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Groundwater classification and its suitability in Kadaladi, Ramanathapuram,

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Groundwater classification and its
suitability in Kadaladi, Ramanathapuram,
India using GIS techniques

N. Balasubramanian,
P. Sivasubramanian, John Prince
Soundranayagam, N. Chandrasekar &
B. Gowtham
Environmental Earth Sciences

ISSN 1866-6280

Environ Earth Sci

DOI 10.1007/s12665-015-4394-7

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1 23
 Author's personal copy
Environ Earth Sci
DOI 10.1007/s12665-015-4394-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Groundwater classification and its suitability in Kadaladi,
Ramanathapuram, India using GIS techniques
N. Balasubramanian1 • P. Sivasubramanian1 • John Prince Soundranayagam2
N. Chandrasekar3 • B. Gowtham4
Received: 26 July 2013 / Accepted: 26 March 2015
 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Abstract The hydrochemical characteristics of ground-
water in Kadaladi Block of Ramanathapuram district,
Tamilnadu have been evaluated based on different indices
for drinking, industrial and irrigational purposes using
‘‘HYCH’’ program. Groundwater samples were collected in
pre-monsoon and post-monsoon of 2012 from 36 locations
and analyzed for major ions. The abundance of the major
ions is in the order of Na? [ Ca2? [ Mg2? [ K? and
Cl- [ HCO3- [ SO42- [ NO3- [ PO43-. Interpretation
of analytical data shows that most part of the study area is
occupied with groundwater having higher TDS which is
not suitable for drinking purpose. High to very high nature
of hardness and corrosivity restricts groundwater use for
the industrial purpose. SAR and RSC indicate that 70 % of
the groundwater is suitable for irrigation in both the sea-
sons. Spatial distribution map of USSL salinity classifica-
tion shows that 70 % of the area comes under high to very
high saline nature and medium to high sodium content
makes the groundwater which is only suitable for high
tolerant crops. Above statement is further supported by
Schoeller and Stuyfzand classification, where most of the
samples fall under the Type IV water and Brackish to
Hyperhaline water. Gibbs and Langlier Saturation Index
& P. Sivasubramanian
sivasubramanianvoc@gmail.com
1
Department of Geology, V.O.Chidambaram College,
Tuticorin 628008, India
2
Department of Physics, V.O.Chidambaram College,
Tuticorin 628008, India
3
Centre for GeoTechnology, Manonmaniam Sundaranar
University, Tirunelveli 627012, India
4
Department of Geology, Presidency College,
Chennai 600005, India
•
shows that 70 % of the groundwater sample chemistry is
due to rock–water interaction followed by evaporation.
Keywords Groundwater quality  Classification  Spatial
distribution  Groundwater suitability  Tamilnadu
Introduction
Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in both
urban and rural India. Besides, it is an important source of
water for the agricultural and the industrial purpose. In
India, about 50 % of the total irrigated area is dependent on
groundwater (CGWB 2006). Being an important and inte-
gral part of the hydrological cycle, groundwater avail-
ability depends on the rainfall and recharge conditions. The
demand for water has increased over the years and this has
led to water scarcity in many parts of the world. This si-
tuation is aggravated by the problem of water pollution or
contamination. In India, the freshwater crisis is mainly due
to improper management of water resources and environ-
mental degradation which has lead to a lack of access to
safe water supply to millions of people. This freshwater
crisis is already evident in many parts of India, especially
in the arid and semi-arid regions due to vagaries of mon-
soon. The quality of groundwater is determined pre-
dominantly by the geochemical processes, chemical and
mineral composition of the aquifer rocks, residence time
and other factors related to groundwater flow and anthro-
pogenic contamination (Sivasubramanian et al. 2013;
Srinivas et al. 2013; Magesh and Chandrasekar 2011).
Therefore, a regular check of its chemical quality is re-
quired for assessing its suitability for different purposes
and for quantitative monitoring of any future change
(Selvam et al. 2013; Srinivasamoorthy et al. 2011;
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Chidambaram et al. 2009; Lawrence 1995). In this study,
an attempt has been made to classify the groundwater
collected in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon of 2012 from
36 locations from Kadaladi block using HYCH program for
the rational exploitation and use of groundwater resources
in the future. Spatial distribution maps generated for var-
ious parameters were used in HYCH program to study the
suitability of groundwater for various purposes.
Study area
Kadaladi Block of Ramnad District, Tamilnadu, India lies
between the latitude 960 to 9210 N and longitude 78180 to
78450 E of the Survey of India toposheets 58 K/7, 58 K/8,
58 K/11 & 12. The geographical extent of the study area is
roughly around 612 km2 (Fig. 1). It is bounded by Tirup-
pullani Block on the north, Vaippar river basin in the south
and Bay of Bengal in the east.
Geology of the study area
Kadaladi block is mainly covered with sedimentary for-
mation and about 70 % of the area is occupied by sand, silt
Fig. 1 Location map of the study area
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and clay. The remaining 30 % of the area is covered by
alluvial, eolian and coastal deposits. Very small area in the
western side is exposed to Archean rock, mainly
charnockite and gneisses. The eolian deposits comprise red
sands which are in nature of ancient dunes and occur over a
3.2 km wide and 8 km long stretch and lie parallel to the
sea coast (Figs. 2, 3). These are separated by marshy de-
posits of black clays. The sands are underlain by calcareous
hardpan.
Soils in the area have been classified into (1) Sand, (2)
Sand and Silt, (3) clay and (4) red dunal sand. The major
part is covered with Sand and Silt. Red sand (Teri) is seen
at central portion running parallel to the coast. Black soils
are deep to very deep in the northern part of the study area.
Alluvial soils occur along the river courses and southern
part of the coastal areas. Sandy coastal alluvium is seen all
along the sea coast.
Climate
Study area enjoys a tropical climate. In the plains, the
maximum and minimum temperature recorded are 39 and
29 C, respectively. Heat becomes intense in March–
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Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 2 Soil type map of the

study area

Fig. 3 Satellite image of the

study area

September and shoots further up unless interfered by rains.
Humidity is relatively high as 79 % on an average and
ranges between 80 and 90 % in coastal regions. The district
receives the rain under the influence of both southwest and
northeast monsoons. The northeast monsoon chiefly con-
tributes to the rainfall in the district. Most of the
precipitation occurs in the form of cyclonic storms caused
due to the depressions in Bay of Bengal. The southwest
monsoon rainfall is highly erratic and summer rains are
negligible. There is a general practice in the study area.
People store the rain in ‘Oorains’ (tanks) and use them for
their needs throughout the year (Fig. 4). Generally, several

