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 CHAPTER
The Muscular System
6

Learning Objectives
After reading the textbook and studying the material in this chapter, the student should be able to:
• State the four traits common to all muscles.
• Demonstrate and explain the movement of antagonistic muscles.
• Explain muscle contraction at the molecular level of the actin and myosin filaments.
• Differentiate between a single muscle twitch, summation, tetanus, and fatigue.
• List the sources of ATP for muscle contraction and describe in detail where and how the
ATP is generated.
• Compare and contrast slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscles, including where they are
located in the body and when they are utilized in different physical activities.
• Describe the best way to build muscle endurance and the requirements for building larger
muscle mass.

Chapter 6 Group Activities

Group Activity 1: Interactive Muscular System
Estimated Time to Complete: 20 minutes
Learning Objective:
• Demonstrate and explain the movement of antagonistic muscles.
Introduction: Most non-majors courses do not have time to go into detail about the anatomy
of each muscle in the body, so this could serve as a supplemental activity. In this group
exercise, students will use an interactive body to place muscles in the appropriate part
locations. There is information on the details of each muscle as well as an activity for the
male and female bodies (student’s choice).
Materials:
• Computers for student use
Procedure:
1. Instruct the students to go to the following website:
www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/3djigsaw_02/main.shtml
2. Tell them to select the gender of the body they want to work with.

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 29

 3. A set of 10 muscles will be randomly displayed. The student must drag each one to the
appropriate location in the body. The selection of muscles varies on each attempt.
As the student drags each muscle to the proper area, a statement concerning the name of
the muscle will pop up. If the student misses, a hint is displayed.
4. Students can repeat several times if time allows.
Assessment Suggestions: This interactivity is self-scoring.

Group Activity 2: Testing Muscle Fatigue

Estimated Time to Complete: 20 minutes
Learning Objectives:
• Explain muscle contraction at the molecular level of the actin and myosin filaments.
• List the sources of ATP for muscle contraction and describe in detail where and how
the ATP is generated.
• Differentiate between a single muscle twitch, summation, tetanus, and fatigue.
Introduction: In this activity, students will use a rubber band to test muscular endurance in
their hands. Each student is given the same size rubber band, which he or she will wrap
around his or her fingers and then open and close until fatigue sets in. Students will repeat
with the other hand and answer questions concerning muscular endurance.
Materials:
• Small rubber bands
• Timers (or students can use their own watches or phones)
Procedure:
1. Have the students partner with each other, and instruct one student to wrap the band
around his or her thumb and the ring finger of the dominant hand so that there is
moderate tension when the fingers are fully extended. The other student will serve as
the timer.
2. Have the student open and close his or her fingers as many times as he or she can
(to full extension) while being timed. Stop the timer when the student is unable to
fully extend his or her fingers.
3. Repeat with the nondominant hand.
4. Have the students reverse roles so that both students participate.
5. Conclude with a class collection of data and discussion. Determine if there is a
correlation between endurance and the dominant hand or if there is a difference in
endurance between males and females.
6. Based on what they have learned from this chapter, ask the students to propose an
explanation for why muscle fatigue occurs.
7. If time allows, students can repeat this activity with larger muscle groups. If the
students have access to a step or stairs, calf raises provide a good choice to compare
to the smaller muscle groups in the hand.
Assessment Suggestions: Ask students to collect their data and write up a brief report of
their findings.

30 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR BIOLOGY OF HUMANS: CONCEPTS, APPLICATIONS, AND ISSUES, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Group Activity 3: Acting Out Muscle Contraction
Estimated Time to Complete: 20 minutes
Learning Objectives:
• Explain muscle contraction at the molecular level of the actin and myosin filaments.
• List the sources of ATP for muscle contraction and describe in detail where and how the
ATP is generated.
Introduction: This activity was prepared by Margaret Hudson and published in American
Biology Teacher. It clearly describes a method of actively engaging 10 to 70 students in a skit
to demonstrate muscle contraction.
Materials:
• Printouts of detailed instructions for this activity from the following source:
Hudson, Margaret. “Acting Out Muscle Contraction.” American Biology Teacher 65,
no. 2 (2003): 128–32.
Procedure:
1. Review the activity prior to class, and prepare labels for each student. These can be
simple tags, or you can make something slightly more elaborate. For example, print
nametags in a large font on color-coded paper, laminate the labels for reuse, and add
a string so the students can wear them around their necks. Or make labels and attach
them to hats.
2. Follow the procedures detailed in the article. You will need volunteers from the class;
the activity allows for more or fewer students depending on your class size.
3. Direct students as they act out the skit.
4. Conclude with a discussion about your findings or by answering some of the questions
provided in the article.
Assessment Suggestions: Follow up by answering the set of questions provided in the
article.

