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OM6 C10 IM
Discussion Questions
1. Provide and discuss some examples of economies and diseconomies of scale in a
college environment.
Economies of scale mean that long-run average costs decline as volume increases.
Diseconomies of scale happen when size (capacity) increases to the point where long-
run average costs begin to increase due to increasing complexity, and communication
and coordination efforts. One college example is the instruction cost per student hour
declines as class size increases but at some point (say 400 or 500 students in a lecture
hall class) costs begin to increase due to diseconomies of scale. University
information systems are highly scalable (see Chapter 4) as more and more students are
added to the system, the cost per student decreases. Also, Monster.com, Facebook,
etc. are highly scalable and exhibit economies of scale. You might also want to ask
your students when does a university become too big - 40,000, 60,000 or 100,000
students? Complexity? How do costs behave as student volume changes? Same
question with a hospital – 500, 100, 200, 5,000 beds? Same question with an
automobile assembly factory?
For undergraduates, this question takes time and classroom discussion. Many students
have never thought about capacity in this way.
3. How might a college or university with growing enrollment use the capacity expansion
strategies in Exhibit 10.6? Discuss the pros and cons of each of these.
You might begin by asking the class – What are examples of capacity in a university?
Your answers might include faculty and instructors, dorm rooms, classroom seats,
meals served, server capacity, sports stadium seats, etc. Also, can a university get too
big? Explain. Capacity expansion strategies vary widely in universities. Educational
systems struggle with issues like (a) how much capacity should be add, and (b) when
(timing)?
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Exhibit 10.6 (a) shows one large capacity increase would require greater state funding
for public universities possibly with some idle classroom and office capacity in the
short-term; state legislatures seldom have funds to do this type of expansion.
Exhibit 10.6 (b) depicts several small capacity increases that match demand; this
means the timing of capacity expansions decisions is excellent and matches demand
well and that funding is available when the college or university needs it (an unlikely
situation).
Exhibit 10.6 (c) illustrates when small capacity increases lead demand and idle
resources exist; again not a likely situation in education unless a big alumni donation
or other private source of funds is available. Avid sports alumni might be able to fund
situations (a) or (c).
Exhibit 10.6 (d) shows a situation where capacity lags demand—a more likely
demand/capacity situation for public colleges and universities. Over crowded
classrooms, a shortage of instructors, lack of parking garages, temporary classrooms,
etc. are just a few types of resources that never catch up with demand.
4. Briefly describe a business you are familiar with and explain how it might use each of
the five ways to adjust its short-term capacity levels.
Students should apply the following five ways to their situation. Short-term
adjustments to capacity can be done in a variety of ways and are summarized below.
• Add or Share Equipment Capacity levels that are limited by machine and
equipment availability are more difficult to change in the short run because of
high capital expense. However, leasing equipment as needed, can accomplish
this in a cost-effective manner. Another way is through innovative partnership
arrangements and capacity sharing. For example, a consortium of several
hospitals might be set up in which each hospital focuses on a particular specialty
and shares services.
• Sell Unused Capacity Some firms might sell idle capacity, such as computer
storage space and computing capacity, to outside buyers and even to competitors.
For example, hotels often develop partnership arrangements to accommodate
their competitor’s guests when they are overbooked.
• Change Labor Capacity and Schedules Labor capacity can usually be managed
easily through short-term changes in workforce levels and schedules. Overtime,
extra shifts, temporary employees, and outsourcing are common ways of
increasing capacity. Adjusting workforce schedules to better coincide with
demand patterns is another. Many quick-service restaurants employ large
numbers of part-time employees with varying work schedules.
• Change Labor Skill Mix Hiring the right people who can learn quickly and
adjust to changing job requirements and cross-training them to perform different
tasks provides the flexibility to meet fluctuating demand. In supermarkets, for
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This question allows student to apply these ideas to a business they know such as cell
phone service centers, food service, dorms, airlines, and many summer jobs they might
have held
5. How would you apply the Theory of Constraints to a quick-service automobile oil
change service? Explain.
To meet the time guarantees of many quick service automobile stores such as an oil
change in 10-20 minutes or less the store must know where the BN and NBN
workstations and associated activities are. Assume the bottleneck workstation is
defined as (1) draining the oil, (2) taking the oil filter off, (3) installing a new filter,
and (4) refilling with oil. All parallel activities such as checking tire pressure and
cleaning the windshield are non-bottleneck activities and if rushed the auto technician
still must wait for the vehicle to leave the service rack. See Exhibit 10.7 in text.
Note: an asterisk denotes problems for which an Excel spreadsheet template on the OM
Web site may be used.
The instructor may also want to consider the Greyhound Frequent Flyer Call Center
case study at the end of Chapter 14 on staff (resource) capacity and scheduling. A student
prerequisite for doing the Greyhound case is Chapters 7 and 10. Take a look!
1. As the assistant manager of a restaurant, how many servers will you need given the
following information for Saturday night’s dinner menu.
