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Chapter 8 Internal Flow
Solutions Manual for
Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

Third Edition
Yunus A. Çengel & John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2013
Chapter 8
Internal Flow
PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL
This Manual is the proprietary property of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

(“McGraw-Hill”) and protected by copyright and other state and federal laws. By
opening and using this Manual the user agrees to the following restrictions, and if the
recipient does not agree to these restrictions, the Manual should be promptly returned
unopened to McGraw-Hill: This Manual is being provided only to authorized
professors and instructors for use in preparing for the classes using the affiliated
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may not be sold and may not be distributed to or used by any student or other
third party. No part of this Manual may be reproduced, displayed or distributed
in any form or by any means, electronic or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of McGraw-Hill.
8-1
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
8-1C
Solution We are to compare pipe flow in air and water.
Analysis Reynolds number is inversely proportional to kinematic viscosity, which is much smaller for water than for
air (at 25C, air = 1.56210-5 m2/s and water =   = 0.89110-3/997 = 8.910-7 m2/s). Therefore, for the same diameter and
speed, the Reynolds number will be higher for water flow, and thus the flow is more likely to be turbulent for water.
Discussion The actual viscosity (dynamic viscosity)  is larger for water than for air, but the density of water is so
much greater than that of air that the kinematic viscosity of water ends up being smaller than that of air.
8-2C
Solution We are to compare the wall shear stress at the inlet and outlet of a pipe.
Analysis The wall shear stress w is highest at the tube inlet where the thickness of the boundary layer is nearly
zero, and decreases gradually to the fully developed value. The same is true for turbulent flow.
Discussion We are assuming that the entrance is well-rounded so that the inlet flow is nearly uniform.
8-3C
Solution We are to define and discuss hydraulic diameter.
Analysis For flow through non-circular tubes, the Reynolds number and the friction factor are based on the hydraulic
4 Ac
diameter Dh defined as Dh  where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the tube and p is its perimeter. The hydraulic
p
4 Ac 4D 2 / 4
diameter is defined such that it reduces to ordinary diameter D for circular tubes since D h   D.
p D
Discussion Hydraulic diameter is a useful tool for dealing with non-circular pipes (e.g., air conditioning and heating
ducts in buildings).
8-2
8-4C
Solution We are to define and discuss hydrodynamic entry length.
Analysis The region from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline is
called the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of this region is called hydrodynamic entry length. The entry
length is much longer in laminar flow than it is in turbulent flow. But at very low Reynolds numbers, Lh is very small
(e.g., Lh = 1.2D at Re = 20).
Discussion The entry length increases with increasing Reynolds number, but there is a significant change in entry
length when the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.
8-5C
Solution We are to discuss why pipes are usually circular in cross section.
Analysis Liquids are usually transported in circular pipes because pipes with a circular cross section can withstand
large pressure differences between the inside and the outside without undergoing any significant distortion.
Discussion Piping for gases at low pressure are often non-circular (e.g., air conditioning and heating ducts in buildings).
8-6C
Solution We are to define and discuss Reynolds number for pipe and duct flow.
Analysis Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces to viscous forces, and it serves as a criterion for
determining the flow regime. At large Reynolds numbers, for example, the flow is turbulent since the inertia forces are
large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the
fluid. It is defined as follows:
a
VD
(a) For flow in a circular tube of inner diameter D: Re 
 b
VD h
(b) For flow in a rectangular duct of cross-section a × b: Re 

4 Ac 4ab 2ab
where Dh    is the hydraulic diameter.
p 2( a  b) ( a  b) D
Discussion Since pipe flows become fully developed far enough downstream, diameter is the
appropriate length scale for the Reynolds number. In boundary layer flows, however, the boundary layer
grows continually downstream, and therefore downstream distance is a more appropriate length scale.
8-3
8-7C
Solution We are to compare the Reynolds number in air and water.
Analysis Reynolds number is inversely proportional to kinematic viscosity, which is much smaller for water than for
air (at 25C, air = 1.56210-5 m2/s and water =   = 0.89110-3/997 = 8.910-7 m2/s). Therefore, noting that Re = VD/,
the Reynolds number is higher for motion in water for the same diameter and speed.
Discussion Of course, it is not possible to walk as fast in water as in air – try it!
8-8C
Solution We are to express the Reynolds number for a circular pipe in terms of mass flow rate.
Analysis Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube of diameter D is expressed as

V
VD m m 4m 
Re  where V  Vavg    and   m
  Ac   D 2 / 4   D 2 
D
Substituting,
VD 4mD
 4m 4m
Re    . Thus, Re 
  D 2   /    D  D
Discussion This result holds only for circular pipes.
8-9C
Solution We are to compare the pumping requirement for water and oil.
Analysis Engine oil requires a larger pump because of its much larger viscosity.
Discussion The density of oil is actually 10 to 15% smaller than that of water, and this makes the pumping requirement
smaller for oil than water. However, the viscosity of oil is orders of magnitude larger than that of water, and is therefore the
dominant factor in this comparison.
8-10C
Solution We are to discuss the Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
Analysis The generally accepted value of the Reynolds number above which the flow in a smooth pipe is turbulent is
4000. In the range 2300 < Re < 4000, the flow is typically transitional between laminar and turbulent.
Discussion In actual practice, pipe flow may become turbulent at Re lower or higher than this value.
8-4
8-11C
Solution We are to discuss the effect of surface roughness on pressure drop in pipe flow.
Analysis In turbulent flow, tubes with rough surfaces have much higher friction factors than the tubes with smooth
surfaces, and thus surface roughness leads to a much larger pressure drop in turbulent pipe flow. In the case of
laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and pressure drop is negligible.
Discussion The effect of roughness on pressure drop is significant for turbulent flow, as seen in the Moody chart.
8-12E
Solution We are to estimate the Reynolds number for flow through a
pipe, and determine if it is laminar or turbulent.
Assumptions 1 The water is at 20oC. 2 The discharge area is perfectly

round (we ignore the rim effects – there appear to be some protrusions
around the rim – three of them are visible in the picture).
Properties The density and viscosity of the water are  = 62.30 lbm/ft3,
and  = 6.733  10-4 lbm/fts, respectively.
Analysis We use the people to estimate the diameter of the pipe.

Assuming the guy in the blue shirt (who by the way is Secretary of the
Interior Dirk Kempthorne) is six feet tall, the pipe diameter is about 13.8 ft.
The average velocity is obtained from the given volume flow rate,
V 4V
Vavg  
A  D2
and the Reynolds number is estimated as
D  D 4V 4 V
Re  Vavg  
   D 2  D

