.
(2) The wind blew the ball away. ==================
(3) A car ran over the ball. This means that an agent or
(4) The dog caught the ball. theme can be a definite or
indefinite noun.
169
➢ An experiencer is a referring expression/argument that has a
feeling, perception or state.
The woman feels sad.
The woman knows about it.
The woman enjoys being alone.
The woman here is not an agent since she is not
affecting/performing anything; she feels, knows or enjoys, but
not performing any action.
170
➢ An instrument is a referring expression/argument that is used
by the agent to do something.
Ali cut the rope with a sharp knife.
She drew the picture with a crayon.
The Palestinian child defended himself with a stone.
A sharp knife, a crayon and a stone here are instruments that the
theme (the rope was cut/the picture was drawn/the child was
defended) was performed through.
171
➢ Referring expressions preceded by prepositions can also serve
as location, source or goal.
✓ Location is where an entity is
✓ Source is where an entity moves from, and
✓ Goal is where an entity moves to.
She is in the room (location).
Ahmad drove from Minya (source) to Cairo (goal).
172
173
Lexical/word relations
➢ In everyday talk, we often explain the meanings of words in terms of
their relationships. If we are asked the meaning of the word conceal,
for example, we might simply say, “It’s the same as hide,” or give the
meaning of shallow as “the opposite of deep,” or the meaning of pine
as “a kind of tree.”
➢ In doing so, we characterize the meaning of each word not in terms
of its component features, but in terms of its relationship to other words
➢ This approach is used in the semantic description of language and
treated as the analysis of lexical relations.
174
Lexical/word relations: Synonym
➢ Two or more words with very closely related meanings are called
synonyms.
➢ They can often, though not always, be substituted for each other in
sentences. So, we can say, What was his answer? or What was his
reply? with much the same meaning. Other examples
almost/ nearly cab/taxi broad/wide
buy/ purchase doctor/ physician freedom/liberty
handbag/ purse hard/difficult sweat/ perspire
175
➢The idea of sameness of meaning is not necessarily total sameness
and it is best to think of these pairs as close synonyms.
➢There are many occasions when one word is appropriate in a
sentence, but its synonym would be odd.
➢ For example, whereas the word answer fits in the sentence Sandy
had only one answer correct on the test, the word reply would sound
odd. Although broad and wide can both be used to describe a street in
a similar way, we only talk about being in broad agreement (not
wide) and in the whole wide world (not broad).
176
➢ There are also regional differences in the use of synonymous
pairs. For example, candy, chips, diaper and gasoline in American
English are equivalents of sweets, crisps, nappy and petrol in
British English.
➢ Synonyms may also differ in terms of formal versus informal
uses. The sentence My father purchased a large automobile has
almost the same meaning as My dad bought a big car, with four
synonymous replacements, but the second version sounds much
more casual or informal than the first.
177
Lexical/word relations: Antonym
➢Two forms with opposite meanings are called antonyms. Some
common examples are the
alive/dead big/ small buy/ sell enter/exit
fast/ slow happy/ sad hot/cold long/ short
male/ female married/ single old/new raise/lower
rich/ poor smart/ stupid true/ false
178
➢ Antonyms are usually divided into three main types:
1. Gradable antonyms (opposites along a scale)

2. Non-gradable antonyms (direct opposites)
3. Reversive antonyms (one is the reverse action of the other).
179
1. Gradable antonyms
➢ Gradable antonyms are pairs of words that represent opposite ends
of a scale such as hot: cold, big: small, beautiful: ugly, and rich:
poor.
➢ Gradable antonyms can be used in comparative constructions, as in
I’m smaller than you and slower, sadder, colder, shorter and older, but
luckily quite a bit richer.
➢ The negative of a gradable pair does not necessarily imply the
other. For example, My car isn’t old doesn’t have to mean My car is
new. 180
2. Non-gradable antonyms
➢ Non-gradable antonyms are pairs of words that represent absolute
opposites with no intermediate states, such as male: female, married:
single and true: false. These antonyms do not allow comparison;
something is either X or Y.
➢ No person can be described as deader or more dead than another.
➢ The negative of one member of a non-gradable pair does imply the
other member. That is, My grandparents aren’t alive does indeed mean
My grandparents are dead.
181
3. Reversive antonyms
➢ Reversive antonyms are pairs of words where one term represents
an action or process, and its antonym denotes the reversal or undoing
of that action or process, such as
enter: exit
pack: unpack
raise: lower
tie: untie
build: demolish
182
Lexical/word relations: Hyponyms
➢ When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of
another, the relationship is described as hyponymy.
➢ Examples are the pairs
animal: horse,
insect: ant, and
flower: rose.
➢ The concept of inclusion involved in this relationship is the idea
that if an object is a rose, then it is necessarily a flower.
183
184
➢ In the previous chart, dog is a hyponym (a kind of) animal, ant
is a hyponym (a kind of) insect, and turnip is a hyponym (a kind
of) vegetable.
➢ animal, insect and vegetable are superordinates.
➢ Same-level hyponyms can be called co-hyponyms;
dog and horse are co-hyponyms of the superordinate animal.
schnauzer and yorkie are co-hyponyms of the superordinate
terrier.
185
➢ Not only things (nouns) are
hyponyms.
➢ Verbs can be hyponyms as well. cook
➢ bake and broil are hyponyms of the
superordinate cook. bake broil
➢ roast, grill and fry are hyponyms of
the superordinate broil. roast grill fry
186
187
Lexical/word relations: Homophones
➢ When two or more different (written) forms have the
same pronunciation, they are described as homophones.
Common English examples are:
bare/bear /beːr/ flour/flower /ˈflaʊər/