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Fig. 4 Drainage map of the
study area
Table 1 2006–2011 season
S. No. Season
wise average normal rainfall
1 Spring
2 Summer
3 South-west monsoon
4 North-east monsoon
Total
monsoon season fails so very less rain water to store in the
Ooranis. For this reason, Tamilnadu government has
established a desalination plant at Naripayur. This plant
produces good quality drinking water from sea water and
supplies them to the surrounding villages. Rainfall data
from two stations over the period 2006–2011 were utilized
and a perusal of the data shows that the normal annual
rainfall in the Kadaladi block is 769.6 mm/year all along
the coast and it decreases toward inland (Table 1).
Drainage
Drainage is defined as channeling of surface flow into the
sub-surface formations. The flow of the sub-surface
water in a terrain depends on the drainage pattern.
Drainage map of the study area has been prepared and
given in Fig. 4. The drainage pattern, in general, is
dendritic. It is bounded by Gundar river basin on the
north, Vaippar river basin on the south and the Bay of
Bengal on the east.
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Months Normal rainfall (in mm)
January–February 37.7
March–May 115.8
June–September 174.1
October–December 442
769.6
Methodology
Sampling of groundwater
Totally, 36 wells were identified during our reconnaissance
survey for the collection of water samples to carry out
chemical analysis. Due care was given to the distribution of
wells throughout the study area. Dug well and borehole
samples were collected during the pre-monsoon and post-
monsoon of 2012. Method of collection and analysis of
groundwater samples were essentially the same as given by
Browen and Skougstad Fishman (1974), APHA (1985).
The depth to the water levels in dug well and bore-wells
range from 2 to 7 m. The samples were collected in 1 L
capacity polythene bottles. Prior to the collection, bottles
were thoroughly washed with diluted HNO3 acid, and then
with distilled water in the laboratory before filling the
bottle with the sample. Each bottle was rinsed to avoid any
possible contamination in the bottling and every other
precautionary measure was taken. Hydrophysical
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Table 2 Chemical analysis results for post-monsoon

S. No. pH EC TDS Na K Ca Mg HCO3 CO3 Cl SO4 NO3 PO4 TH

1 7.50 450 275 39 8 26 25 207 ND 71 35 ND 0.31 168

2 7.60 800 488 52 6 53 34 207 12 106 58 ND 0.14 272
3 7.90 5280 3225 525 225 182 100 439 12 1099 269 5.3 1.58 866
4 7.70 950 580 65 13 48 41 329 ND 142 53 ND 0.38 289
5 7.80 470 287 27 4 38 19 195 ND 71 32 0.4 0.22 173
6 7.80 4160 2538 450 5 115 95 537 ND 922 186 ND 0.7 678
7 7.90 2420 1476 162 48 80 54 415 12 461 104 1.5 1.26 422
8 7.90 5470 3338 500 10 128 128 390 ND 1311 236 0.1 0.68 847
9 7.90 630 384 45 9 43 15 268 12 71 36 ND 0.68 169
10 7.80 1830 1116 130 18 62 38 439 ND 284 118 0.4 0.61 311
11 7.80 3170 1935 205 22 170 77 110 12 893 140 ND ND 742
12 7.70 300 185 14 16 22 16 195 ND 28 18 ND 0.24 121
13 7.90 610 372 56 12 30 31 268 12 57 30 0.32 0.31 203
14 7.40 50,000 35,000 10,000 100 1840 1717 268 ND 22,688 3495 ND 0.21 11,665
15 8.10 610 372 61 23 16 20 159 12 57 53 ND 0.32 122
16 7.70 2320 1415 180 65 61 43 293 ND 411 166 0.14 0.41 329
17 7.80 2070 1263 110 90 112 52 378 12 384 122 0.22 1 494
18 7.90 2370 1446 170 15 91 61 281 12 468 171 0.1 0.43 478
19 7.60 12,000 8280 1240 200 483 376 439 ND 3191 746 0.28 0.56 2754
20 7.80 5100 3111 290 20 368 180 305 ND 1290 268 0.1 0.58 1660
21 7.40 5870 3582 600 175 126 162 415 12 1474 237 0.1 0.19 982
22 7.50 2320 1415 205 11 75 34 317 24 355 241 0.12 0.35 327
23 7.60 2350 1435 208 11 69 35 329 12 355 254 0.2 0.5 316
24 7.70 320 197 38 10 22 7 122 12 43 30 ND 1.2 84
25 7.40 11,880 8197 1210 30 654 309 378 ND 1418 961 3.2 0.56 2906
26 7.70 2500 1525 180 55 77 54 366 24 454 96 1.2 0.9 415
27 7.70 4600 2806 500 70 101 50 220 12 1035 289 0.2 1.2 458
28 7.90 4600 2806 500 70 96 50 220 12 1035 301 0.32 1.2 446
29 7.90 6610 4032 600 25 64 113 171 24 1702 275 0.14 0.24 625
30 7.60 12,680 8742 1000 350 188 229 500 ND 3403 257 0.34 0.51 1412
31 7.40 2670 1630 215 12 123 61 439 ND 567 180 0.16 0.3 558
32 7.90 10,420 7190 1150 220 261 193 342 24 2375 605 0.6 0.62 1446
33 7.80 670 408 83 10 24 17 256 24 43 39 ND ND 130
34 7.60 3290 2008 375 100 101 64 146 ND 822 162 0.3 0.43 516
35 7.60 4100 2501 450 150 158 73 329 ND 638 411 1.2 0.42 695
36 8.00 4300 2623 465 110 134 92 366 36 879 280 0.8 0.65 713
TDS, Na, K, Ca, Mg, HCO3, CO3, Cl, SO4, PO4, TH are expressed in mg/l. EC is expressed in lS/cm
S. No. Sample number, ND Not Detectable

parameters such as total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical Chemical analysis

conductivity (EC) and hydrogen ion concentration (pH)
were measured on-site using a portable Eco-tester. The
precise locations of the sampling points were also deter-
mined in the field using GARMIN 12 Channel GPS. The
well locations of the groundwater samples are given in
Fig. 1.
The samples collected were analyzed for various physico-
chemical parameters as described by the APHA (American
Public Health Association) (1985). Sodium (Na?) and
Potassium (K?) were determined by Flame Spectrometer,
Deep Vision, Model -381. Total Hardness (TH) as CaCO3,

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Table 3 Chemical analysis results for pre-monsoon