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Extra Thought: The 100 dinners/hour is during peak dinner time that lasts say 4 hours.
The four hours is an example of a “service window” in a restaurant. A service window
places constraints on service systems that make staff capacity and scheduling decisions
even more important to achieving great customer service.
2. Research and write a short paper (2 pages maximum) on organizations that have
successfully used the focused factory concept.
A Google search reveals over 14 million hits on “focused factory concepts.” One
interesting example is referenced below.
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n5_v37/ai_15859256/
Copeland's success with the focused factory concept is similar to that experienced by
other companies, such as Black and Decker, 3M, Deere and Co., Honeywell, and
Cincinnati Milicron. Since 1974, when Wickham Skinner first articulated the idea of
focusing manufacturing activities, the concept has been regarded as part of good
management practice. Despite the many success stories, however, our study of focused
factories indicates that many issues should be considered before managers proceed
with a focused factory strategy. For example, should the plant be focused primarily on
products, processes, or customers? Does focus always lead to improved plant
performance and profitability? Do flexible manufacturing technologies obviate the
need to focus the plant? Is plant focus a static or dynamic concept? The answers to
these questions and others are a critical part of formulating a focused plant strategy.
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3.* Medical Solutions, Inc. has the following claims (demand) it must complete in the
next week (40 hours). The jobs are as follows:
Given process claim capacity of 40 hours of work, can the workload (demand) be
completed this week? Explain. If not, what short-term capacity solution would you
recommend? Show all computations.
Capacity Required (Ci) = Setup Time (Si) + [Processing Time (Pi)*Order Size (Qi)]
Total workload is 47.7 hours while capacity is 40 hours so resource utilization is 119.25%
(44.7/40) using Equation 7.1. The work cannot be complete using regular time hours but
can be completed with 7.7 hours of overtime. Temporary workers and overtime are the
best options for this small amount of extra work. Work could also be shifted to earlier or
later weeks if these weeks have slack or idle time. You might point out that each week the
claims mix will change in this job shop environment.
**********************************************************************
NOTE: Some of the homework problems are pure manufacturing work orders where setup
time is a one-time event allocated over all order size units. For service, like in the dental
office example (Exhibit 10.3 and 10.4) and the David Christopher case study at the end of
the chapter, setup time accompanies each patient as we clean up after each patient and
setup for the next patient. The following is a repeat from the textbook.
Manufacturing work orders normally assume that one setup is necessary for each work
order, and therefore, the setup time is spread over the single work order quantity. That is,
setup time is independent of order size. Some services such as hospital surgeries may
require a new setup (changeover) time for each single surgery (i.e., the order size is one),
and therefore, every patient surgery requires a setup time. This service setup time might
include sterilizing equipment, cleaning and disinfecting the surgical suite, and the doctors
resting, cleaning up, and studying the next patient’s medical files. It is important to
understand this assumption regarding setup (changeover) time in goods-producing and
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**********************************************************************
4.* Abbott Manufacturing produces plastic cases for solar photovoltaic panels and has
decided to combine orders from customers to increase work order size, and thereby,
make one large production run per model type. Plastic injection molding machines
are used to make these parts and it is time consuming to clean and re-setup the
machines between production runs. Each molding machine and operator works one
nine-hour shift with a one-hour lunch break and one-half hour for operator breaks.
Consolidated Work Work Order Quantity Setup (Changeover) Processing Time per
Orders Time per Work Order Panel (seconds)
(minutes)
Model XVT-5 Case 9,500 panels 90 2.05
Model UYT-3 Case 7,500 75 1.78
Model KLY-6 Case 10,800 150 4.31
What is the total workload (demand) in hours for this work order mix? How many
machines will it take to do this work in one, two or three days? How might this process be
improved?
Capacity Required (Ci) = Setup Time (Si) + [Processing Time (Pi)*Order Size (Qi)]
Model XVT-5 Workload = 90 min + [(9,500 panels)(2.05 sec/panel)/60 sec/min] = 414.6 min
Model UYT Workload = 75 min + [(7,500 panels)(1.78 sec/panel)/60 sec/min] = 297.5 min
Model KLY Workload = 150 min + [(10,800 panels)(4.31 sec/panel)/60 sec/min] = 925.8 min
If students use the Excel spreadsheets make sure they keep their units of measure correct.
They will have to modify the spreadsheet for seconds, minutes, and hours.
5. Identify one example of a resource with a very low average utilization rate, and a
second example with a very high average utilization rate. Consider both service and
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You might want to review Problem #5 on seat utilization for a college football stadium
in Chapter 7 with 1.83% utilization!
Very low asset utilization – sports stadium (seats), movie theater, seats for musicals
and plays, some ATMs
Moderate utilization – hotel beds, airline seats, television hours, cell phones (for
some!),
High asset utilization – automated steel stamping machine (fenders, hoods, etc.), some
X-ray and CAT Scan machines, assembly lines, servers, etc.