 
4 62.30 lbm/ft 3  300, 000 gal/s   231 in 3 3
  1 ft 
  3.424  10  3.4  10
8 8
 
 
 6.733  104 lbm/ft  s 13.8 ft   1 gal   12 in 
where we give our final result to two significant digits. Since Re > 2300, this flow is definitely turbulent.
Discussion There is absolutely no doubt that this flow is turbulent! You can even see the unsteady turbulent
fluctuations in the photograph.
8-5
Fully Developed Flow in Pipes
8-13C
Solution We are to examine a claim about volume flow rate in laminar pipe flow.
Analysis Yes, the volume flow rate in a circular pipe with laminar flow can be determined by measuring the velocity
at the centerline in the fully developed region, multiplying it by the cross-sectional area, and dividing the result by 2. This
works for fully developed laminar pipe flow in round pipes since V  Vavg Ac  (V max / 2) Ac .
Discussion This is not true for turbulent flow, so one must be careful that the flow is laminar before trusting this
measurement. It is also not true if the pipe is not round, even if the flow is fully developed and laminar.
8-14C
Solution We are to examine a claim about volume flow rate in laminar pipe flow.
Analysis No, the average velocity in a circular pipe in fully developed laminar flow cannot be determined by simply
measuring the velocity at R/2 (midway between the wall surface and the centerline). The average velocity is Vmax/2, but the
velocity at R/2 is
 r2  3V
V ( R / 2)  V max 1  2   max , which is much larger than Vmax/2.
 R  r R / 2 4
Discussion There is, of course, a radial location in the pipe at which the local velocity is equal to the average velocity.
Can you find that location?
8-15C
Solution We are to discuss the value of shear stress at the center of a pipe.
Analysis The shear stress at the center of a circular tube during fully developed laminar flow is zero since the
shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient, which is zero at the tube center.
Discussion This result is due to the axisymmetry of the velocity profile.
8-6
8-16C
Solution We are to discuss whether the maximum shear stress in a turbulent pipe flow occurs at the wall.
Analysis Yes, the shear stress at the surface of a tube during fully developed turbulent flow is maximum since
the shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient, which is maximum at the tube surface.
Discussion This result is also true for laminar flow.
8-17C
Solution We are to discuss how the wall shear stress varies along the flow direction in a pipe.
Analysis The wall shear stress w remains constant along the flow direction in the fully developed region in both
laminar and turbulent flow.
Discussion However, in the entrance region, w starts out large, and decreases until the flow becomes fully developed.
8-18C
Solution We are to discuss the fluid property responsible for development of a velocity boundary layer.
Analysis The fluid viscosity is responsible for the development of the velocity boundary layer.
Discussion You can think of it this way: As the flow moves downstream, more and more of it gets slowed down near
the wall due to friction, which is due to viscosity in the fluid.
8-19C
Solution We are to discuss the velocity profile in fully developed pipe flow.
Analysis In the fully developed region of flow in a circular pipe, the velocity profile does not change in the flow
direction.
Discussion This is, in fact, the definition of fully developed – namely, the velocity profile remains of constant shape.
8-7
8-20C
Solution We are to discuss the relationship between friction factor and pressure loss in pipe flow.
Analysis The friction factor for flow in a tube is proportional to the pressure loss. Since the pressure loss along
the flow is directly related to the power requirements of the pump to maintain flow, the friction factor is also proportional
to the power requirements to overcome friction. The applicable relations are
m PL m PL
Wpump  and Wpump 
 
Discussion This type of pressure loss due to friction is an irreversible loss. Hence, it is always positive (positive being
defined as a pressure drop down the pipe). A negative pressure loss would violate the second law of thermodynamics.
8-21C
Solution We are to discuss whether fully developed pipe flow is one-, two-, or three-dimensional.
Analysis The geometry is axisymmetric, which is two-dimensional. However, since the velocity profile does not
change down the pipe axis, u is a function only of r, and thus the velocity is one-dimensional with respect to radial
coordinate r. Pressure, on the other hand, varies only with axial location x in fully developed pipe flow (ignoring the
hydrostatic pressure component, which acts independently of the flow component). So, the pressure is one-dimensional
with respect to axial coordinate x.
Discussion In the developing portion of the flow, u varies with x as well as with r, and thus the flow is two-dimensional
in the developing region.
8-22C
Solution We are to discuss the change in head loss when the pipe length is doubled.
Analysis In fully developed flow in a circular pipe with negligible entrance effects, if the length of the pipe is
doubled, the head loss also doubles (the head loss is proportional to pipe length in the fully developed region of flow).
Discussion If entrance lengths are not negligible, the head loss in the longer pipe would be less than twice that of the
shorter pipe, since the shear stress is larger in the entrance region than in the fully developed region.
8-8
8-23C
Solution We are to compare the head loss when the pipe diameter is halved.
Analysis In fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the head loss is given by
2 2 2
LV 64 L V 64 L V 64 L V
hL  f   
D 2 g Re D 2 g V D /  D 2 g D D 2g
V V
The average velocity can be expressed in terms of the flow rate as V   . Substituting,
Ac D 2 / 4
64 L  V  64 4 LV 128LV

hL    
D 2 2g  D 2 / 4  D 2 2 gD 2 gD 4
 
Therefore, at constant flow rate and pipe length, the head loss is inversely proportional to the 4th power of diameter, and
thus reducing the pipe diameter by half increases the head loss by a factor of 16.
Discussion This is a very significant increase in head loss, and shows why larger diameter tubes lead to much smaller
pumping power requirements.
8-24C
Solution We are to explain why friction factor is independent of Re at very large Re.
Analysis At very large Reynolds numbers, the flow is fully rough and the friction factor is independent of the
Reynolds number. This is because the thickness of viscous sublayer decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it
be comes so thin that the surface roughness protrudes into the flow. The viscous effects in this case are produced in the
main flow primarily by the protruding roughness elements, and the contribution of the viscous sublayer is negligible.
Discussion This effect is clearly seen in the Moody chart – at large Re, the curves flatten out horizontally.
8-25C
Solution We are to define and discuss turbulent viscosity.
Analysis Turbulent viscosity t is caused by turbulent eddies, and it accounts for momentum transport by
u
turbulent eddies. It is expressed as  t    u v    t where u is the mean value of velocity in the flow direction and
y
u  and u  are the fluctuating components of velocity.
Discussion Turbulent viscosity is a derived, or non-physical quantity. Unlike the viscosity, it is not a property of the
fluid; rather, it is a property of the flow.
8-9
8-26C
Solution We are to discuss the dimensions of a constant in a head loss expression.
V 2
Analysis We compare the dimensions of the two sides of the equation h L  0.0826 fL . Using curly brackets to
D5
mean “the dimensions of”, we have L  0.0826  1L  L3 t 1  L5  , and the dimensions of the constant are thus
2
0.0826  L1t 2  . Therefore, the constant 0.0826 is not dimensionless. This is not a dimensionally homogeneous
equation, and it cannot be used in any consistent set of units.
Discussion Engineers often create dimensionally inhomogeneous equations like this. While they are useful for
practicing engineers, they are valid only when the proper units are used for each variable, and this can occasionally lead to
mistakes. For this reason, the present authors do not encourage their use.
8-27C
Solution We are to discuss the change in head loss due to a decrease in viscosity by a factor of two.
Analysis In fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the pressure loss and the head loss are given by
32 LV P 32 LV
PL  and hL  L 
D 2
g gD 2
When the flow rate and thus the average velocity are held constant, the head loss becomes proportional to viscosity.
Therefore, the head loss is reduced by half when the viscosity of the fluid is reduced by half.
Discussion This result is not valid for turbulent flow – only for laminar flow. It is also not valid for laminar flow in
situations where the entrance length effects are not negligible.
8-28C
Solution We are to discuss the relationship between head loss and pressure drop in pipe flow.
Analysis The head loss is related to pressure loss by h L  PL / g . For a given fluid, the head loss can be converted
to pressure loss by multiplying the head loss by the acceleration of gravity and the density of the fluid. Thus, for constant
density, head loss and pressure drop are linearly proportional to each other.
Discussion This result is true for both laminar and turbulent pipe flow.
8-10
8-29C
Solution We are to discuss if the friction factor is zero for laminar pipe flow with a perfectly smooth surface.
Analysis During laminar flow of air in a circular pipe with perfectly smooth surfaces, the friction factor is not zero
because of the no-slip boundary condition, which must hold even for perfectly smooth surfaces.
Discussion If we compare the friction factor for rough and smooth surfaces, roughness has no effect on friction factor
for fully developed laminar pipe flow unless the roughness height is very large. For turbulent pipe flow, however,
roughness very strongly impacts the friction factor.
8-30C
Solution We are to discuss why the friction factor is higher in turbulent pipe flow compared to laminar pipe flow.
Analysis In turbulent flow, it is the turbulent eddies due to enhanced mixing that cause the friction factor to be
larger. This turbulent mixing leads to a much larger wall shear stress, which translates into larger friction factor.
Discussion Another way to think of it is that the turbulent eddies cause the turbulent velocity profile to be much fuller
(closer to uniform flow) than the laminar velocity profile.
8-31
Solution The velocity profile for the flow of a fluid between two large parallel plates is given. A relation for the flow
rate through the plates is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
Analysis
h
y
h
3Ub   y     y 2   y 
h h 2 1
 h
 0