Case Study
Enhancing muscle mass is something many athletes desire. There are a number of
supplements available, ranging from creatine to anabolic steroids, that may temporarily
increase muscle mass. Creatine phosphate supplements, in particular, have been used
extensively in recent years. Stephen has found that his muscle-mass development seems to
have hit a plateau, and he feels that he could use some extra help to get past the plateau.
He decides to take an oral creatine phosphate supplement.
• What role does creatine have naturally with muscles?
• How might creatine phosphate help with the temporary increase in muscle mass?
• What questions should Stephen ask before he takes this supplement?

Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. CHAPTER 6 The Muscular System 31

Resources
• www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/musclecramps.html—This site links to various information
about the causes of muscle cramps as well as to research-based articles on muscle cramping.
• www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/fitness/in-depth/performance-enhancing-drugs/art-
20046134 —This article from the Mayo Clinic explores the safety of muscle-enhancing
supplements.
• www.youtube.com/watch?v=gJ309LfHQ3M—This link is an excellent narrated video of
sarcomere contraction.
• http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Wellness/regenerative-medicine-helps-rebuild-wounded-
warriors/story?id=17208048—This 2012 article and video describe the use of regenerative
medicine to rebuild damaged muscles.
• www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2840452/—This is a 2010 article titled “Functional
Muscle Regeneration with Combined Delivery of Angiogenesis and Myogenesis Factors.” The
article may be too technical for some students, but it provides a great starting point for a
discussion on regenerative medicine.

32 INSTRUCTOR GUIDE FOR BIOLOGY OF HUMANS: CONCEPTS, APPLICATIONS, AND ISSUES, 6e Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Another random document with
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 The stem of the young morning-glory sweeps slowly through the
air in circles, in search of some support.
You remember that the curious dodder acted in this same way,
and that its movements reminded us of the manner in which a blind
man feels about him.
When the morning-glory finds just the support it needs, it lays hold
of it, and twists about it, and then climbs upward with great
satisfaction.
I want you to watch this curious performance. It is sure to amuse
you. The plant seems to know so well what it is about, and it acts so
sensibly when it finds what it wants.
But if it happens to meet a glass tube, or something too smooth to
give it the help it needs, it slips off it, and seems almost as
discouraged as a boy would be who fails in his attempt to climb a
slippery tree or telegraph pole.

Fig. 123

The bean is another plant whose stem is not strong enough to

hold it erect without help. But, unlike the morning-glory, the stem of
the bean does not twist about the first stick it finds. Instead it sends
out many shorter stems which do this work of reaching after and
twining about some support. In this same way the pea is able to hold
up its head in the world.
 Fig. 124

Other plants are supported by their leafstalks. These twist about

whatever sticks or branches they can find, and so prevent the plant
from falling. The picture (Fig. 124) shows you how the garden
nightshade climbs by its leafstalk. The beautiful clematis clambers all
over the roadside thicket in the same way.
The English ivy and the poison ivy, as we have learned already,
climb by the help of roots which their stems send out into the trunks
of trees and the crevices of buildings.
The stems of the Virginia creeper and of the Japanese ivy give
birth to smaller stems, such as you see in the picture below. When
the tips of these reach the wall, or the tree trunk up which the plant is
trying to climb, they broaden out into little flat, round plates, which,
like tiny claws, cling to the surface (Fig. 125).
 Fig. 125

I hope your teacher will tell you where you can find one of these
two plants, for in the country the creeper is plentiful, and the
Japanese ivy is planted freely in our cities; and I hope you will go
and see how firmly these little flattened stems cling to the wall or to
the tree trunk. Try gently to pull off one of these determined little
stems, and I think you will admire it for its firm grip.
There are other than climbing plants whose stems are not strong
enough to stand up straight without help.
Think of the beautiful water lily. If you have ever spent a morning
in a boat (as I hope you have, for it is a delightful way to spend a
morning) hunting water lilies, you will remember that these flowers
float on top of the water; and when you reach over to pick them, you
find the tall flower stems standing quite erect in the water.
But what happened when you broke them off, and held them in
your hand?
Why, these long stems proved to have no strength at all. They
flopped over quite as helplessly as the morning-glory vine would do if
you unwound it from the wires up which it was climbing; and you saw
that they had only been able to stand up straight because of the help
the water had given them.
 SOME HABITS OF STEMS