Sports stadium seats (see P&A #5 in Chapter7) are notorious for low utilization (2 to
15%). Low CAT scanner utilization drives up health care costs. Occupancy rates in
hotels ranges from 40 to 75% depending on location. Airline seats normally have a
breakeven utilization (load) factor of around 50-65%. Remember, service capacity is
perishable.
6. Hickory Manufacturing Company forecasts the following demand for a product (in
thousands of units) over the next five years.
Year 1 2 3 4 5
Forecast demand 60 79 81 84 84
Currently the manufacturer has seven machines that operate on a two-shift (8 hours
each) basis. Twenty days per year are available for scheduled maintenance of
equipment with no process output. Assume there are 250 workdays in a year. Each
manufactured good takes 25 minutes to produce.
c. Does the firm need to buy more machines? If so, how many? When? If not, justify.
Demand in the first year Hickory is 85% of capacity in year 1. But it increases
quickly in subsequent years. The average demand/capacity ratio is (0.85 + 1.12 +
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1.15 + 1.19 + 1.19)/5 = 5.5/5 = 1.10. The number of extra machine hours required
= .1(25,760) = 2,576. The number of machines required = 2,576/[230(2)(8)] =
2,576/3,680 = 0.70 or 1 additional machine. An alternative might be to consider
outsourcing or using the current seven machines on an overtime basis.
7. The roller coaster at Treasure Island Amusement Park consists of 16 cars, each of
which can carry up to three passengers. According to a time study each run takes 2.5
minutes and the time to unload and load riders is 3.5 minutes. What is the maximum
effective capacity of the system in number of passengers per hour?
The coaster completes a trip every 6 minutes including loading and unloading time or
completing 10 trips per hour. With 3 passengers per car or 48 riders per trip, 480
passengers per hour is the maximum effective (actual) capacity. If the solution assumes
the 6 minutes includes some safety capacity (for example, extra time to help handicapped
guests on the ride) then 480 is a good estimate. If the 6 minutes includes no safety time
then 480 may be too high. It all depends on the standard times!
8. Worthington Hills grocery store has five regular checkout lines and one express line
(12 items or less). Based on a sampling study, it takes 11 minutes on the average for a
customer to go through the regular line and 4 minutes to go through the express line.
The store is open from 9 a.m. to 9 p.m. daily.
Regular Checkout Capacity = (12 hours/day) (60 min/hour) (5 regular lines) = 3600
regular checkout lane minutes available per day or 327 (3600/11) customers/day.
Express Checkout Capacity = (12) (60) (1) = 720 express checkout min/day or 180
(720/4) customers/day.
This is a long problem but students have experienced good/bad service in retail stores
so they identify with the problem and OM solution. You might also make the point
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in class that if a business can not compute capacity required and schedule resources to
meet demand to maximize service and minimize costs, it can not provide great
service. OM skills are needed to create superior customer service!
b. What is the store's capacity by day of the week if the five regular checkout lines operate
according to the schedule below (The express line is always open.)?
9-12am 1 1 1 1 3 5 2
12-4pm 2 2 2 2 3 5 4
4-6pm 3 3 3 3 5 3 2
6-9pm 4 4 4 4 5 3 1
One lesson from this problem is customer service is only as good as forecasting
demand and scheduling lanes to be open. The objective is to maximize service and
minimize costs.
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10. For the Solved Problem on processing driver’s licenses at the Archer County
Courthouse in this chapter, if 40 drivers are to be processed each hour, how many
clerks and typists should be hired assuming a 90 percent target utilization rate?
Assuming an 80% target utilization rate (and implied safety capacity of 20%) we
have
You might also point out that if standard service times are loose and have plenty
of safety time, then rounding down can make sense to minimize labor costs.
11. Due to county and state budget cuts Archer County Courthouse now have only two
clerks and two typists and expects to process 40 drivers/hour. What is the current
labor utilization of each labor type and where is the bottleneck in this three-stage
process? What is the impact of your analysis on customer service? How might the
job and process design be improved?
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Both clerks and typists are understaffed now (they need about 5 clerks and 6 typists
given our answers and assumptions to 10b). Customers will wait for driver license
services. Long lines could cause complaints and even nasty interactions among
customers and service-providers (co-production, the customer is in your factory) and
even among customers. The best way to help alleviate this bottleneck is by using
better work practices and technology to reduce the standard times from 5, 1, and 7
minutes to much less.
12. You have just been promoted to manage the process defined by the five stages A to E
below. After three months on the job you realize something is not right with process
capacity because your employees experience big pile-ups of work, things take too long
to be processed, the opportunity for error is increasing, and the entire process is
approaching chaos. Do a capacity analysis of this process. The numbers in
parentheses (#) are the time in minutes to complete one unit of work. Demand on the
process averages 27 units per hour and each unit must be worked on by all five stages.