V  U ( y )dA  U ( y )bdy  2 U ( y )bdy  2
2 
  h  
0  0

1    dy  3Ubh 1     d  
  h    h 
1 y / h
 y  y 3 1
V  3Ubh     
 h  h  3

0 y / h
 1   2
V  Ubh 1    0  3Ubh  2Ubh
 3   3
8-11
8-32
Solution Water flows in a reducing pipe section. The flow upstream is laminar and the flow downstream is turbulent.
The ratio of centerline velocities is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
Analysis
V1  V2 ,  u dA   u dA
1
1 1 2 2
R1 R2
r12 r2 1 / 7

0
u1 (1 
R1 2
)2 r1dr1  u 2 (1 
0
R2
) 2 r2 dr2
1 1/ 7
 r  r   r   r  r2 r 
0

u1 1  ( 1 ) 2  1  d  1   u 2
R 1  R1   R1 
 1  2 
 R 2  R2
d  2
 R2


r1 r2

 x , 
 y
R2 R2
1/ 7
 x  x dx  u  1  y 
3
uu 2 y dy
R
1
 r2 
2 r dr   R1 2 u1
0

V1  u1 1  2

 R1 
 2
R2 1/ 7
 r  49 2
V1  
0
u 2 1 


R2 
2  r dr  u 2
60
R2
V1  V2
u1 49
 R12  u2 R2
2 60
2
u1  R2  49
  . 
u 2  R1  30
2
u1  4  49 16 8
  .  
u 2  7  30 30 15
8-12
8-33
Solution The average flow velocity in a pipe is given. The pressure drop, the head loss, and the pumping power are
to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The pipe involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 The piping section involves no
work devices such as pumps and turbines.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be  = 999.7 kg/m3 and  = 1.30710-3 kg/ms,
respectively.
Analysis (a) First we need to determine the flow regime. The Reynolds number of the flow is
VD (999.7 kg/m 3 )(0.9 m/s)(1.2  10 -3 m)

Re    826.1
 1.307  10 -3 kg/m  s Water
D = 0.12 cm
which is less than 2300. Therefore, the flow is laminar. Then the 0.9 m/s
friction factor and the pressure drop become
L = 15 m
64 64
f    0.07748
Re 826.1
2
L V 15 m (999.7 kg/m 3 )(0.9 m/s) 2 
 1 kN  1 kPa 

P  PL  f  0.07748  392 kPa
D 2 0.0012 m 2  1000 kg  m/s 2  1 kN/m 2 
 
(b) The head loss in the pipe is determined from
PL L V2 15 m (0.9 m/s) 2
hL   f  0.07748  40.0 m
g D 2g 0.0012 m 2(9.81 m/s 2 )
(c) The volume flow rate and the pumping power requirements are
V  VAc  V (D 2 / 4)  (0.9 m/s) (0.0012 m) 2 / 4  1.018  10 6 m 3 /s
 1000 W 
W pump  VP  (1.018  10 6 m 3 /s)(392 kPa )   0.399 W
 1 kPa  m 3 /s 
Therefore, power input in the amount of 0.399 W is needed to overcome the frictional losses in the flow due to viscosity.
Discussion If the flow were instead turbulent, the pumping power would be much greater since the head loss in the pipe
would be much greater.
8-13
8-34
Solution Air enters the constant spacing between the glass cover and the plate of a solar collector. The pressure drop
of air in the collector is to be determined.
developed. 3 The roughness effects are negligible, and thus the inner surfaces are considered to be smooth,   0. 4 Air is an
ideal gas. 5 The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
Properties The properties of air at 1 atm and 45 are  = 1.109 kg/m3,  = 1.94110-5 kg/ms, and  = 1.75010-5 m2/s.
Analysis Mass flow rate, cross-sectional area, hydraulic diameter, average velocity, and the Reynolds number are
m  V  (1.11 kg/m 3 )(0.15 m 3 /s )  0.1665 kg/s Air

2 Glass cover 0.15 m3/s
Ac  a  b  (1 m)(0.03 m)  0.03 m
5m
4 Ac 4(0.03 m 2 )
Dh    0.05825 m
p 2(1  0.03) m
V 0.15 m 3 / s
V  5m/ s Collector plate
Ac 0.03 m 2
Insulation
VD h (5 m/s)(0.05825 m) 4
Re    1.664  10
 1.750  10 5 m 2 /s
Since Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent. The friction factor corresponding to this Reynolds number for a smooth
flow section (/D = 0) can be obtained from the Moody chart. But to avoid reading error, we use the Colebrook equation,
1  / D 2.51  1  2.51 
 2.0 log     2.0 log 0  
f  3 . 7 Re f  f  16,640 f 
   
which gives f = 0.0271. Then the pressure drop becomes
L V 2 5m (1.11 kg/m 3 )(5 m/s) 2  1N  1 Pa 
P  PL  f  0.0271    32.3 Pa
D 2 0.05825 m 2  1 kg  m/s 2  1 N/m 2 
 
Discussion The friction factor could also be determined easily from the explicit Haaland relation. It would give f =
0.0270, which is sufficiently close to 0.0271.
8-14
8-35E
Solution The flow rate and the head loss in an air duct is given. The minimum diameter of the duct is to be
determined.
developed. 3 The duct involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 Air is an ideal gas. 5 The duct is
smooth since it is made of plastic,   0. 6 The flow is turbulent (to be verified).
Properties The density, dynamic viscosity, and kinematic viscosity of air at 100F are  = 0.07088 lbm/ft3,  =
0.04615 lbm/fth, and  = 0.6512 ft2/s = 1.80910-4 ft2/s.
Analysis The average velocity, Reynolds number, friction factor, and the head loss relations can be expressed as (D is
in ft, V is in ft/s, Re and f are dimensionless)
V V 12 ft 3 / s
V  
Ac D 2 / 4 D 2 / 4
Air
VD VD D
Re  
 1.809  10  4 ft 2 / s 12 ft3/s
1  / D 2.51   
 2.0 log    2.0 log 2.51 
   Re f  L = 400 ft
f 3.7 Re f
   
L V2 L V2 400 ft V2
hL  f  50  f  f
D 2g D 2g D 2(32.2 ft/s 2 )
This is a set of 4 equations in 4 unknowns, and solving them with an equation solver gives
D = 0.88 ft, f = 0.0181, V = 19.8 ft/s, and Re = 96,040
Therefore, the diameter of the duct should be more than 0.88 ft if the head loss is not to exceed 50 ft. Note that Re > 4000,
and thus the turbulent flow assumption is verified.
The diameter can also be determined directly from the third Swamee-Jain formula to be
 4.75 5.2  0.04
 LV 2   9.4  L 
D  0.66  1.25  
  V   
  gh L   gh L  
 