S. No. pH EC TDS Na K Ca Mg CO3 HCO3 Cl SO4 PO4 NO3 TH

1 7.2 390 238 33 12 38 13 12 183 43 22 0.38 0.1 148

2 7.6 670 409 50 5 69 20 12 220 99 41 0.27 0.18 255
3 7.8 4420 2696 500 210 168 87 24 500 937 252 1.1 0.42 778
4 7.8 720 439 58 15 64 26 24 256 85 35 0.43 0.15 267
5 7.8 530 323 47 6 43 20 12 183 85 28 ND 0.14 190
6 7.9 2470 1507 234 6 61 34 24 464 440 121 0.73 0.22 292
7 7.6 4900 2989 530 10 131 125 12 354 1276 230 0.92 0.32 842
8 7.7 4900 2970 440 10 134 117 12 354 1276 221 0.91 0.27 816
9 7.8 610 372 56 10 34 15 24 268 57 41 0.7 0.17 147
10 7.7 2320 1415 144 22 90 57 ND 476 425 182 0.24 0.3 459
11 7.5 6900 4209 550 10 394 232 ND 293 2028 227 0.21 0.22 1939
12 7.9 290 177 16 16 24 14 ND 49 28 19 0.7 0.19 118
13 8 490 299 37 13 26 34 24 220 43 17 0.7 0.22 205
14 7.4 47,600 33,320 6500 100 1872 1818 ND 342 22,880 1392 0.81 0.24 12,161
15 7.4 47,600 33,300 6300 100 1872 1838 ND 244 22,865 1363 0.38 0.26 12,243
16 7.9 190 116 16 5 11 10 ND 98 43 40 0.27 0.23 69
17 7.9 2450 1,495 130 16 120 85 ND 366 525 162 1.1 0.26 650
18 7.9 2450 1465 128 16 112 88 ND 366 496 153 0.92 0.1 642
19 7.5 46,700 32,690 4500 100 1860 1737 ND 366 22,334 1374 0.91 0.14 11,797
20 8.2 620 378 30 9 35 35 12 293 43 49 0.7 ND 232
21 7.6 8620 5258 1050 210 182 292 ND 390 2311 445 0.43 0.1 1657
22 7.9 1640 1000 188 8 40 27 12 268 241 226 0.34 ND 211
23 7.9 13,740 8381 1760 20 131 249 ND 647 3276 1238 0.24 0.1 1352
24 7.4 730 445 75 15 48 20 ND 317 85 61 1.4 0.1 202
25 7.7 11,150 6802 980 30 832 473 ND 220 1574 1756 0.6 3.9 4025
26 8 4730 2885 510 80 75 106 ND 464 1120 178 0.76 ND 624
27 7.8 8680 5295 1140 10 189 179 ND 525 2255 508 0.6 0.14 1209
28 8.2 25,200 16,632 3600 300 480 577 12 415 9394 1887 0.46 0.11 3575
29 8.1 8420 5136 1030 20 110 165 ND 378 2240 422 0.1 ND 954
30 8 9160 5588 980 60 130 191 ND 427 2623 536 0.3 ND 1111
31 7.6 2880 1757 300 14 120 72 ND 427 624 220 0.43 ND 596
32 7.9 11,660 7113 1500 310 280 246 ND 512 2879 488 0.76 1.2 1712
33 7.9 640 390 90 10 24 19 12 293 57 44 0.35 ND 138
34 7.8 4580 2794 360 114 149 98 ND 256 1248 155 0.92 1.51 776
35 8 3390 2068 270 134 146 74 ND 342 567 301 0.38 12.3 669
36 8 3710 2263 280 110 120 83 ND 427 780 204 0.92 5.7 641
TDS, Na, K, Ca, Mg, HCO3, CO3, Cl, SO4, PO4, TH are expressed in mg/l. EC is expressed in lS/cm
S. No. Sample number, ND Not Detectable

Calcium (Ca2?), Carbonate (CO32-), Bicarbonate
(HCO3-) and Chloride (Cl-) was analyzed by the
volumetric methods. Magnesium was calculated from TH
and Ca2? contents. Sulfate (SO42-), Phosphate (PO43-),
Nitrate (NO3-) were estimated by Spectrophotometer,
Deep Vision, Model -1371. All concentrations are ex-
pressed in milligrams per liter (mg/l), except pH and EC.
The EC concentration is expressed in lS/cm. Analytical
precision for measurements of cations and anions,
indicated by the ionic balance error (IBE), was computed
on the basis of ions expressed in meq/l. The value of IBE
was observed to be within a limit of ±5 % (Mandel and
Shiftan 1980; Domenico and Schwartz 1990).
Calculation of indices
The major ions data resulted from the chemical analysis
were utilized for the following estimations such as total

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Table 4 Groundwater classifications on the basis of TDS (WHO
2004)
Total dissolved solids (mg/l) Category
\500 Desirable
500–1500 Permissible
[1500 Not permissible
dissolved solids (TDS), ground water hardness (TH),
sodium % (Na %), residual sodium carbonate (RSC),
sodium absorption Ratio (SAR), USSL classification, cor-
rosivity ratio (CR), Schoeller classification, Stuyfzand
classification, Langlier saturation indices (SI) and Gibbs
plot. Balasubramanian et al. (1991) developed computer
program in Basic language HYCH (Hydrochemistry)
which can classify the groundwater.
Preparation of spatial distribution maps
Inverse distance weighted (IDW) raster interpolation
technique of spatial analyst module in ArcGIS (Version
10.0) software has been used for the present study to pre-
pare various thematic maps to illustrate the spatial distri-
bution of various chemical parameters. The different
locations of the sampling stations were imported into GIS
software through point layer. Each sample point was as-
signed by a unique code and stored in the point attribute
table. The data base file contains values of all chemical
parameters in separate columns along with a sample code
for each sampling station. The geo-database was used to
generate the spatial distribution maps of selected Index
used in HYCH program such as total dissolved solids
(TDS), total hardness (TH), sodium %, residual sodium
carbonate (RSC), sodium abortion ratio (SAR), USSL
classification, corrosivity ratio (CR), Schoeller water type,
Stuyfzand water type, Langlier Saturation Index (LSI) and
Gibbs plot.
Results and discussion
Evaluation of groundwater quality for domestic
purpose
The abundance of the major ions is in the order
of Na? [ Ca2? [ Mg2? [ K? and Cl- [ HCO3- [
SO42- [ NO3- [ PO43-. About 80 % of the healths haz-
ards occur in the world are due to consumption of poor
quality water (WHO 2004). Total dissolved solids (TDS)
are defined as the concentration of all dissolved minerals in
the water. TDS are a direct measurement of the interaction
between groundwater and subsurface minerals. Water with
high TDS indicates more ionic concentration, which is
inferior and can cause physiological disorders to its user
(Subba Rao et al. 2002). TDS is one of the important
factors that determines the suitability of water for various
uses. In the present study area, the TDS concentration in 21
groundwater samples collected exceeds the allowable
limits of WHO drinking water standards and for this reason
we have taken only TDS to evaluate the groundwater for
domestic purpose (Tables 2, 3). The groundwater quality is
compared with the standard guidelines recommended by
the World Health Organization (WHO) (Table 4).
In the present study, spatial distribution maps of TDS
have been prepared for both pre- and post-monsoons
(Fig. 5a, b). The classification given in the spatial distri-
bution maps such as Desirable, Permissible and not per-
missible follows the WHO standards. During PRM,
desirable TDS limit (\500 mg/l) occurs in Rochamanagar,
Velayuthapuram, Vellappatti, Terku Narippaiyur, Mela-
selvanoor, M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarkulam, Kodunallan-
patti, Kadamagalam, Ilamchembur and Rajakalpalaiyam.
Permissible limit (500–1500 mg/l) occurs in few locations
such as Iruveli, Kadaladi, S.Tharakudi and Apanur. In the
rest of the area, TDS exceeds the permissible limit
(\1500 mg/l).
During the post-monsoon period, TDS in groundwater
of Rochamanagar, Velayuthapuram, Vellappatti, Terku
Narippaiyur, Melaselvanoor, M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarku-
lam, Kodunallanpatti, Ilamchembur and Rajakalpalaiyam
are within desirable limit (\500 mg/l). Permissible limit
(500–1500 mg/l) occurs as patches in Malatar Mokuroad,
Kadaladi, Kodunallappatti, S.Tharakudi, S.Tharakudi,
Apanur and Enathi. In the rest of the area, TDS exceeds the
permissible limit. The data show that there is no much
variation in TDS between two seasons (Fig. 5a, b).
According to WHO 2004, the groundwater having TDS
above 1500 mg/l is unsuitable for drinking purpose. From
the Fig. 5a and b, it is evident that groundwater samples
collected from most of the study area are not suitable for
domestic purposes.
Evaluation of groundwater quality for industrial
purposes
Total hardness
Water hardness is primarily the amount of calcium and
magnesium and, to a lesser extent, iron in the water. Water
hardness is measured by adding up the concentrations of
calcium and magnesium and converting this value to an
equivalent concentration of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in
milligrams per liter (mg/l) of water (Karanth 1993).
Hardness is used as an indicator of the rate of scale for-
mation in transportation pipes. Hardness, HT, is expressed
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Fig. 5 a, b TDS map of the