Administrative clerks complete Stages A and B. The assistant manager completes
Stages D and E. Processing times per stage can be combined when labor is assigned
two or more stages (i.e., the resources are pooled). The coding specialist takes care of
Stage C.
Since demand is in units per hour we find that the capacity of Stage A = 12 units/hour,
Stage B = 20 u/hr, Stage C = 10 u/hr., Stage D = 15 u/hr, and Stage E = 15 u/hr. This
problem assumes all jobs (work) need to be processed on all five workstations and
resources are pooled by skill category so they are cross-trained.
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(a) How many administrative clerks should be hired, assuming a target utilization for
them of 85 percent?
Using Equation 10.4 and clerks do stages A and B with a pooled standard service
time equal 7.5 units/hour (60/8),
(b) What is the current labor utilization of the coders if two coding specialists are
currently on duty?
With three coding specialist, labor utilization is 27/30 = 90% so they really need
three coding specialist if the standard service times are accurate.
(c) What is the total process (output) capacity in units per hour for the five stage
process A to E assuming 4 administrative clerks, 2 coding specialist, and 3
assistant managers are on duty?
Total process output is 20 units per hour and the bottleneck is coding specialist. If
you hire three coding specialist then the revised bottleneck becomes the assistant
managers at 22.5 units/hour.
(d) Where do any bottlenecks exist and what do you recommend to improve this
process?
Given the staffing levels in (c), coding specialists are the bottleneck but
administrative clerks are a close second. The four assistant managers have a
current labor utilization of 90% (Utils = 27/(7.5)(4) = 0.90. Ways to improve the
process is train one assistant manager to do coding in peak demand periods so that
clerks utils = 27/(7.5)(3) = 120%, coding specialist utils = 27/(10)(3) = 90%, and
manager utils = 27/(7.5)(3) = 120%, and/or reduce standard processing times (work
faster) using better training and equipment by 20% so clerks utils = 27/(7.5)(1.2)(3)
= 100%, coding specialist utils = 27/(10)(1.2)(3) = 75%, and manager utils =
27/(7.5)(1.2)(3) = 100% and/or hire additional labor. Reducing standard processing
times seems like a good option w/o hiring additional employees.
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13. Perform a capacity analysis using the process structure defined in Problem #12 with
the following changes. Demand on the process has increased to 36 units per hour and
each unit must be worked on by all five stages. The administrative clerk(s) complete
Stages A, B and D. The assistant manager completes Stage E. The coding specialist
takes care of Stage C.
Stage C (6)
Stage D (4)
a. How many administrative clerks should be hired assuming a target utilization for
them of 90 percent?
Using Equation 7.2 and clerks do stages A, B and D with a pooled standard service time
equal 5.0 units/hour (60/(5+3+4),
b. What is the current labor utilization of the coders if four coding specialists are
currently on duty?
c. What is the total process (output) capacity in units per hour for the five-stage
process A to E assuming 7 administrative clerks, 4 coding specialists, and 3
assistant managers are on duty?
The total process output is 35.0 units per hour and clerks are the bottleneck.
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d. Where’s the bottleneck(s) and what do you recommend to improve this process?
We can reallocate the work and try to get a better work load balance, reduce
processing times (increase units/hour) for say Stage A, B and D from 5.0 to 6.0
units/hour and now the capacity of clerks is 6.0(7) = 42 units/hours so we have 42,
40 and 45 units/hour. Therefore, total process output is now 40 units/hour, not 35
(and increase in total process output of 5/35 = 14.3%. Two lessons are (a) that you
must be able to identify the bottleneck to increase total process output (b) balancing
and how you group the work makes a difference.
14. Research and write a short paper (two pages maximum) on two examples of revenue
management applications not in the text and explain how they help organizations.
15. Research and write a short paper (2 pages maximum) on how an organization has
applied the Theory of Constraints.
A Google search reveals about 3 million hits. One interesting example is hand tied
fishing flies at:
http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/1999/0499/departments/d530499.htm
Many other examples are available on the Web and there is far more information than
can be covered in an introductory OM course.
Overview
David Christopher is an orthopedic surgeon who currently works 11-hour days four days a
week and finds it difficult to estimate his workload and whether he needs to hire additional
surgeons. The entire case focuses on setup and processing time in a professional service
business. The objective is to get students out of the manufacturing factory and into a
service business where the same principles and models help estimate workload. Some
very interesting class discussion is possible about the role of setup/changeover time in this
job shop situation. This is a good case for a major team write-up and management report
and/or student presentation.
Note: Make sure you explain how to handle setup time in this professional medical office
before the students do the case (as explained in the textbook, instructor’s manual, and case
analysis that follows).
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Note: The numbers in Case Exhibit 10.8 have been changed from ALL previous versions
of this popular case.
First, the instructor should go over the case Exhibit 10.8 with the students. What
insights do you gain from inspecting this exhibit? For one thing Dr. Christopher
spends a considerable part of his day in changeovers. The doctor says this improves
the quality of his surgery and he does not want to compromise patient care by rushing
from surgery to surgery. This way the surgeon has time to rest between surgeries,
review the next patient's surgery plan, and focus on the quality of care.