meat/meet /miːt/ right/ write /raɪt/
sew/so /səʊ/ to/too/two /tuː/
188
Lexical/word relations: Homonym
➢ We use the term homonyms when one form (written or spoken)
has two or more unrelated meanings, as in these examples:
bat (flying creature) - bat (used in sports)
race (contest of speed) - race (ethnic group)
sole (single) - sole (part of foot or shoe)
➢The temptation is to think that the two types of bat must be related
in meaning. They are not. Homonyms are words that have separate
histories and meanings but have accidentally come to have exactly
the same form.
189
Lexical/word relations: Polysemy
➢ Polysemy (from Greek poly “many” and semy “meanings”) can be
defined as one form (written or spoken) having multiple meanings
that are all related by extension.
head: head, froth on top of a glass of beer, person at the top of a
company or department or school
foot: (part of leg, of a mountain)
mouth: (part of a face, a cave, a river)
ran: (person does, water does, colors do)
190
Lexical/word relations: Homonym &
Polysemy
➢ It is possible for two forms to be distinguished via homonymy and
for one of the forms also to have various uses via polysemy.
date ( = a thing we can eat) and date ( = a point in time) are
homonyms.
➢ However, date referring to time is polysemous:
a particular day (Write today's date at the top of the page.)
an arranged meeting (Call me next week and we'll try and make a date.)
a romantic meeting (Do you think I should ask her out on a date?)
191
References
Hurford, J. R., Heasley, B., & Smith, M. B. (2007). Semantics: A
coursebook (2nd ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Leech, G. (1981). Semantics: The study of meaning. London:
Penguin.
Odgen, C. K. & Richards, I.A. (1966). The meaning of meaning
(10th ed). London: Routledge.
Yule, G. (2020). The study of language (7th ed). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
192

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An Introduction to Semantics

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An Introduction to

➢ Accordingly, word meaning (or by extension sentence meaning) is the

➢ Speaker meaning requires a context and the speaker + hearer/s must be

➢ Semantics is the scientific study of

➢ How are you? ➢ Hi!

➢ Accordingly, an utterance can be defined as

➢ Now, think of the following:

➢ Answer the following with “Yes” or “No”.

1. Can a sentence be true or false? Yes

If this teacher is saying

➢ What are the referents in the following

1. Mary saw a beautiful flower. She picked it up

➢ Reference can be constant or variable. Have a look at

- Palestine is an Arab country.

- The American president usually

- This means that the reference of

➢ Often, reference is variable in language;

➢ Are there any referents in the following?

1. The boy is smart.

➢ Are there any referents in the following?

1. The boy is smart.

➢ Does any of the following make sense?

1. The boy is smart.

➢ Does any of the following make sense?

1. The boy is smart. Yes

➢ Now, can you give the same sense of

➢ ‘The boy is smart.’

▪ The boy is intelligent. ▪ The boy is astute.

➢ Sense is the inherent meaning/mental image of a word or more in

➢ It should be made clear that the same word may have

- Muhammad is a fast runner.

➢ Also, the same sentence may have more than one

➢ As with ‘proposition’, sense does not belong to a

- I am hungry. ‫أنا جوعان‬/ ‫أنا أشعر بالجوع‬/ ‫أنا عل لحم بطن‬

(1) John is the person in the corner. Yes / No

Decide which word is a predicator, which is a predicate, and which

The old neighbor walked for about two hours.

8. The park is between the two buildings.

1. Jasser is foolish. 2. Jasser is a fool.

1. Ali is afraid of cats. 2. Ali fears cats. 2-place predicate

1. My parrot is a talker. 2. My parrot talks. 1-place predicate

1. Mr. Khan is my teacher.

Use the following words

player, cat, on, Nancy,

Not finite As a referring expression As the predicator

This looks like an exception, but it is NOT.

Do the referring expressions in the following sentences

1. Dr. Ali is wonderful.

Do the predicates contained in referring expressions help in

Do the predicates contained in referring

These are two pictures (A & B). In

A: The man is handsome.

1. The whale I saw yesterday was beautiful.

➢ None of the above is a physical object.

1. Gradable antonyms (opposites along a scale)

bare/bear /beːr/ flour/flower /ˈflaʊər/

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