study area

as the equivalent of calcium carbonate. Thus, HT ¼ Ca 
CaCO3 CaCO3
Ca þ Mg  Mg where Ht, Ca, and Mg are measured
in milligrams per liter and their ratios in equivalent weight.
The groundwater quality is compared with the standard
guidelines recommended by the WHO which is given in
Table 5.
Spatial distribution map of Total Hardness has been
prepared for both pre- and post-monsoon periods
(Fig. 6a, b). During pre-monsoon, moderately hard water
(\300 mg/l) and hard water (300–600 mg/l) occur as small
patches in central parts of the area such as Rochamanagar,
Velayuthapuram, Vellappatti, Terku Narippaiyur, Iruvelli,

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Table 5 Classification of water type based on total hardness (WHO Melaselvanoor, M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarkulam, Kodunal-
2004) lanpatti, Apanur, Ilamchembur and Rajakalpalaiyam during
Hardness mg/l CaCO3 Water class the pre-monsoon period. Very hard water ([600 mg/l)
dominates and occupies the rest of the study area.
\300 Moderately hard
During post-monsoon period, because of the fresh
300–600 Hard recharge of the aquifer by monsoon rains, hardness of
[600 Very hard the groundwater reduces. Hard water (300–600 mg/l)

Fig. 6 a, b TH map of the

study area

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Table 6 HYCH output results for post-monsoon

S. No. Location Na % SAR RSC USSL NCH PI CR Sch Stuyfzands SI Gibbs

1 Rochamanagar 48 1.68 -0.36 C2S1 17.94 68.47 0.66 IV Fresh -0.35 RI

2 Velayuthapuram 40 1.53 -1.65 C3S1 82.51 54.79 0.96 III Fresh -0.001 RI
3 Vadakku Narippaiyur 73 10.46 -7.68 C5S3 384.04 71.50 4.05 III Brackish-salt 0.86 EV
4 Vellappati 47 2.14 -1.14 C3S1 56.90 59.54 0.78 IV Fresh -0.12 RI
5 Terku Narippaiyur 35 1.11 -0.99 C2S1 49.62 58.59 0.68 III Fresh -0.22 RI
6 Iruvelli 68 8.18 -6.89 C5S3 344.40 67.04 2.78 IV Brackish 0.7 EV
7 Malatar Mokuroad 61 5.03 -3.43 C4S2 171.72 63.91 1.77 IV Brackish 0.63 RI
8 Kadugusandai Sathiram 67 8.46 -14.49 C5S3 724.72 61.94 5.36 IV Brackish-salt 0.65 EV
9 Melaselvanoor 48 2.09 0.43 C2S1 -21.71 69.61 0.49 III Fresh 0.35 RI
10 Kadaladi 60 4.31 -1.46 C3S2 72.91 66.09 1.19 IV Fresh-brackish 0.48 RI
11 M.Karisalkulam 48 4.02 -15.91 C4S2 795.58 44.47 11.50 III Brackish 0.23 RI
12 M.Karisalkulam 44 1.30 0.47 C2S1 -23.35 77.86 0.30 IV Oligohaline -0.22 RI
13 Pillaiyarkulam 53 2.08 0.74 C2S1 -37.20 72.13 0.40 IV Fresh 0.19 RI
14 Valamppatti 74 42.02 -244.18 C5S4 12,209.03 65.62 132.82 IV Hyperhaline 0.49 EV
15 Kodunallanpatti 70 3.30 0.56 C2S1 -28.08 86.39 0.79 IV Fresh -0.11 RI
16 Kodunallanpatti 70 6.32 -2.72 C4S2 136.17 73.04 2.57 IV Brackish 0.16 RI
17 S.Tharakudi 55 4.08 -3.92 C3S2 195.96 59.60 1.71 III Brackish 0.66 RI
18 S.Tharakudi 55 4.09 -6.76 C4S2 337.77 55.64 2.86 IV Brackish 0.52 RI
19 T.M.Kottai 63 11.68 -45.48 C5S4 2274.15 55.61 12.01 IV Brackish-salt 0.75 EV
20 Kadamangalam 36 3.31 -28.18 C5S2 1408.83 33.68 6.87 III Brackish-salt 0.91 RI
21 Komboothi 73 10.76 -12.42 C5S4 620.85 68.09 5.44 IV Brackish-salt 1.3 EV
22 Apanur 66 6.01 -2.52 C4S2 125.79 70.19 2.20 III Brackish 0.088 RI
23 Enathi 68 6.20 -2.53 C4S2 126.72 71.38 2.24 III Brackish 0.17 RI
24 Ilamchembur 62 2.28 0.73 C2S1 -36.28 93.09 0.69 III Fresh -0.43 RI
25 Ochinatham 56 7.70 -28.04 C5S3 1402.16 51.97 7.93 III Brackish-salt 0.62 EV
26 Terku Mookaiyur 64 5.43 -2.83 C4S2 141.36 66.68 1.90 IV Brackish 0.35 RI
27 Sikkal 79 12.50 -6.47 C5S4 323.67 78.05 7.58 III Brackish-salt 0.13 RI
28 Peikulam 80 12.74 -6.36 C5S4 317.81 78.50 7.63 III Brackish-salt 0.31 RI
29 Alangulam 78 13.09 -14.40 C5S4 720.07 71.48 13.76 IV Brackish-salt -0.56 EV
30 Keelasirupoothur 76 17.56 -27.28 C5S4 1364.06 70.20 10.12 IV Brackish-salt 0.38 EV
31 Panayadiyendal 55 4.72 -7.06 C4S2 352.92 56.93 2.25 III Brackish 0.32 RI
32 Ervadi 75 15.67 -22.50 C5S4 1125.04 70.00 10.86 IV Brackish-salt 0.71 EV
33 Rajakalpalaiyam 69 3.55 2.40 C2S1 -119.94 91.74 0.36 IV Fresh -0.033 RI
34 Keelakidaram 74 8.84 -7.15 C4S3 357.65 72.27 9.09 IV Brackish -0.082 RI
35 Vallinokkam 72 8.86 -5.67 C5S3 283.42 72.60 4.03 III Brackish 0.42 RI
36 Keelamundal 72 9.21 -6.48 C5S3 324.02 70.27 3.81 IV Brackish 0.79 RI
RI Rock–water interaction, EV Evapoartion