Setup time includes the time to clean up the room and surgery crew from the previous
surgery, review the next patient’s charts and medical history, time to rest, and setup for
the next surgery. Ask students if they want “their surgeon to be rushed.”
Orthopedic Surgeons One-Week Surgery Workload (case data in yellow changed in OM3
from previous OM editions)
The spreadsheet that follows indicates that the two surgeons enjoy 230 minutes of
excess capacity, and therefore, they do not need to hire a 3rd surgeon. Surgeon A is
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under utilized by 20 minutes (1060 - 1080) while Surgeon B has an even lighter
workload per week of 210 (870 - 1080) minutes. Surgeon B labor utilization is
870/1080 = 80.6% while Surgeon A is 98.1%. So they have capacity to grow the
business although the surgeon workload could be rebalance by having surgeon B do
one of A’s surgeries on a regular basis (say, fractured wrist at 160 minutes).
Students will also notice that 23.3% of total work time is taken by setup and
changeover time. Do students have any recommendations to reduce setup/changeover
time? Of course, this highlights the “clinical quality” versus “capacity utilization”
issues. If you reduce setup time too much, will clinical quality deteriorate?
Example "what if" scenarios using the Excel spreadsheet are many such as:
(a) What if changeover time was reduced by one-half, how much more surgeon
capacity is available? Answer: Now we have 455 excess minutes of surgeon
capacity to grow the business. But what is the impact on clinical quality and a
possible malpractice lawsuit?
(b) What if surgery hours are increased from 7:00 a.m. to 1:00 pm (from 5 to 6 hours)?
Answer: Now we have 662 excess minutes of surgeon capacity to grow the
business!
(c) What if surgery processing times could be speeded up by 10% (i.e., working
faster)? Answer: Now we have 378 minutes of excess surgeon capacity (we do not
change setup times) with minor to moderate speed up of surgery procedures.
All three of the above example scenarios position the firm for growth, more revenue, and
higher profits.
There is no need to hire a 3rd surgeon now. However, the workload is slightly
unbalanced during this “example” week. One solution to balance the workload is to
move one surgery from A to B, as previously discussed.
If a student wants to hire an extra surgeon here – ask students “What would this cost?”
Sometimes students go out of the bounds of the case by making assumptions of
surgeon cost and revenue per surgery. Good case analysis stays within the bounds of
the case.
3. What other options and changes could they make to maximize patient throughput and
surgeries, and therefore revenue, yet not compromise on the quality of medical care?
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job shop to more of a flow shop (assembly line) if revenue maximization is the
objective. But what is the impact on clinical and service quality?
Other issues to discuss include the following: (1) Safety capacity is set at 10%. What
if it is reduced to 2% or increased to 20%? (2) The doctors could work Fridays and/or
Saturdays as their business grows? (3) How might they handle the seasonal nature of
elective (not life threatening) surgery? (4) Ask the students how they feel about a
surgeon operating on them or a family member who is tired or exhausted. Also, the
advantages and disadvantages of robotic surgery sometimes come up during a class
discussion.
Given the analysis and assumptions in the spreadsheet there is no need to hire a third
surgeon. The case does not provide information on “future” demand so students
should not recommend hiring a third surgeon. But as the business grows, it is prudent
to understand how they might free up extra surgeon capacity to maximize revenue. As
long as students learn about the tradeoffs between short-term capacity adjustments,
costs, and clinical quality, the case has accomplished its objective.
Teaching Plan
1. What insights do you gain from inspecting the case exhibit?
2. Is driving Dr. Christopher's setup/changeover time close to zero like they do in
Japanese automobile factories a good idea?
3. What is their current weekly workload?
4. Should they hire more surgeons, and if so, how many?
5. What other "what if" questions should we ask and answer?
6. What other changes could they make to maximize patient throughput and
surgeries, and therefore revenue, yet not compromise on the quality of medical
care?
7. What are your final recommendations?
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Number of
Orthopedic Surgeon Mini-Case Patients
Scheduled
Today Total
Surgery Setup Process Dr. Dr. Total Total Setup &
Procedure Times Time A B Setup Process Process
Time Time Time
Fractured hip 20 80 0 0 0 0
Fractured wrist 20 60 2 40 120 160
Fractured ankle 20 70 1 20 70 90
Hip replacement 30 150 2 60 300 360
Knee replacement 30 120 3 90 360 450
THE END!
18
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der Eingeborenen Schaden an. Das Flusspferd kommt in allen
Gewässern des Grabens und im Eyassi-See, sowie auch im
Ngorongoro-See vor, Krokodile jedoch nirgends. Von den Muscheln
und Schnecken ist im Anhang ausführlich die Rede. Sie dienen
grossen Schwärmen von Wasservögeln, Flamingos, Enten und
Marabus als Nahrung. In den Bächen, selbst in Tümpel periodisch
fliessender Gewässer leben grosse Welse.