0.04
  400 ft  
5.2

 0.66 0  (0.180  10 ft / s )(12 ft / s ) 
3 2 3 9 .4  
  (32.2 ft/s 2 )(50 ft)  
 
 0.89 ft
Discussion Note that the difference between the two results is less than 2%. Therefore, the simple Swamee-Jain relation
can be used with confidence.
8-15
8-36
Solution In fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the velocity at r = R/2 is measured. The velocity at the
center of the pipe (r = 0) is to be determined.
Assumptions The flow is steady, laminar, and fully developed.
Analysis The velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe is given by
 r2 
u (r )  u max 1  2 
 R  u(r) = umax(1-r2/R2)
where umax is the maximum velocity which occurs at pipe center, r = 0. At r =R/2,
 ( R / 2) 2  3u R
1
u ( R / 2)  u max 1    u max 1    max
R2   4  4
  r
Solving for umax and substituting,

0
4u ( R / 2) 4(11 m/s)
u max    14.7 m/s
3 3
which is the velocity at the pipe center.
Discussion The relationship used here is valid only for fully developed laminar flow. The result would be much
different if the flow were turbulent.
8-37
Solution The velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe is given. The average and maximum
velocities as well as the flow rate are to be determined.
 r2 
u (r )  u max 1  2 
 R  u(r) = umax(1-r2/R2)
The velocity profile in this case is given by
R
u (r )  4(1  r 2 / R 2 )
r
Comparing the two relations above gives the maximum velocity to be
umax = 4.00 m/s. Then the average velocity and volume flow rate 0
become
umax 4 m/s
Vavg    2.00 m/s
2 2
V  V avg Ac  V avg (R 2 )  (2 m/s)[ (0.02 m) 2 ]  0.00251 m 3 /s
Discussion A unique feature of fully developed laminar pipe flow is that the maximum velocity is exactly twice the
average velocity. This is not the case for turbulent pipe flow, since the velocity profile is much fuller.
8-16
8-38
Solution The velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe is given. The average and maximum
velocities as well as the flow rate are to be determined.
 r2 
u (r )  u max 1  2 
 R  u(r) = umax(1-r2/R2)
The velocity profile in this case is given by R

2 2
u (r )  4(1  r / R )
r
Comparing the two relations above gives the maximum velocity to be umax
= 4.00 m/s. Then the average velocity and volume flow rate become 0
u 4 m/s
Vavg  max   2.00 m/s
2 2
V  V avg Ac  V avg (R 2 )  (2 m/s)[ (0.07 m) 2 ]  0.0308 m 3 /s
Discussion Compared to the previous problem, the average velocity remains the same since the maximum velocity (at
the centerline) remains the same, but the volume flow rate increases as the diameter increases.
8-17
8-39
Solution The flow rate through a specified water pipe is given. The pressure drop, the head loss, and the pumping
power requirements are to be determined.
developed. 3 The pipe involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 The piping section involves no
work devices such as pumps and turbines.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be  = 999.1 kg/m3 and  = 1.13810-3 kg/ms,
respectively. The roughness of stainless steel is 0.002 mm.
Analysis First we calculate the average velocity and the Reynolds number to determine the flow regime:
V V 0.009 m 3 / s
V    4.584 m / s
Ac D 2 / 4  (0.05 m) 2 / 4
VD (999.1 kg/m 3 )(4.584 m/s)(0.05 m)
Re    2.012  10 5 Water
 1.138  10 3 kg/m  s D = 5 cm
9 L/s
which is greater than 4000. Therefore, the flow is turbulent. The
relative roughness of the pipe is
L = 30 m
2  10 6 m
 /D  4  10 5
0.05 m
The friction factor can be determined from the Moody chart, but to avoid the reading error, we determine it from the
Colebrook equation using an equation solver (or an iterative scheme),
1  / D 2.51  1  4  10 5 2.51 
 2.0 log     2.0 log  
f  3 .7 Re f  f  3. 7 2.012  10 5 f 
  
It gives f = 0.01594. Then the pressure drop, head loss, and the required power input become
L V 2 30 m (999.1 kg/m 3 )(4.584 m/s) 2  1 kN  1 kPa 

P  PL  f  0.01594    100.4 kPa  100 kPa
D 2 0.05 m 2  1000 kg  m/s 2  1 kN/m 2 
 
PL L V2 30 m (4.584 m/s) 2
hL   f  0.01594  10.2 m
g D 2g 0.05 m 2(9.81 m/s 2 )
 1 kW 
W pump  VP  (0.009 m 3 / s )(100.4 kPa ) 3
  0.904 kW
 1 kPa  m /s 
Therefore, useful power input in the amount of 0.904 kW is needed to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.
Discussion The friction factor could also be determined easily from the explicit Haaland relation. It would give f =
0.01574, which is sufficiently close to 0.01594. Also, the friction factor corresponding to  = 0 in this case is 0.01562,
which indicates that stainless steel pipes in this case can be assumed to be smooth with an error of about 2%. Also, the
power input determined is the mechanical power that needs to be imparted to the fluid. The shaft power will be more than
this due to pump inefficiency; the electrical power input will be even more due to motor inefficiency.
8-18
8-40
Solution Oil flows through a pipeline that passes through icy waters of a lake. The pumping power needed to
overcome pressure losses is to be determined.
Assumptions The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The flow section considered is away from the entrance, and thus
the flow is fully developed. 3 The roughness effects are negligible, and thus the inner surfaces are considered to be smooth,
  0.
Properties The properties of oil are given to be  = 894 kg/m3 and  = 2.33 kg/ms.
(Icy lake, 0C)
Analysis The volume flow rate and the Reynolds number in this case are
D 2  (0.28 m) 2 Oil
V  VAc  V  (0.5 m/s)  0.03079 m 3 /s
4 4 10C
0.5 m/s D = 0.28 m
3
VD (894 kg/m )(0.5 m/s)(0.28 m)
Re    53.72
 2.33 kg/m  s
L = 330 m
which is less than 2300. Therefore, the flow is laminar, and the friction factor is
64 64
f    1.191
Re 53.72
Then the pressure drop in the pipe and the required pumping power become
L V 2 330 m (894 kg/m 3 )(0.5 m/s) 2  1 kN  1 kPa 
P  PL  f  1.191     156.9 kPa
D 2 0.28 m 2  1000 kg  m/s 2  1 kN/m 2 
 
 1 kW 
W pump  VP  (0.03079 m 3 /s)(156.9 kPa ) 3
  4.83 kW
 1 kPa  m /s 
Discussion The power input determined is the mechanical power that needs to be imparted to the fluid. The shaft power
will be much more than this due to pump inefficiency; the electrical power input will be even more due to motor
inefficiency.
8-41
Solution Laminar flow through a square channel is considered. The change in the head loss is to be determined when
the average velocity is doubled.
Assumptions 1 The flow remains laminar at all times. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed.
Analysis The friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in a square channel is
56.92 VD
f  where Re 
Re 
V
Then the head loss for laminar flow can be expressed as
L V 2 56.92 L V 2 56.92 L V 2 L
h L,1  f    28.46V
D 2g Re D 2 g VD D 2 g gD 2
which shows that the head loss is proportional to the average velocity. Therefore, the head loss doubles when the average
velocity is doubled. This can also be shown as
L L  L 
hL,2  28.46V2 2  28.46( 2V )