dominates the area, occupying Malatar Mokuroad, Kadal- Corrosivity ratio

adi, Kodunallappatti, S.Tharakudi, S.Tharakudi, Apanur,
Enathi, Terku Mookaiyur, Sikkal, Peikulam, Corrosion is defined as electrochemical oxidation of
Panayadiyendal and Keelakidaram. Moderate hard water metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. The
(\300 mg/l) occupies Rochamanagar, Velayuthapuram, rate at which corrosion proceeds depends on a variety of
Vellappatti, Terku Narippaiyur, Melaselvanoor, chemical equilibrium reactions as well as on certain
M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarkulam, Kodunallanpatti, Ilam- physical factors like the temperature pressure and velocity
chembur and Rajakalpalaiyam as small patches. Very hard of flow (Ayers and Watson 1985). The corrosivity ratio
water occupies the rest of the study area (Fig. 6a, b). is calculated using the formula as mentioned below.

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Table 7 HYCH output results for pre-monsoon

S. No. Location Na % SAR RSC USSL NCH PI CR Sch Stuyfzands SI Gibbs

1 Rochamanagar 47 1.61 0.43 C2S1 -21.65 74.93 0.43 III Fresh -0.53 RI
2 Velayuthapuram 38 1.50 -1.08 C2S1 54.18 57.35 0.79 III Fresh -0.1 RI
3 Vadakku Narippaiyur 74 10.37 -4.60 C5S3 229.76 73.60 3.02 III Brackish 0.82 EV
4 Vellappati 45 1.94 0.34 C2S1 16.89 61.39 0.56 I Fresh -0.03 RI
5 Terku Narippaiyur 46 1.67 0.39 C2S1 19.62 66.21 0.76 III Fresh -0.1 RI
6 Iruvelli 72 7.35 0.11 C4S2 -5.65 76.20 1.53 III Brackish 0.55 RI
7 Malatar Mokuroad 68 8.75 -13.32 C5S3 665.76 63.49 5.56 IV Brackish-salt 0.34 RI
8 Kadugusandai Sathiram 64 7.83 -14.99 C5S3 749.45 59.76 5.54 IV Brackish-salt 0.45 RI
9 Melaselvanoor 57 2.76 1.43 C2S1 -71.65 77.94 0.42 III Fresh 0.15 RI
10 Kadaladi 53 4.04 -5.30 C4S2 265.08 56.04 1.66 IV Brackish 0.33 RI
11 M.Karisalkulam 47 5.69 -36.12 C5S3 1805.86 41.90 10.56 III Brackish-salt 0.56 EV
12 M.Karisalkulam 46 0.96 -0.37 C2S1 18.59 85.44 1.21 III Oligohaline -0.58 RI
13 Pillaiyarkulam 45 1.52 0.31 C2S1 -15.51 64.96 0.32 I Fresh 0.17 RI
14 Valamppatti 64 29.49 -306.10 C5S4 15,305.00 54.50 98.47 IV Hyperhaline 0.47 EV
15 Kodunallanpatti 63 28.63 -312.80 C5S4 15,640.18 53.51 137.80 IV Hyperhaline -0.11 EV
16 Kodunallanpatti 50 1.41 -0.48 C1S1 23.83 76.82 1.04 IV Fresh -0.59 RI
17 S.Tharakudi 42 2.78 -10.21 C4S1 510.47 42.96 2.48 III Brackish 0.75 RI
18 S.Tharakudi 42 2.72 -9.46 C4S1 473.05 43.49 2.34 III Brackish 0.72 RI
19 T.M.Kottai 56 22.75 -353.50 C5S4 17,674.92 46.27 89.86 IV Hyperhaline 0.75 EV
20 Kadamangalam 36 1.19 -0.22 C2S1 10.90 56.23 0.37 III Fresh 0.6 RI
21 Komboothi 73 12.92 -24.00 C5S4 1199.75 65.49 9.53 IV Brackish-salt 0.39 EV
22 Apanur 75 6.65 -0.55 C3S2 27.53 79.97 2.05 IV Fresh-brackish 0.2 RI
23 Enathi 82 23.39 -22.69 C5S4 1134.66 76.66 9.12 IV Brackish-salt 0.65 EV
24 Ilamchembur 57 2.91 0.74 C2S1 -37.00 75.28 0.58 III Fresh -0.049 RI
25 Ochinatham 44 5.71 -51.05 C5S3 2552.62 37.58 18.39 III Brackish-salt 0.84 EV
26 Terku Mookaiyur 77 10.92 -6.38 C5S3 318.99 73.80 3.80 IV Brackish-salt 0.62 EV
27 Sikkal 76 15.22 -18.25 C5S4 912.53 71.05 7.06 IV Brackish-salt 0.74 EV
28 Peikulam 79 32.27 -85.04 C5S4 4252.06 71.21 35.59 IV Brackish-salt 1.1 EV
29 Alangulam 79 16.27 -16.77 C5S4 838.37 73.78 9.51 IV Brackish-salt 0.67 EV
30 Keelasirupoothur 76 15.87 -23.31 C5S4 1165.58 69.96 9.96 IV Brackish-salt 0.67 EV
31 Panayadiyendal 62 5.98 -6.54 C4S2 326.81 62.58 2.59 III Brackish 0.48 RI
32 Ervadi 77 17.90 -21.79 C5S4 1089.55 72.63 8.91 IV Brackish-salt 0.92 EV
33 Rajakalpalaiyam 70 3.70 2.44 C2S1 -122.03 91.98 0.41 IV Fresh -0.27 RI
34 Keelakidaram 66 8.06 -14.00 C5S3 700.01 62.01 7.50 IV Brackish-salt -0.32 RI
35 Vallinokkam 65 6.47 -6.50 C4S2 324.77 65.26 3.25 III Brackish 0.84 RI
36 Keelamundal 66 7.10 -7.26 C4S2 362.97 65.04 3.07 IV Brackish 0.74 RI
RI Rock–water interaction, EV Evapoartion