Im Wembere-Graben besitzt, wie gesagt, der Charakter nackter,
trockener Salzwüste die Oberhand. Auch die umrahmenden Höhen
sind wenig einladend. Nur im Norden und Osten des Eyassi-Sees
dehnen sich fruchtbare Plateaus aus, welche an Mutyek und Iraku
erinnern. Die bewohnten Landschaften Issansu, Iramba und Eyambi
besitzen einen an Turu erinnernden ärmlichen Boden, sonst ist Alles
Wildniss, von wasserarmen, in der Trockenzeit gänzlich
versiegenden sandigen Rissen durchzogene, wellige Baumsteppe,
die der Kultur wenig Aussicht eröffnet und erst weitab vom Graben in
Meatu einerseits und in Hindamara andererseits besseren,
wasserreichen Landstrichen Platz macht.
Schon bei Besprechung der westlichen Grabengebiete ist
mehrfach von Granit die Rede gewesen. Dieses Gestein gelangt
weiter landeinwärts im G r a n i tp la t e a u vo n Un ya mwe si zur fast
völligen Alleinherrschaft. Dieses weite Gebiet, welches das Süd- und
Ostufer des Victoria-Nyansa umfasst, im Süden über Tabora hinaus
und im Westen bis Uha reicht, zeichnet sich durch sehr grosse
Einförmigkeit aus. Das Terrain ist flach oder leicht gewellt, Gebirge
sind selten und werden durch wilde Anhäufungen von Granitblöcken
ersetzt, die in mehr oder weniger grossen Abständen verstreut sind.
Die Gewässer dieses Gebietes, die einerseits dem Simbiti-
Eyassi, andererseits dem Victoria-Nyansa und dem Tanganyika
zuströmen, zeichnen sich durch Wasserarmuth aus. Die Wembere-
Zuflüsse sind fast alle periodisch und liegen den grössten Theil des
Jahres trocken. Auch der in den Mlagarassi mündende Igombe, der
fliessendes Wasser geführt haben soll, besitzt solches nun schon
seit Jahren nicht mehr und besteht nur aus einer Reihe tiefer
Tümpel, die nur zur Regenzeit unter einander in Verbindung stehen.
Nicht viel wasserreicher sind die Zuflüsse des Victoria-Nyansa. Der
Simiyu-Fluss, der im Massai-Land entspringt und bei seiner
Mündung ein breites, schiffbares Aestuarium besitzt, liegt fast das
ganze Jahr trocken. Zur Regenzeit schwillt er allerdings zeitweise
ungeheuer an, doch für gewöhnlich enthält er nur Tümpel.
Wasserreicher ist der Rubana, der in Nata entspringt, den Grumetri
aufnimmt und sich als ständig fliessendes Gewässer in einem
Aestuarium des Speke-Golfes ergiesst. Auch er besitzt jedoch sehr
wechselnden Wasserstand. Noch mehr ist dies bei den nördlich
verlaufenden Flüssen, dem Suguti und Mara, der Fall, die jedoch
ebenfalls nicht ganz auszutrocknen scheinen. Der Mara ist der
Unterlauf des Ngare dabasch (Ngare = Wasser, dabasch = breit,
aber seicht), der zahlreiche Abflüsse des Massai-Plateaus aufnimmt.
Fischer sah im Januar 1886 »wenig lehmfarbiges Wasser in tiefem,
breitem Bett«, bei meiner Anwesenheit in Ngoroïne im Mai 1892
überschwemmte der Mara seine Ufer und war schwer passirbar.
Alle anderen Gewässer Unyamwesi's, sowohl jene, die dem
südlichen Victoria-Nyansa, als jene, die dem Wembere-Gebiet
zufliessen, sind sämmtlich Regenschluchten, mit oft breitem,
sandigem Bett, in welchem man durch Graben Wasser erhält, in dem
sich jedoch nur selten ein Rinnsal findet.
Von eigentlichen Gebirgen kann nur östlich vom Victoria-See die
Rede sein, wo die Berge Baridi, Ikiju, Kiruwiru und Majita, sowie die
von Uhemba, Uaschi und Ngoroïne sich als vereinzelte, fast
tafelförmige Massive aus den Ebenen erheben. Die letzteren bilden
den grössten Theil des Landes. Im westlichen Massailand sind sie
völlig flach, von niedrigen Senkungen durchzogen, in deren einer der
kleine Salzsee Lgarria liegt, und unterbrochen von zerstreuten
Granithügeln, wie dem Kiruwassile und Duvai.
In ganz Usukuma und Unyamwesi, sowie in Usinja und den
südlichen Nachbargebieten ist das Land wellig, mit den oben
erwähnten steilen Granitkuppen, die der Landschaft ein eigenartiges
Gepräge geben.