2  2 28.46V
  2hL,1
gD gD  gD 2 
Discussion The conclusion above is also valid for laminar flow in channels of different cross-sections.
8-19
8-42
Solution Turbulent flow through a smooth pipe is considered. The change in the head loss is to be determined when
the average velocity is doubled.
Assumptions 1 The flow remains turbulent at all times. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The inner surface of the pipe is smooth.
Analysis The friction factor for the turbulent flow in smooth pipes is given as
VD
f  0.184 Re 0.2 where Re 

Then the head loss of the fluid for turbulent flow can be expressed as
0.2 0.2
L V2 L V2  VD  L V2  D  L V 1.8
h L,1  f  0.184 Re 0.2  0.184   0.184 
D 2g D 2g    D 2g    D 2g
which shows that the head loss is proportional to the 1.8th power of the average velocity. Therefore, the head loss increases
by a factor of 21.8 = 3.48 when the average velocity is doubled. This can also be shown as
0.2 0.2
 D  L V21.8  D  L (2V )1.8
hL ,2  0.184   0.184 
   D 2g    D 2g
 
L V 1.8 
0 .2
 D 
 21.8 0.184    21.8 hL ,1  3.48hL ,1
    D 2 g 
For fully rough flow in a rough pipe, the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds V
number and thus the flow velocity. Therefore, the head loss increases by a factor of 4
in this case since
L V2
h L ,1  f
D 2g
and thus the head loss is proportional to the square of the average velocity when f, L, and D are constant.
Discussion Most flows in practice are in the fully rough regime, and thus the head loss is generally assumed to be
proportional to the square of the average velocity for all kinds of turbulent flow. Note that we use diameter D here in place
of hydraulic diameter Dh. For a square duct, it turns out that Dh = D, so this is a valid approximation.
8-20
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
panther had missed his spring; he would not try again to-night. Ross
laughed a little softly to himself as he imagined Jabe skulking quietly
between the dripping trees to the horse that must be tied somewhere
near the timber’s edge, getting on the animal and riding down the
river road to his store. Yes, that’s what the old man would do. And,
after that, Ross Adene knew that the next move in the game was his.
“I reckon I’d better take you on home,” he said at length. “If we’re
a-goin’ to be married to-morrow night, I’ve got some sev-rul things to
do.”
Hand in hand they went through the drenched leafage, speaking
low, Vesta trying feebly to remonstrate. When they came to where
the lighted windows of the Minter cabin made squares of ruddy light
in the blue-black darkness, Ross said his farewells.
“You put on whatever frock it is you want to be married in to-
morrow night and go to meetin’,” he concluded. “For wedded we’ll
shorely be at Brush Arbor church. I’ll speak to the preacher, an’
mebby your daddy’ll come to the weddin’ hisself.”
Vesta wept. She kissed her lover farewell as we bid good-by to
the dead. In the dim radiance streaming out from the dwelling she
watched his rain-gemmed, yellow head as he walked away, hat in
hand, shoulders squared, moving proudly.
“O Lord,” she sighed to herself, “why can’t men persons take
things like women does—a few ill words and no harm done?”
The night sky refusing answer, she went silently in and to bed.
NEXT morning Ross Adene put his house in order, as might a man on
the eve of a duel. His day was busily spent. He notified the revivalist
who was conducting meetings at Brush Arbor church of an intention
to wed Vesta Turrentine directly after sermon that night, and, late in
the afternoon, took his dugout canoe and dropped thoughtfully down
the river toward Turrentine’s Landing. There was money in his
pocket, but no weapon on him. He had not traveled the road, for he
knew that even in daylight some wayside clump of trees might hide
an ambush. He put his canoe into the current, crossed the stream,
going down the farther bank, out of rifle-shot of the leaning willows
that dipped long, green tresses to the water, offering a veil for a
possible foe. When he was opposite the landing he came squarely
across, his eyes searching the prospect ahead.
There was nobody about as he beached his boat, pulling it well
up out of reach of the current, and walked deliberately toward the
store. The landing had no village, the only buildings being the store,
Turrentine’s dwelling, and barns. He approached the former by the
front way, and stopped in the door, offering a glorious target to any
hostile person who might be within; for he stood six feet tall and
broad-shouldered against the westering light. The interior of the
room was at first obscure to him, but almost immediately he made
out old Jabe behind the counter and Sam Beath sitting humped in a
chair at the back of the store.
For a moment no word was spoken. There was no exclamation,
though there was a mental shock of encounter, evinced by not so
much as the tremor of an eye upon the part of either of the
principals. Beath it was who glanced stealthily toward the corner
where Turrentine’s loaded rifle stood.
“Howdy,” said Ross in the even, musical monotone of his people.
“Howdy,” responded old Jabe’s deep bass.
Beath did not speak. Ross remained in the doorway until he
considered that he had given quite sufficient opportunity for any
gentleman who desired to pick a vital spot in his frame. When he felt
he had been amply generous in this way, he came stepping slowly
into the building, walked to the counter, and laid his empty hands
upon it.
“And what can I do for you to-day?” inquired old Jabe with a
sardonic exaggeration of the shopkeeper’s manner.
“I want to buy me a right good suit of clothes,” returned Ross,
mildly.
The man in the back of the store, staring at the two, began to
wonder when old Jabe would take advantage of the opening offered
him.
“Err-um,” grunted Turrentine. “Somethin’ to be buried in—eh?”
“Well—no,” demurred the customer, amiably. “Somethin’ to be
married in. A weddin’ suit is what I’m a-seekin’.”
Beath’s eyes went without any volition of his own to a bolt of fine
white muslin on the shelf. From that Vesta had chosen a dress
pattern the day her father bade him ask her in marriage. His
proposal had been bafflingly received, but she had chosen the dress
and taken it with her to her Aunt Miranda’s to finish.
Meantime, as though his customer had been any mountain man
of the district, the storekeeper calmly estimated Ross’s height and
breadth, turned to his shelves, and pulled down a suit. The two
immersed themselves in a discussion of fabric and cut. The
assistant, used to old Jabe’s browbeating, could scarcely believe his
eyes as he noted the glances of approval his employer gave to the
goodly proportions he was fitting. Beath’s ears seemed to him
equally unreliable when Turrentine, a big man himself, remarked with
apparent geniality on the chance of a wrestling-bout between them.
“I ain’t backin’ off,” responded Adene, “but I’d ruther stand up to
you when I didn’t have somethin’ else on hand.”
“Aw, I’m gittin’ old,” said Turrentine, deprecatingly. “Time was
when you might have said such of me; but I’m gittin’ old.”
The blue eyes of the younger man looked ingenuously into the
face so like Vesta’s.
“Well, we’re all gettin’ older day by day,” Ross allowed, “but yet
you don’t look as though you was losin’ your stren’th, an’ that’s a
fact.”
Turrentine folded the suit and laid it on the counter.
“I think them clothes’ll fit ye,” he said. “An’ I’ll th’ow in this hyer
necktie you looked at. I always th’ow in a necktie with a suit. That
all?”
“Well—no,” Ross repeated his phrase. “I want to buy the best
razor you’ve got in the shop.”
With a sudden movement that might have been excitement or
even rage, Sam Beath took off his hat and cast it on the floor beside
his chair. Turrentine bent down to get from under the counter a tray
of razors, setting it on the boards and inviting his customer’s
attention. Beath could scarcely bear to look at the two men facing
each other across these bits of duplicated and reduplicated death, so