Cl 2SO4
35:5þ 96
Corrosivity ratio CR ¼ Units are expressed in
CO3 þHCO3
2ð Þ 100
mg/lIf the CR is \1, then water is noncorrosive and if the
CR is [1, then the water is corrosive in nature (Thila-
gavathi et al. 2012). The groundwater with Corrosivity
ratio more than one cannot be transported through metal
pipes. It can only transport through PVC pipes. Non-
Corrosive water exists in a few of the locations like
Rochmanagar, Velayuthapuram, Vellappatti, Terku Narip-
paiyur, Melaselavanur, M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarkualm,
Kadamangalam, Ilamchembur and Rajakalpalaiyam. The
rest of the area is occupied by corrosive water as it has
corrosive ratio greater than 1 during the pre-and post-
monsoon (Tables 6, 7; Fig. 7a, b).
Evaluation of groundwater for agriculture purpose
Excessive amount of dissolved ions in irrigation water can
affect plants and soil physically and chemically, thus re-
ducing the productivity. The physical effects of these ions

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Fig. 7 a, b CR map of the

study area

are to lower the osmotic pressure in the plant structural
cells, thus preventing water from reaching the branches and
leaves, while chemical effects disrupt plant metabolism.
Thus, the parameters like Electrical conductivity (EC),
Sodium percentage (Na %), residual sodium carbonate
(RSC), sodium absorption ratio (SAR), USSL classification
were used to assess the suitability of water for irrigation
within the study area. The parameters were determined and
furnished in Tables 6 and 7 and discussed in following
paragraphs.
Electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium percentage
(Na %)
Electrical conductivity (EC) and Sodium Percentage
(Na %) are very important parameters in classifying

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Fig. 8 a, b Sodium percentage
map of the study area
irrigation water. Water used for irrigation always contains
measurable quantities of dissolved substances as salts.
They include relatively small but significant amount of
dissolved solids originating from the weathering of the
rocks and soils, and from the dissolving lime, gypsum and
other salt sources as water flows over or percolates through
them. High Na % causes deflocculation and impairment of
the permeability of soils (Karanth 1987). The salts, besides
affecting the growth of the plants directly, also affect soil
structure, permeability and aeration, which directly affect
plant growth. The sodium percentage (Na %) in the water
samples of sub-surface water was calculated and given in
Tables 6, 7 and Fig. 8a, b.
The sodium percentage (Na %) in the study area is in
the ranges of 36–82 % (average 60 %) in the pre-mon-
soon period and 35–80 % (average 62 %) in the post-
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Fig. 9 a, b SAR map of the
study area
monsoon period water samples. Good quality of water
with 20–40 Na % falls on the Velayuthapuram and
Kadamangalam area. Permissible (40–60) Na % falls on
the Rochamanagar, Vellappatti, Terku Narippaiyur,
Melaselvanoor, Kadaladi, M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarku-
lam, Kodunallanpatti, S.Tharakudi, T.M.Kottai, Ilam-
chembur and Ochinatham. Doubtful (60–80) Na % falls
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on the Vadaku Narippaiyur, Iruvelli, Malatar Mokuroad,
Kadugusanthai, Valamppatti, Kodunallanpatti, Kom-
boothi, Apanur, Terku Mookaiyur, Sikkal, Peikulam,
Alangulam, Keelasirupoothur, Panayediyendal, Ervadi,
Rajakalpalaiyam, Keelakidaram, Vallinokkam and Kee-
lamundal. Unsuitable ([80) Na % falls on the Enathi
area.
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Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 10 a, b USSL
classification map of the study
area
Residual sodium carbonate (RSC)
In water having high concentration of bicarbonates, there is
a tendency for calcium and magnesium to precipitate as
carbonates. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) index of ir-
rigation water is used to indicate the alkalinity hazard of
soil. RSC index is used to find the suitability of water for
irrigation in clay soils which have high cation exchange
capacity. When dissolved sodium in comparison with dis-
solved calcium and magnesium is high in water, clay soil
swells or undergoes dispersion which drastically reduces its
infiltration capacity. In the dispersed soil structure, the
plant roots are unable to spread deeper into the soil due to
lack of moisture. To measure this effect, an experimental
parameter is termed as residual sodium carbonate (Eaton
1950), which can be calculated using the equation:
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Fig. 11 a, b Schoeller water

type map of the study area

   2þ 
RSC ¼ HCO 2
 Ca þ Mg2þ pre- and post-monsoon periods (Tables 6, 7). This indicates
3 þ CO3
that water is suitable for irrigation uses.
Units are expressed in meq/lA high value of RSC in water
leads to an increase in the absorption of sodium on soil Sodium absorption ratio (SAR)
(Eaton 1950). Groundwater having RSC values greater
than 2.5 meq/1 is not suitable for irrigation purpose. In the Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is a measure of the suit-
present study, RSC values are found below 2.5 meq/1 in ability of water for use in agricultural irrigation, as

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Table 8 Groundwater classifications by Stuyfzand (1989) determined by the concentrations of solids dissolved in the
Main type Cl (mg/l) Main type Cl (mg/l)
water. SAR can indicate the degree to which irrigation
water tends to enter into cation exchange reactions in soil.
Very Oligohaline \5 Brackish 300 9 103 Sodium replacing absorbed Calcium and Magnesium is a
Oiligohaline 5–30 Brackish-salt 103–104 hazard as it causes damage to the soil structure and be-
Fresh 30–150 Salt 104–2 9 104 comes compact and impervious. If irrigation water with a
Fresh–Brackish 150–300 Hyperhaline [2 9 104 high SAR is applied to a soil for years, the sodium in the
water can displace the calcium and magnesium in the soil.

Fig. 12 a, b Stuyfzand
classification map of the study
area

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Fig. 13 a, b LSI map of the
study area
This will cause a decrease in the ability of the soil to form
stable aggregates and a loss of soil structure. This will also
lead to a decrease in infiltration and permeability of the soil
to water leading to problems with crop production.
The total concentration of soluble salts in irrigation
water can be expressed as low (EC B250 lS cm-1),
medium (250–750 lS cm-1), high (750–2250 lS cm-1)
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and very high ([2250 lS cm-1) and classified as C-1, C-2,
C-3 and C-4 salinity zone, respectively (Richards 1954).
Irrigation waters are classified into four categories on the
basis of sodium absorption ration (SAR) as S-1 (\10), S-2
(10–18), S-3 (18–26) and S-4 ([26).
The calculated value of SAR in the study area ranges
from 0.96 to 32.27 (average 9.34) in the pre-monsoon
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Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 14 a, b Gibbs plot map of
the study area
season and 1.11–42.02 (average 7.56) in the post-monsoon
periods. Excellent (\10) SAR falls on the Rochamanagar,
Velayuthapuram, Vellappati, Terku Narippaiyur, Iruvelli,
Malatar Mokuroad, Kadugusandai, Melaselvanoor, Kadal-
adi, M.Karisalkulam, Pillayarkulam, Kodunallapatti,
S.Tharakudi, Kadamangalam, Apanur, Ilamchembur,
Panayadiyendal, Rajakalpalaiyam, Keelakidaram, Valli-
nokkam and Keelamundal. Good (10–18) SAR value falls
on the Vadaku Narippaiyur, Terku Mookaiyur, Sikkal,
Alangulam, Keelasirupoothur and Ervadi. Bad ([26) SAR
value falls on the Valampatti, Kodunallanpatti, T.M.Kottai,
Enathi and Peikulam area during the pre- and post-mon-
soon period (Fig. 9a, b; Tables 6, 7).
Highly saline water cannot be used on soils with re-
stricted drainage and requires special management for
salinity control. The water must be applied in excess to
provide considerable leaching and salt tolerant crops/plants
should be selected for such region. Low sodium (alkali)
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Table 9 Range in concentration of chemical parameters of the study area and compared with WHO standards
Parameters Minimum Maximum Average WHO (2004) Number of samples
exceeding allowable
POM PRM POM PRM POM PRM Most Maximum limits
2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 desirable allowable limits
limits