Der g e o lo g i sch e B a u des Granitplateaus ist, wie erwähnt, ein
ungemein gleichartiger. Fast überall herrscht eine mächtige
Granitüberlagerung vor und krystallinisches Gestein tritt nur selten
zu Tage, noch vereinzelter junge Sedimentgesteine.
Vom Grabengebiet kommend, fand ich in Serengeti Arkosen als
Verwitterungsprodukte des Granits anstehend. Der Duvai-Hügel
besteht aus weissem Quarzit, am Kiruwassile-Hügel steht ausser
Granit auch röthlicher Quarzit an. Solcher findet sich auch am
Mbelegeti in Usenye, sowie nördlich bei Mosonge und in Nata am
Rubana-Fluss, wo ein meridionales Streichen mit Fall gegen Ost
unter ca. 10° erkennbar ist. An den Bächen Elmaraus, sowie am
Nyansa, am Kiruwiru, bei den Irambabergen und am Majita treten
Grauwacken und Hornblende-Schiefer, ebenfalls in meridionalem
Streichen, und sehr steiler Fallrichtung gegen Osten, oft in
senkrechten Schichten auf. Zwischen Kiruwassile und Elmarau ist
ein kleiner Durchbruch von älterem Eruptivgestein zu bemerken. Ein
solcher findet sich auch in Irangala am Emin Pascha-Golf. In den
Schaschibergen und in Ngoroïne steht an den Bächen vielfach
Amphibolit an, während die Höhen von Granitblöcken gebildet
werden. Von Kalken fand ich nur eine Spur in Elmarau, sowie kleine
Schollen im Serengeti und Ntussu. In ganz Usukuma, Usinja und
Unyamwesi, von Ussandaui bis Uha fand ich a u ssch lie ssl ich
Granit anstehen.
Einförmig wie der geologische Aufbau ist auch der
L a n d sch a ft sch a r a kt e r des Landes. Zwischen den besiedelten
und oft sehr intensiv bebauten Gebieten dehnen sich unbewohnte
Striche aus, die nur in dem östlichen Nyansagebiet den Charakter
offener Savannen haben, sonst überall mit Steppenwald bedeckt
sind. Im Osten ist der Massai-Charakter mit Dorngestrüpp, Akazien
und einzelnen Baobabs, mit wilden Phönixpalmen an den
Wasserbetten vorherrschend, im Westen bedeckt Miombowald
(meist Caesalpiniaceen) in seinen lichten Beständen weite Gebiete.
Die centralen Theile, vor Allem die südlichen Nyansagebiete, zeigen
eine Mischung der beiden Vegetationsformen. Klimatisch folgt das
Granitplateau im Allgemeinen den Küstenjahreszeiten, ist jedoch
wahrscheinlich trockener als diese. Nach der Erfahrung alter Leute
nimmt die Trockenheit alljährlich zu und manche Bäche, die noch vor
Jahren Wasser führten, liegen jetzt als sandige Betten. In der
trockenen Zeit ist Unyamwesi nicht viel leichter zu bereisen als die
Massai-Steppe; die Brunnen liefern schlechtes, spärliches Wasser,
und in den weiten Wildnissen, die sich zwischen den Dörfern
ausdehnen, muss man oft ohne Wasser lagern. Dennoch ist der
Boden ein fruchtbarer und die Niederschläge genügen für reichen
Anbau, wie die schönen Kulturen der Eingeborenen beweisen.
Im Norden des Granit-Plateaus ist das ungeheure Becken des
Vic t o r i a - Nya n sa eingelagert. Dessen im Süden und Osten
ziemlich stark gegliederte Küsten fallen theils in 4-5 m hohen
Steilwänden ab, theils sind sie flach und mit dichtem Papyrusgürtel
gesäumt, in welchem der wasserliebende, korkartige Ambatsch-
Baum verstreut ist. Aehnlichen Charakter weist der in zahlreiche
Arme gegliederte Emin Pascha-Golf auf. Die Bukumbi-Bai oder der
Smith-Sund hat fast durchweg felsige Küsten. Solche ziehen sich
auch am Südufer des Speke-Golfes dahin, dessen Ostende bei
Katoto flach und papyrusreich ist. Die Nordküste des Spekegolfes ist
gebirgig und steil, sie ist durch den schmalen, durchwatbaren
Rugedsi-Kanal von der fruchtbaren, langgestreckten Granitinsel
Ukerewe getrennt, welcher wieder das fast kreisrunde Eiland Ukara
vorgelagert ist. Nördlich vom Rugedsi-Kanal schneidet der tiefe,
vielgegliederte Baumann-Golf ein, mit hohen Halbinseln und Inseln
im Westen, mit flachen Papyrusufern im Osten. Er ist durch eine
schmale Landenge, welche das Majita-Massiv mit dem Festlande
verbindet von der Majita-Bai getrennt. Weiter nördlich ist der Verlauf
der Küstenlinie nur oberflächlich bekannt und haben wir
möglicherweise recht wesentliche Veränderungen der Karte zu
erwarten.