tremendously did the juxtaposition excite him. He felt as he had
sometimes on the hunting trail when the kill was imminent—as
though he must cry out. Jabe and Ross were oblivious, trying,
choosing, drawing their thumbs lightly over edges.
“I believe I like that un,” Ross said finally. “What say?”
“You’ve got a good eye for a blade,” old Jabe agreed, taking the
razor in his fingers. “That thar’s by far the best un in the lot.” He
opened and held it up, so that a stray gleam of sun winked wickedly
upon the steel. “You could cut a man’s head off with that, slick an’
clean, ef ye had luck strikin’ a j’int—an’ I allers do have luck.”
“I wasn’t aimin’ to put it to no such use,” Ross commented gently.
“An’ yit, when you’re a-buyin’ a tool, hit’s but reasonable to know
what its cay-pacities may be. I’ll take that un.”
“Now—is that all?” Jabe put his query with the half-smile of a
man who might easily suggest something else. He laid the razor with
the other purchases.
“Is it honed, ready to use?” inquired Ross.
“Why, yes,” agreed old Jabe in a slightly puzzled tone. “A few
licks on a strop or your boot-laig’ll make it all right.”
Ross was rubbing a rough cheek with thoughtful fingers, looking
sidewise at the storekeeper.
“I’m a-goin’ to git married to-night,” he murmured. “Looks like I
need a clean shave. They tell me you’re a master hand at shavin’
folks. Will ye shave me?”
Beath’s chair dropped forward with a slam, but neither of the men
started or turned. The black eyes burned deep into the blue; the blue
were unfathomable. Behind a mask of primitive civility the two men
interrogated savagely each other’s motives. Jabe was the first to
speak.
“Why, shorely, shorely,” he said with what seemed to Beath
ominous relish. “Set down on that thar cheer that’s got a high back to
it, so’s you can lean yo’ head right. Sam,”—Beath leaped as though
he had been struck,—“bring me the wash-pan an’ soap an’ a towel.
I’ll git the lather-brush.”
Beath finally arrived with the required articles. His shaking hand
had spilled half the water from the basin; his eyes gloated. He put
the things down on a box and retired once more to his chair, seating
himself with the air of a man at a play.
Ross leaned back, found a comfortable rest for his head, and
closed his eyes. The strong, brown young throat exposed by the
turned-down collar of his shirt fascinated Beath so that he could not
look away from it.
Jabe took the towel and put it about his customer’s neck with
expert fingers. As he did so, Beath’s hand began to play about his
own throat, and there was a click as it nervously contracted.
Turrentine dipped his brush in the water and whirled it on the soap-
cake, lathering Ross’s face silently and with a preoccupied manner.
Beath’s glance flickered from the man in the chair to the man who
worked over him. When Jabe took up the razor, passed it once or
twice across the strop and approached it to Ross’s cheek, Beath
swallowed so noisily that the sound of it was loud in the silent room.
Suavely—the old man was grace itself—the operation of shaving
the bridegroom was begun. Placidly it progressed, with a murmured
word between the two men, the deft turning of the inert head by the
amateur barber, an occasional deep-toned request.
Yet always the onlooker shook with anticipation of the sweep of
old Jabe’s arm which must come. Continually Beath figured to
himself the sudden jetting out of crimson from that artery in the neck
that was beating evenly and calmly under old Jabe’s touch. Perhaps
the end might have arrived then and there, and swiftly, had those
fingers felt the swell of excitement in the blood of a possible victim.
But Ross had closed his eyes and seemed to be dozing. Jabe made
an excellent job of it.
“Thar—I believe that’s about all you need,” he remarked at
length.
The low sun came through the door between piles of calico,
heaps of ax-handles, and glinted on Adene’s yellow head. Suddenly
Beath felt the light for a moment obscured. He glanced up to see a
woman’s figure, black against the glow, yet unmistakable in its slim
alertness, and clothed, as his eye accustomed to fabrics told him, in
the white muslin he had believed to be selected for a wedding-dress.
Neither old Jabe nor his customer appeared to mark as Vesta
Turrentine slipped like a shadow through the doorway and stole to
the corner where her father’s rifle stood. Sam watched as she lifted
the weapon in practised fingers. His mouth was open, but he did not
cry out.
Ross unclosed his eyes lazily, raised his thumb to his cheek,
close by the ear, very near indeed to the great veins and arteries
Beath had looked to see the razor sever.
“Ain’t they a rough place right thar?” he inquired with a half-smile.
The ultimate spark of daring was in the eyes that gazed up into
those of the man Ross had chosen for a father-in-law. Old Jabe, with
a portentously solemn face, muttered an assent, dabbed the lather
on, and made a pass with his razor.
“U-m-m—looks like they was a little more to do in that direction.
Maybe I ain’t quite finished ye up yit,” the old man’s voice had a lilt of
laughter in it, and it seemed that the end had surely arrived.
Turrentine’s devil was always a laughing fiend. He worked with the
air of a man who has come at last to some decision, turned to reach
for the towel—and looked into the muzzle of his own gun, with his
daughter’s resolute eyes behind it.
There was no start, no outcry; the old fellow only stood, scowling,
formidable, checked midway in some spectacular vengeance, Beath
was sure. The clerk crept, stooping behind the piles of merchandise,
toward Vesta.
“Put down that thar razor.”
The girl’s tone had a ring of old Jabe’s own power.
“Ye say,” drawled Jabe, making a jest of a necessity, as he laid
the blade on the counter. “What else?”
“You let him walk out o’ that door with me, same as he walked in,”
Vesta’s air was resolute, her aim steady.
At the first word Adene had turned his head merely, showing no
disposition to get beyond Jabe’s reach. But in the instant of her
demand Beath rose up from behind some boxes, grasped the gun,
twisting its barrel upward, and disarming Vesta. Ross sprang toward
his sweetheart, hit out at the clerk’s unguarded side, and sent him
staggering across the room, to fall sprawling at his employer’s feet.
For a long moment while Beath was scrambling to hands and knees,
life and death seemed to hang in the balance as old Jabe studied the
two opposite; mechanically he had taken the gun Beath thrust into
his hand. When Vesta saw it in his grasp, she flung herself upon her
lover’s breast, clasping her arms about him, protecting his life with
hers.
“Me first,” she screamed. “You’ll have to kill me first.” She waited
for the bullet.
Jabe interrogated the pair with remorseless eye; he moved
forward a pace, though Sam Beath on all fours thought it was plenty
close to shoot. His gun was not raised. Instead, the old man and the
young were studying each other once more, speeding messages
from eye to eye above Vesta’s bent head. At last Jabe seemed to
find that for which he sought. He looked long at the daughter who
defied him in words, and her lover who braved him in action. Adene
read the look aright.
“You’re bid to the weddin’ at Brush Arbor church, father-in-law,”
he said in the tone of one who finds a satisfactory answer to a riddle.
The gun-butt rattled on the puncheon floor.
“Will your dugout hold three?” asked Jabe.
Vesta stirred, but still feared to look up.
“Shore; five, by crowdin’,” came the answer.
The girl raised her head, glanced incredulously from father to
lover, and a light of comprehension dawned in her eyes.
“An’ me,” yammered Sam Beath. “What about me?”
“You can keep sto’ or come along to the weddin’, accordin’ to yo’
ruthers,” allowed old Jabe, generously; “ye hearn my son-in-law say
his boat would hold five.”
Drawn by Oliver Herford

TO ANY ONE
BY WITTER BYNNER
WHETHER the time be slow or fast,

Enemies hand in hand
Must come together at the last
And understand.
No matter how the die is cast