pH 7.1 7.2 7.8 8.2 7.38 7.8 6.5 8.5 Nil

EC 313 190 42,000 47,600 5085 8226 750 3000 19
TDS 159 116 26,880 33,320 3159 5406 500 1500 21
Na 13 16 10,186 6500 624 956 – 200 20
K 2 5 330 310 62 59 – 12 24
Ca 20 11 1509 1872 159 284 75 200 6
Mg 12 10 1328 1838 117 258 30 150 7
HCO3 107 49 516 647 313 339 – 300 19
Cl 25 28 24,946 22,880 1521 2980 250 600 17
SO4 18 17 3104 1887 292 407 200 400 5
TH 109 36 9238 12,243 880 1770 300 500 16
SAR 3.13 3.67 270.44 156.60 38.58 46.44 – 26 17
RSC -179 -240 1.89 -2.04 -12.46 -29.79 2.5 5 –

water can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with
little danger of the development of harmful levels of ex-
changeable sodium.
USSL classification
USSL State Salinity Laboratory (USSL) has proposed a
classification for rating of irrigation water with reference to
Salinity and Sodium Hazard (Richards 1954). In USSL
classification, the classes C1, C2, C3 and C4 are formed
based on salinity. Classes S1, S2, S3, and S4 are designated
based on sodium absorption ratio with values \10, 10–18,
18–26 and [26, respectively. The sodium hazards in irri-
gated water concentrations are expressed in mil-
liequivalents per liter (meq/l).
Na
SAR ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
CaþMg
2 Pillaiyarkulam. C3S2 and C5S2 waters are restricted to a
With reference to salinity and SAR, the irrigation water
quality with low salinity and low SAR has been classified
as C1S1 and with higher as C4S4.
USSL classification maps have been prepared for both pre-
and post-monsoon period. C1S1, C2S1, C3S2, C3S3, C3S4,
C4S1, C4S2, C4S4, C5S2, C5S3 and C5S4 water type are
present during the pre- and post-monsoon period. During pre-
monsoon period, C5S4 type of water occurs along western
toward eastern part of the study area like Valamppatti, Ko-
dunallanpatti, T.M.Kottai, Komboothi, Enathi, Kee-
lasirupoothur, Alangulam, Peikulam, Sikkal, Panayadiyendal
and Ervadi. US salinity laboratory declared that this water is
fit for cultivation of high salt tolerant crops (Richards 1954).
C2S1 indicates medium salinity and low sodium water which
can be used for irrigation on all types of soil without damages
of exchangeable sodium. C2S1 type occurs in few areas like
Rochamanagar, Velayuthapuram, Vellappatti, Terku Narip-
paiyur, Melaselvanoor, M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarkulam,
Kadamangalam, Ilamchembur and Rajakalpalaiyam which is
relatively a better type of water and can be used for cultiva-
tion of sensitive crops such as sugar cane and paddy. The rest
of the area is occupied by water quality ranging between
C3S2 (high saline–medium sodium) to C5S4 (very high sal-
ine and sodium) which can be used for tolerant crop like
cotton and chilly (Fig. 10a, b).
During the post-monsoon period, C4S4 to C5S4 water
exists in Valampatti, T.M.Kottai, Enathi, Terku Mookaiyur,
Vadaku Narippaiyur, Keelasirupoothur, Alangulam, Peiku-
lam, Sikkal, Ervadi, Keela Mundal and Vallinokkam. C5S3
water exists in Ochinatham, Kodunallapatti, Iruvelli and
very small area. C3S1 water which is a relatively good
quality occurs in Velayuthapuram, and Velappatti. C2S1
water better quality occurs in Rochamanagar, Terku Narip-
paiyur, Melaselavanoor, M.Karisalkulam, Pillaiyarkulam,
Kodunallanpatti, Ilamchembur and Rajakalpalaiyam
(Fig. 10a, b). From the salinity and sodium hazard study, the
good quality water for irrigation occurs along the northern,
central and southern portions of the study area.
Index of base exchange
Base exchange indices are frequently used in regional hy-
drochemical surveys for indicating whether an aquifer is