Der Victoria-Nyansa ist in dem besprochenen Theile sehr
inselreich, ausser den genannten sind noch zahlreiche, meist felsige
Eilande darin verstreut.
Das Wasser des Sees ist an tiefen Stellen und steilen Küsten
dunkelgrün, ganz süss und wohlschmeckend, in flachen Theilen wird
es gelblich bis braun und hat dann einen schlechten
Sumpfgeschmack.
Nach verschiedenen Erkundigungen, welche ich einzog, f ie l das
Niveau des Victoria seit etwa 1880 um mehr als einen Meter, st e ig t
jetzt jedoch wieder. Die alte Fluthmarke ist an felsigen Küsten
deutlich wahrnehmbar. Eine eigenthümliche, schon von mehreren
Reisenden beobachtete Erscheinung ist die scheinbare Ebbe und
Fluth im Victoria-See. Am Speke-Golf ändert sich der Wasserstand
um ca. 50 cm und ist Morgens am niedrigsten, Mittags am höchsten.
Ich beobachtete dies im Mai, doch ist diese Niveauschwankung
während des ganzen Jahres angeblich eine ziemlich regelmässige.
So durchwaten die Eingeborenen den Rugedsi-Kanal stets Morgens,
während sie in der Mittagszeit mit Kanus durchfahren. An der
Westküste des Sees, in Bukoba, wurde diese Erscheinung von Dr.
Stuhlmann nicht beobachtet. In Kavirondo dagegen beobachtete
Pringle ein Schwanken von 6 zu 12 cm, dessen Höhepunkt gegen
Abend erreicht wurde. Ob diese eigenthümlichen Schwankungen
ausschliesslich den Winden ihre Entstehung verdanken oder ob
Seiche-Erscheinungen dabei eine Rolle spielen, mag spätere
Forschung entscheiden.
Nach sehr starkem Regen soll der See merklich anschwellen. Er
besitzt eine starke Strömung gegen Norden, welche besonders im
Rugedsi-Kanal sehr kräftig sichtbar wird. Die Wassertiefen sind
zweifellos erheblich. Auf offener See fand ich im Speke-Golf und der
Bukumbi-Bai bei 10 m nirgends Grund, an felsigen Küsten finden
sich Tiefen von 5-7 m nahe am Ufer, bei flachen sind die Tiefen
natürlich geringer.
Der Fischreichthum des Nyansa ist ein auffallend ungleicher, in
der Bukumbi-Bai und im Emin Pascha-Golf sehr gering,
ausserordentlich gross dagegen am Ostende des Speke-Golfes bei
Katoto. Krokodile und Flusspferde sind überall häufig. Was die Ufer
anbelangt, so reicht im Süden das wellige, mit Granitblöcken
bedeckte Gebiet von Unyamwesi bis an dieselben heran. Im Osten
sind die fruchtbaren Ufergebiete oft durch einen Steppenstreifen von
den östlichen Hochländern getrennt, von welchen nur ein Komplex,
der von Majita und Kiruwiru, bis an die Küste tritt. Auch jener Theil
der Westküste, den ich bei Bukome kennen lernte, hat wasserarme
Gegenden in nächster Nähe des Sees.
Dennoch scheint mir Lugard's Ansicht der Berechtigung zu
entbehren, dass der Victoria-See aus unterirdischen Quellen
bedeutende Zuflüsse empfange. Denn der Ausfluss des Nil in
Uganda ist nur um ein Drittel wasserreicher als der Einfluss, der
Kagera-Nil, und dieses Drittel wird durch die übrigen Zuflüsse des
Sees immerhin reichlich ergänzt. Sein eigenes Volumen erhält der
See der Verdunstung gegenüber nicht nur durch die Niederschläge,
welche er selbst aufnimmt, sondern auch durch die ungeheure
Wassermasse die ihm sämmtliche Gewässer zur Regenzeit
zuführen.
Im Gegensatz zu den meisten anderen Binnenseen
Centralafrika's, welche Grabenseen sind, ist der Victoria-See ein
echtes Becken, bei dessen Entstehung keine grossen geologischen
Störungen thätig waren. Stuhlmann fasst zwar den westlichen
Steilrand des Sees als Bruchlinie auf, eine Ansicht, die durch das
Auftreten älterer Eruptivgesteine bei Irangala eine gewisse Stütze
erhält. Doch war die betreffende Störung jedenfalls nur eine rein
lokale und spielte bei der Entstehung des Victoria-Sees keine
bedeutende Rolle. Ob die Theorie Stuhlmann's, dass der Victoria-
See ursprünglich mit dem Eyassi zusammenhing, Begründung hat,
mag spätere Forschung lehren. Vorläufig scheint das fast völlige
Fehlen junger Sedimente, vor Allem von Kalken, zwischen Victoria-
See und Eyassi eher dagegen zu sprechen.
TAFEL XVII
Balangda-See
Mangati und der Gurui-Berg.