Or who may seem to win,
You know that you must love at last!—
Why not begin?
Drawn by Joseph Clement Coll
E VER since the employment of an English judge of saddle-horses

at the New York Horse Show, a few years ago, a lively
discussion has been going on between the advocates of
thoroughbreds and of our American saddle-horse, which is for the
most part trotting-bred, upon the subject of their respective merits as
saddle-horses. The English judge had of course an Englishman’s
preference for a thoroughbred. He has shown this in his awards, and
he has established a class of thoroughbreds under saddle. His view
has naturally not found favor with the friends of the American saddle-
horse, an animal usually a cross between the trotter and the
Kentucky saddle-horse, which is a registered family, and is itself
largely of trotting ancestry. The discussion, however, has not been
confined to the merits of these two animals as saddle-horses, but
has covered the whole subject of their respective characteristics.
Against the thoroughbred it is charged that he is unsound,
wanting in stamina, flighty and excitable, and has not the trotting
action to make a comfortable hack under the saddle or to become a
good harness-horse, and even that he is inferior to some other
horses in style and beauty. There is a certain truth in these
accusations; but they contain also a great deal of untruth.
It is not possible to say that there is a want of stamina in a family
of horses to which belong all runners, virtually all steeplechasers,
and from which are directly descended all hunters and nearly all
cavalry horses. Nearly all steeplechasers are thoroughbreds, and
these horses do their four miles like old-fashioned runners, besides
going over the exhausting jumps. And how can blood be said to want
stamina which is the basis of the blood of all the cavalry horses in
Europe? In 1870 the German cavalry horses of this breeding could
do their thirty-five miles a day for three months during the roughest
winter weather. And taking it nearer home, do any horses surpass in
toughness the half-bred horses of Canada and tide-water Virginia?
The old Virginians say that Kentucky can show a better head and tail
than can be found in Virginia, but that for everything between
Virginia is better, and the assertion is not without a color of truth. My
observation is that, as a rule, trotting and saddle-bred horses have
not the stamina of the best horses descended from the
thoroughbred.
When we come to speak of gaits under the saddle, it will of
course be admitted that thoroughbreds can walk, canter, and gallop.
Their deficiency is in the trot. Most thoroughbreds do not show good
hock action. They do not give one that definite rise and fall which
one should have when riding at a trot. But there are thoroughbreds
that have good hock action. Where, for instance, can one find better
hock action than in the thoroughbred mare Jasmine, which has lately
been seen about New York? There are many thoroughbreds with
such a trot.
When we come to speak of disposition, the case against the
thoroughbred is rather stronger. It cannot be denied that he is hot-
tempered. That an animal should be used for generations for an
exciting employment, and that employment an artificial one, must
result, one would expect, in some eccentricity of temper. And the bad
effects are rendered worse by certain necessary concomitants of the
employment. It cannot be good for the temper of an animal two years
old to be an hour getting away at the start, and to be whipped and
spurred for the last hundred yards of every race. As a matter of fact,
they are frequently as excitable and often as vicious as one might
expect animals to be which had been subjected to such an
experience. There is a thoroughbred stallion in Kentucky that has
killed two grooms. It is said that an attempt, which for some reason
was not successful, was made to put out his eyes in order that he
could be handled with safety. A few years ago at Lexington I was told
that a thoroughbred stallion at a stable near by had just taken two
fingers off a groom’s hand. I went to the stable, had the animal
brought out, and studied his countenance from a respectful distance,
and he looked to me as though he could do it. The eye was
somewhat ruthless, perhaps, but I should not say that the
countenance was vicious or ill tempered. It had rather the opaque
look of faces one will see behind the bars of a menagerie—faces
unrelated to kindness or unkindness, and expressive only of the wish
to survive and the readiness to perish in the struggle for existence. A
few years ago we had in my native county, Greenbrier County, West
Virginia, a celebrated performer on the turf, King Cadmus, which had
killed at least one person. Once, when racing, he seized with his
teeth a jockey on a horse that was passing him, threw him under his
feet, and killed him. He was a lop-eared, rough-made brute, and if a
man did not know him and took him for some harmless old screw,
which might easily be possible, without any sign of ill temper he
would allow the man to approach till he was in reach of his teeth,
when he would try to seize him and throw him under his feet. Some
of his colts are still about Greenbrier, and, strangely enough, do not
seem to have inherited his vicious disposition,—an instance, I
suppose, of failure to transmit acquired characteristics. I remember
when a boy seeing Rarey leading about his celebrated Cruiser,
which must have been very much such a horse as Cadmus. Possibly
the animals I have mentioned might have been reformed if they had
had such a handler as Rarey.
But these horses are exceptions, as it is hardly necessary to
point out. A few years ago in Kentucky I rode for some weeks a four-
year-old thoroughbred stallion that a child could have ridden, a very
handsome bay, sixteen hands high, very fashionably bred (half-
brother to Foxhall). He had been raced, but had not been found fast
enough for the track. He was perfectly gentle. His only fault was not
one of temper at all. He was a little sluggish, sluggishness being
sometimes a fault of thoroughbreds. This fault affected his trot. A
certain ambition and steady force in a horse are necessary to a
comfortable trot.
But apart from the subject of gaits and disposition, it is claimed
that the thoroughbred is inferior in style and beauty to certain other
horses, such, for instance, as the Kentucky saddle-horse. That, of
course, is a matter of taste, and tastes differ and change from time to
time. I prefer the Kentucky horse myself, and believe him to be the
handsomest horse in the world, and yet I find that when I go to
England and live among people to whom the thoroughbred type
seems perfection, I begin insensibly to see it as they do, and so I
think will almost any one. There is no doubt that the type at its best is
very beautiful. I have now in mind a chestnut mare, Miss Trix, which I
saw at a pretty little show in the west of England summer before last
and which afterward took the first prize at the international in
London. A more beautiful creature it would be hard to find, or one
better gaited or better mannered. And even when one sees this type
in this country, where the taste and feeling are mostly on the side of
the Kentucky horse, it is impossible to deny that it is beautiful. Three
years ago at the State fair at Lexington I saw a class of thoroughbred
stallions judged very early before the crowd was on the grounds. It
was an extraordinary display of equine beauty that was gaily
paraded before the stand on that bright and fragrant September
morning, and, difficult as the choice seemed, the blue ribbon went
deservedly to the most beautiful, a brown horse named Jack-pot.
Later in the day I saw Jack-pot judged for the championship against
the superbly handsome and universally accomplished chestnut
stallion Bourbon King, the champion saddle-horse of Kentucky. The
prize went to Bourbon King, and I myself should have so voted; but
surely no one would propose that such a type of beauty as Jack-pot
should be allowed to disappear from the earth.
ATHLETE. A COMBINATION TROTTING AND SADDLE BRED
HORSE FROM GREENBRIER COUNTY, WEST VIRGINIA
There is one point in which the thoroughbred is doubtless
superior to the Kentucky saddle-horse. I mean the shoulder. The
fault of the Kentucky saddle-horse often is that he is thick in the
shoulder. The Kentucky horse would be about perfect if one could
give him the shoulder of the thoroughbred; yes, and if one could give
him a little heavier bone. No doubt the Kentucky men would say that
the proof of the pudding is in the eating, and since the Kentucky
horse, as he now is, is about perfect in gaits, there is no occasion to
change him. There is reason in this, and yet there are practical
advantages in the thoroughbred shoulder. The rider grasps it with his
knees more easily than a thicker shoulder. And for women who ride
with a side-saddle a deep and slender shoulder and high withers are
a necessity; they are needed to hold a side-saddle in place. If the
horse is thick-shouldered, the groom must be continually getting off
to tighten the girths, which thus have to be made so tight that the
animal can scarcely breathe. And then, quite apart from its utility,
there is no doubt of the beauty of the thoroughbred shoulder. It is
beautiful whether you see it in Jack-pot or Miss Trix, or in some old
screw of thoroughbred ancestry that pulls a grocer’s wagon. You will
sometimes see about a stable a half-starved, uncared-for animal
with a shoulder the memory of which will remain with you for years.
That shoulder is entirely the property of the thoroughbred. You never
see it except in a thoroughbred or a descendant of thoroughbreds. I
do not know whence it comes. It does not appear to come from the
Arab, from which are derived most of the characteristics of the
thoroughbred. It can come only from the thoroughbred. For this
reason I cannot agree with those critics who have opposed the
recent action of the Kentucky saddle-horsemen in admitting to
registration the product of Kentucky saddle-horses crossed with
thoroughbreds. Of course it is to be hoped that breeders will choose
those thoroughbreds that are without certain thoroughbred faults.
Drawn by Joseph Clement Coll