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salinizing or freshening, or has been freshened or salinized
in the past (Stuyfzand 2008).
Schoeller groundwater type
Schoeller (1977) has classified the groundwater as fol-
lows, according to their ionic ratio. rHCO3 [ rSO4 type I
as the total concentration increases the above relation to
rSO4 [ rCl type II
still at higher concentration, the water may change to
rCl [ rSO4 [ rCO3 type III
and at the final stages
rCl [ rSO4 [ rCO3 and rNa [ rMg [ rCa type IV
Groundwater type prevailing in the study area is shown in
Fig. 11a, b. The prominent type of water is of Type IV
followed by Type III and Type I water during the pre-
monsoon. The Type I water occurs in Pillaiyarkulam and
Velappatti. Type III water occurs in Rochamanagar, Ve-
layuthapuram, Vadaku Naripaiyur, Terku Narippaiyur,
Melaselvanoor, M.Karisalkulam, S.Tharakudi, Kadman-
galam, Ilamchembur, Ochinatham, Panayadiyendal and
Vallinookam. Type IV water occupies the remaining lo-
cation of the study area.
During post-monsoon, again Type IV water dominates
the study area. Type III water occurs in Velayuthapuram,
Vadaku Narippaiyur, Terku Mookaiyur, Melaselvanoor,
M.Karisalkulam, S.Tharakudi, Kadamangalam, Apanur,
Enathi, Ilamchembur, Ochinatham, Sikkal, Peikulam,
Panayadiyendal and Vallinokkam. As the study area comes
under arid region, the salt concentration is higher because
of greater evaporation, lower rainfall and lower recharge.
Stuyfzand groundwater classification
Stuyfzand (1989) has proposed a method of classification
of groundwater and identified eight main types on the basis
of Cl content (Table 8).
Spatial distribution map of the different types of water
based on Stuyfzand classification has been prepared with
HYCH output results (Fig. 12a, b). The Oligohaline to
fresh groundwater occurs in the southern and few falls
around the study area like Rochamanagar, Velayuthapu-
ram, Velappatti Terku Mookaiyur, Melaselvanoor, Pillai-
yarkulam, Kodunallapatti, Kadamangalam, Ilamchembur
and Rajakalpalaiyam. The study areas mainly occupied by
brackish-salt groundwater around the eastern part of the
study area which includes the villages such as Vadukau
Narippaiyur, Iruvelli, Malatar Mokuroad, Kadaladi,
M.Karisalkulam, S.Tharakudi, Komboothi, Apanur, Enathi,
Ochinatham, Terku Mookaiyur, Sikkal, Peikulam, Alan-
gulam, Keelasirupoothur and Keelakidaram during the pre-
monsoon. The Salt to Hyperhaline groundwater occurs in
the western part of the study area like Valamppatti, Ko-
dunallappatti and T.M.Kottai.
During the post-monsoon, Oligohaline to Fresh
groundwater occurs in Rochamanagar, Velayuthapuram,
Vadaku Narippaiyur, Vellappati, Melaselvanoor, Pillai-
yarkulam, Kodunallapatti, Ilamchembur and Ra-
jakalpalaiyam. Fresh to Brackish water is mainly occupied
by Kadaladi area. The Brackish to Salt occurs toward
western and northern part of the study areas which are
Vellappati, Iruvelli, Malatar Mokuroad, M.Karisalkulam,
Kodunallanpatti, S.Tharakudi, T.M.kottai, Kadamangalam,
Komboothi, Apanur, Enathi, Ilamchembur, Terku Moo-
kaiyur, Sikkal, Peikulam, Alangulam, Keelasirupoothur,
Panayadiyendal, Ervadi, Keelakidaram, Vallinokkam and
Keelamundal. The Salt to Hyperhaline groundwater occurs
in the western part of the study area like Valamppatti.
Langelier saturation index
Saturation indexes are used to evaluate the degree of
equilibrium between water and mineral. Changes in
saturation state are useful to distinguish stages of hy-
drochemical evolution and help identify which geo-
chemical reactions are important in controlling water
chemistry.
The Langelier Saturation Index is a calculated number
used to predict the calcium carbonate stability of water. It
indicates whether the water will precipitate, dissolve, or be
in equilibrium with calcium carbonate. Wilfred Langelier
(1936) developed a method for predicting the pH at which
water is saturated in calcium carbonate (called pHs). The
LSI is expressed as the difference between the actual sys-
tem pH and the saturation pH:
LSI ¼ pH ðmeasuredÞ pHs
• For LSI [0, water is super saturated and tends to
precipitate a scale layer of CaCO3.
• For LSI = 0, water is saturated (in equilibrium) with
CaCO3. A scale layer of CaCO3 is neither precipitated
nor dissolved.
• For LSI \0, water is under saturated and tends to
dissolve solid CaCO3.
If the actual pH of the water is below the calculated
saturation pH, the LSI is negative and the water has a very
limited scaling potential. If the actual pH exceeds pHs, the
LSI is positive, and being supersaturated with CaCO3, the
water has a tendency to form scale. At increasing positive
index values, the scaling potential increases.
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Langelier Saturation Index spatial distribution maps
have been prepared for the pre- and post-monsoon period.
The under saturation index (\0) occurs in the
Rochamanagar, Velayuthapuram, Vellappatti, Terku
Narippaiyur, M.Karisalkulam, Kodunallanpatti, S.Thar-
akudi, Ilamchembur, Terku Mookaiyur, Alangulam, Ra-
jakalpalaiyam and Keelakidaram village. Rest of the area
falls in the over saturation index during the Pre and Post
Monsoon period (Fig. 13a, b).
Discussion
The results of the study area show that increase in ground-
water salinity is observed from east to west, i.e., increases
from shoreline toward inland. The mechanism that controls
water chemistry has been discussed by several authors
(Conway 1942; Gorham 1961; Mackenzie and Garrles 1965,
1966; Gibbs 1970). Among all these methods, Gibbs method
is widely used. The Gibbs diagrams representing the ratios
of Na: (Na ? Ca) and Cl: (Cl ? HCO3), as a function of
TDS, are widely employed to assess the functional sources
of dissolved chemical constituents, such as precipitation,
rock and evaporation dominance (Gibbs 1970). From the
Gibbs plot, the mechanism controlling water chemistry for
the present study area has been evaluated. Higher levels of
Na and Cl ions in coastal groundwater may indicate a sig-
nificant effect of seawater mixing and base ion exchange
(Mondal et al. 2010; Freeze and Cherry 1979). Evaporation
also increases salinity by Na and Cl in relation to increase in
TDS (Gupta et al. 2008). Figure 14b shows that during pre-
monsoon period, evaporation is the dominating factor in the
inland area, i.e., northern and western portion of the study
area. In the post-monsoon (Fig. 14a), the rock–water inter-
action mostly controls the groundwater chemistry and
the dilution of salinity is caused by groundwater recharge.
The present study describes a wide range of salinity
values which are noticed in the study area. This is due to
the wide range of sediment permeability that occurs in the
coastal plain which may result in the incomplete flushing of
the relict salinity. Higher salinity of groundwater dis-
tributed within the study area may be due to mixing of
freshwater with relict saline water due to higher stand of
sea level in the past geological time (Sivasubramanian
et al. 2013).
Conclusion
Interpretation of geochemical analysis reveals that majority
of the groundwater samples collected from the study area
shows that the TDS value is above 1500 mg/l and classified
as brackish water category. As the majority of the
123
Environ Earth Sci
groundwater comes under brackish water category, they are
not suitable for drinking purpose. The groundwater with
higher TDS value mostly occupies the area away from the
coastline (Fig. 6a, b). Groundwater samples collected from
the shallow wells on the sand dunes running parallel to the
coast shows low TDS. The low TDS values maybe because
of the recharge of the aquifers by recent monsoon rain.
Total hardness and corrosivity ratio calculations indicate
that majority of the groundwater collected are not fit for
industrial uses because of their high hardness and corro-
sivity ratio (Figs. 6a, b, 7a, b). Groundwater suitability for
irrigation purpose has been studied using SAR, RSC, USSL
classification, saturation index and indices such as
Schoeller and Stuyfzand Classification. The calculated
SAR and RSC reveal that majority of the groundwater
samples collected from the study area comes under excel-
lent category. USSL Salinity Classification shows that
70 % of the area comes under high to very high saline and
medium to high sodium category and only suitable for high
saline-tolerant crops. The above statement is further sup-
ported by Schoeller and Stuyfzand classification where
most of the samples fall under the Type IV water of
Schoeller classification and brackish to salt water of
Stuyfzand classification. Gibbs plot and Langlier Satura-
tion Index show that groundwater chemistry of the study
area is the resultant product of rock–water interaction fol-
lowed by evaporations. The overall range of chemical pa-
rameters and WHO standard limits are illustrated in
Table 9.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the Department of
Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology,
Government of India for providing the financial assistance to carry
out the work under WAR for water scheme. We extend our sincere
thanks to anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions to
improve the quality of paper.
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