B ESIDE the stems which stand erect without help (like that of the
corn), and those which climb by means of some support (like
those of the morning-glory and bean), and those which are held up
by the water (like that of the water lily), there are stems which slant
upward (like that of the red clover), stems which lie upon the ground
(like that of the snowberry), and stems which creep (that is, which
run along the ground), and which strike root, and so give rise to new
plants (like those of the white clover and strawberry).
With the new plants you meet, try always to notice to which of
these different classes their stems belong; for later, when you wish to
use the botany and to learn the names of the plants, this habit of
noticing things will help you greatly.
Then, too, with every new plant, you should find out whether its
stem is round or square, and whether it is smooth or hairy, or if it is
at all thorny.
The thorns and hairs which some plants scatter over their stems
protect them from animals and insects, which might otherwise do
them an injury.
By the thorns little snails are prevented from climbing up the stems
and eating away the green leaves above; and the cows and horses
are pretty sure to leave the thorny plants well alone. It is easy to
understand why we find thistle plants growing thickly in the pasture,
which is nearly bare of everything else. Long ago these thistles
clothed themselves in an armor of prickles, and ever since they have
been successful in waging war against the cattle.
Sometimes a tree will cover its lower part only with thorns. Why is
this, do you suppose?
This is because only the lower branches are within reach of the
cattle. Only these have any need of a suit of thorns. The wild pear,
which grows in Europe, is such a tree as this.
A stem that is covered with hairs, and also one that is sticky in
spots, serves to protect its flowers from an attack by ants, or by other
insects that might do them harm; for these flowers, you remember,
hold the golden dust which works such wonders when carried to
another flower. And you recall, that, when bees go to plants for the
sweet stuff from which honey is made, they carry this flower dust
from blossom to blossom. But if the sweet stuff is given up to greedy
insects, then this good work is not done; for the bees get disgusted,
and stop visiting the plants which do not take more pains to please
them. And so oftentimes the plant covers its stem with hairs or with
sticky drops, so that the meddlesome little thieves cannot get up to
the blossom at all.
So if you pick a flower which leaves your fingers sticky, you must
remember that the plant is only doing its duty in trying to please the
bees.
Although I have seen these plants do so many queer things that I
am learning not to be surprised at their clever ways, I must own that I
was a little astonished to see how anxious one of them was to save
itself unnecessary trouble.
There is a plant called the “amphibious knotweed.” This is a rather
difficult name, I know. This word “amphibious” is applied to
something that can live both in water and on land; and this plant
grows sometimes in the pond or river, and sometimes on the shore.
When on land, its stem is covered with the hairs which serve to
keep meddlesome insects from climbing up to its pretty balls of pink
flowers. In the water there is no danger of any such attack from
insects; and so when it happens to grow in the pond or river, this
knowing little plant does not trouble itself to clothe with hairs its stem,
but leaves this quite smooth.
Next summer I hope you will hunt up the amphibious knotweed,
and will compare the smooth water stem with the hairy one that
grows on land.
 STEMS AND SEED LEAVES

T HE smaller plants usually have green stems. The larger ones

have brown, woody stems, such as you see in bushes and trees;
for the trunk of the biggest tree in the world is nothing but a great
stem.
The delicate green stems die down to the ground during the cold
winter. Sometimes the whole plant dies, the root below as well as the
stem above ground. But often the root (or what we usually call the
root) lives, and sends up a fresh stem the next year.
But the woody stems live through the winter, and put out fresh
leaves and branches the next spring.
Without a magnifying glass, it is difficult to see of just what the
green stems of the small plants are made up; and these you can
pass by for the present. But if your teacher will cut across the stem
of a large rose, you can see here an outer covering, the green skin;
within this, a ring of woody material; and in the center of the stem, a
soft white stuff called “pith.”
When we were reading about seed leaves, I told you that by the
stem and leaves of a plant you could tell whether it brought into the
world more than one seed leaf.
Now, when a stem like that of the rose is divided into three well-
defined parts,—the skin, or bark, outside; next the woody part; and
the soft white pith in the middle,—then you can be pretty sure that
the plant had more than one seed leaf.
 Fig. 126

This picture (Fig. 126) shows you a section of a cornstalk. Here

you do not see the three parts that were so plain in the rose stem, for
the woody part is not gathered together in a ring: it is scattered
through the soft part, so that you cannot distinguish the one from the
other.
Running lengthwise you see the scattered bundles of woody
threads, the cut ends of which give the dotted look on top.
Now, such a stem as this of the corn shows you that the plant was
born with only one seed leaf.
Try to remember the difference between these two stems.
This next picture (Fig. 127) shows a part of the trunk or stem of the
fir tree.

Fig. 127

The dark outside circle is the bark.

The rings within this are the wood. Each year one of these woody
rings is added to the tree, the last ring of all lying next to the bark; so,
if you count these, you can find out how many years the tree has
lived.
In the center we see the soft stuff called pith.
What do these three divisions show?
The trunk of the palm in the next picture (Fig. 128) is like the stem
of the corn. The wood is not gathered in rings, but is scattered
through the soft part in thread-like bundles, so that we cannot tell just
the age of the tree.