AWARDING THE BLUE RIBBON
There is one purpose for which thoroughbreds are certainly
necessary. Hunters must be of thoroughbred blood. There are
horses not of thoroughbred blood that can be taught to jump, but a
hunter must also be able to run. It is often said that hunting in this
country is not serious, and that is probably true. Hunting over timber
is too dangerous to be widely and generally practised. It is different
from hunting over hedges, which can be broken through. A horse
must clear a wood fence if he is to get over it safely. If he strikes the
fence with his knees, he may turn a somersault and fall on his rider,
and horses cannot be relied upon to clear fences. The most
celebrated of English hunters, Assheton Smith, who had made a
study of falling and had learned how to fall, had sixty falls the year he
was eighty. (By the way, one wonders what kind of horses he rode;
they could have done better for him than that in Virginia.) We may be
sure he did not have those falls over timber.
But it is not certain that hunting has no considerable future in this
country. Knowing what the spirit of sport has accomplished here
within the memory of most of us, there is no saying what it may yet
do. I have sometimes wondered why some such large preserves of
land, stretches of forest and meadow as are taken by clubs for
shooting and fishing, are not set apart for hunting, in which it would
be possible to hunt the stag and the fox or even to revive sports
more old fashioned.
I lately found a hunting-man in Virginia, a nice fellow and a
gentleman, who has a whole valley to himself in which to pursue the
fox. He has his own pack of hounds, and as his business is training
hunters, he has always in his stable half a dozen animals he can
use. To be sure he does not own the valley, a beautiful one; but he is
quite as well off as though he did, for there are no wire fences, the
timber fences are not too plentiful, and he tells me he can always
start a fox. He hunts entirely alone, and does not mind the lack of
company. He happens to be afflicted with an infirmity of speech,
which makes the society of all but a few of his fellow-creatures
irksome to him. This kind of sport was a new idea to me, who had
always thought of hunting as done in company and with the
accompaniment of red coats and blowing horns and the like. It struck
me as a pretty idea, quite like Fitz-James’s pursuit of the stag in the
first canto of “The Lady of the Lake.” This gentleman rides mostly
thoroughbreds. He told me that he found it more and more
necessary to ride thoroughbreds, or, at any rate, horses as clean
bred as he could get them, for the reason that they are now breeding
faster hounds than formerly. I wondered why they should breed
faster dogs unless at the same time they bred faster foxes.
From a painting by Richard Newton, Jr.

THE MASTER OF FOX HOUNDS, ORANGE COUNTY HUNT (NEW YORK), ON
HIS THOROUGHBRED HUNTER, GREEK DOLLAR
I may add that the evidence in favor of fox-hunting is pretty
strong, to judge from the testimony of those who know most about it.
A celebrated hunter has expressed the opinion that all the time that
is not spent in hunting is wasted, and that is what men like Assheton
Smith and Anstruther Thompson really thought and have thought for
two hundred years. If that view is the correct one, the sport will
probably continue to exist and grow in this country. In the end
Americans are likely to have whatever is good.
With regard to the questions of type and taste, I may say here
that a certain deference is due to the opinion which the world’s best
horsemen have long entertained. We should not dismiss too lightly
the views of such men as Admiral Rous, Assheton Smith, and
Mackenzie Grieve. The last-named famous horseman, who lived in
Paris and was a member of the well-known Jockey Club there, I
once saw in his old age in Rotten Row. One afternoon in Hyde Park I
noticed an acquaintance on foot in conversation over the railing with
some one on a black horse. The horse, which had not a white hair,
was a beautiful creature, of the kind not usual in Rotten Row, having
the graceful curves of the haute école, preferred on the Continent,
and attractive to the finer Latin perceptions rather than the straight
lines of the half-bred English hack. The horse of the haute école is
very thoroughbred in type, however, as this animal was. But perfect
as the horse was, I was even more interested in the man in the
saddle. All he was doing was sitting on a horse that was standing
still, but there was a singular grace in his manner of doing this. The
pose and attitude were beautiful. An old dandy, much made up, and
dyed to the eyebrows, there was in every detail of his dress, from his
silk hat to his patent-leather boots, a correctness and thoroughness
that argued great courage and spirit in a man of his age. The tight
trousers of some dark color were worn over Wellington boots, which
a good London tailor will tell you is the only way to have them set
well. The frock-coat showed the slender waist essential to good
looks in the saddle. I wondered if this waist might not be the result of
pretty severe banting, being sure that the plucky old fellow would
have preferred death to abating one jot his pretensions to the
character of a perfect horseman. Greatly interested in this survivor of
the dandies, it pleased me to think that he might in his youth have
been the model from which Bulwer made his sketch of Pelham riding
in the park in Paris. Some days later, happening to meet my
acquaintance, I asked him who his friend was, and he told me that
he was Mr. Mackenzie Grieve. Before forming a final opinion of the

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Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and

Applications 3rd Edition Cengel

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Fundamentals of Thermal Fluid Sciences 5th Edition

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Heat and Mass Transfer Fundamentals and Applications

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Solutions Manual for

Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

Yunus A. Çengel & John M. Cimbala

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

This Manual is the proprietary property of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Analysis Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube of diameter D is expressed as

Discussion This result holds only for circular pipes.

Assumptions 1 The water is at 20oC. 2 The discharge area is perfectly

Analysis We use the people to estimate the diameter of the pipe.

and the Reynolds number is estimated as

Fully Developed Flow in Pipes

Discussion This result is due to the axisymmetry of the velocity profile.

Discussion This result is also true for laminar flow.

64 L  V  64 4 LV 128LV

VD (999.7 kg/m 3 )(0.9 m/s)(1.2  10 -3 m)

m  V  (1.11 kg/m 3 )(0.15 m 3 /s )  0.1665 kg/s Air

D = 0.88 ft, f = 0.0181, V = 19.8 ft/s, and Re = 96,040

Solving for umax and substituting,

V  V avg Ac  V avg (R 2 )  (2 m/s)[ (0.02 m) 2 ]  0.00251 m 3 /s

The velocity profile in this case is given by R

L V 2 30 m (999.1 kg/m 3 )(4.584 m/s) 2  1 kN  1 kPa 

Drawn by Oliver Herford

WHETHER the time be slow or fast,

No matter how the die is cast

E VER since the employment of an English judge of saddle-horses

Drawn by Joseph Clement Coll

From a painting by Richard Newton, Jr.

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