Fig. 128

And what else do you know about the palm?

Why, you know that it came into the world with but one seed leaf. If
it had had more than one, its stems would have had woody rings
such as we see in the fir.
In the schoolroom you cannot see palms and firs; but you can find
a log in a wood pile which will show you just such woody rings as
prove that the fir tree had more than one seed leaf.
And you can look at a stalk brought from the cornfield that will
show you how the trunk of the palm tells us that this tree began life
with only one seed leaf.
 “WELL DONE, LITTLE STEM”

I T is wonderful how much there is to learn about everything.

We began this book with an apple, and I had no more idea than
you that that apple was going to keep us busy for days.
And then the apple reminded us of its cousins, the pear and plum
and peach and cherry and rose. And if we had not stopped short, we
should have been introduced to so many more cousins that we
should have had neither room nor time for anything else.
From fruits we went to seeds.
At first it seemed almost as though we ought to finish up the seeds
in two or three readings; but this did not prove to be the case.
The mere naming of the different ways in which seeds went
traveling, covered so many pages that it was all we could do to find
time to tell how a few of the baby plants were cared for, and how
they made their way out of the seed shell into the world.
But when we came to roots, we felt there would be no temptation
to loiter by the way, for roots seemed rather dismal things to talk
about. Yet it took some little time to show the different uses of a root,
and to talk about air roots and water roots, as well as earth roots. It
was not altogether easy to make clear just how the little root hairs
keep acids on hand in which to melt the solid earth food which their
throats are too delicate to swallow. And it was quite a long story
when we came to the dodder, which roots in the stems of living
plants, and steals all its food from them; and to those orchids whose
long roots swing from tree branches and draw their nourishment
from the air.
About stems, however, even I felt a little discouraged; for though it
is from the stem that all other parts of a plant grow, yet it is not
looked upon generally as an interesting object when studied by itself;
and I dare say you children still feel that stems are less amusing
than fruits, or seeds, or roots.
Still we can hardly help admiring the way in which a stem, when it
lies underground, like that of the lily or the Jack-in-the-pulpit, makes
its food so carefully all through the summer, and waits so patiently
through the long winter in order to help its plant to burst into flower,
and to ripen into fruit as soon as possible, and without more labor
and food hunting when the spring comes.
When a stem, like that of the morning-glory, sweeps slowly and
carefully through the air in search of something to lay hold of in its
efforts to climb upward, and when, on finding this support, it makes
such good use of it, we feel inclined to say, “Well done, little stem.”
And when a stem on land knows how to keep off meddlers, yet
has the wisdom not to take unnecessary trouble when afloat, like
that of the amphibious knotweed, then we feel that a plant gives its
stem, as well as its other parts, a large supply of common sense.
There is a great deal more that might be said on this subject. What
a plant lives on, what it eats and drinks and breathes, is very
interesting to learn about. And of course the food taken in by the
roots must be carried upward through the stem. But to write simply
about this is difficult. As much as I think most of you can understand,
I will tell you when we take up leaves.
 Part IV—Buds

BUDS IN WINTER

W HEN school opened in September, all the trees were covered

with leaves; and some of these trees were bent with their
burden of pears and apples and peaches, while others were hung
with prickly chestnut burrs or with acorns or walnuts.
But now all is changed. The woods look gray and bare; for nearly
all the leaves have fallen save those of the oak, which are still
holding fast to the branches. These oak leaves are brown and stiff
and leathery. They crackle and rustle when the wind blows through
them.
In the city squares you see the same change,—bare branches in
place of green leaves.
At this season it is hardly worth while, perhaps you think, to go to
the woods or to the park; for there is nothing to be seen,—no leaves,
no flowers, almost no fruits. Better wait till spring for any such
expedition.
Here you are wrong. Provided you know what to look at, and how
to look at it, there is no month of the year when the woods and parks
are not full of interest.
And so at this season, when the trees are bare of leaves, better
than at any other, certain things can be studied.
I have asked your teacher to bring to school to-day branches from
the different trees which are looking so cold and lonely. It is nearly
always possible to find the horse-chestnut, the maple, or the cherry;
and we will talk especially about these branches.
 On your way to school, perhaps you pass every day a horse-
chestnut tree; but its branches are so far above your heads that you
may never have noticed that in winter the leafless twigs bear just
such buds as you see in the picture (Fig. 129), and on the branch
which is before you.
The largest bud grows on top. This is where the beautiful flower
cluster that comes out in May lies hidden.
The smaller buds that grow lower down the stem hold only leaves.
You see that these buds grow in pairs, one bud opposite another,
and always above a sort of scar on the twig. This scar was made last
fall by the breaking-off of a leaf.
Perhaps you fancy that these buds have only just made their
appearance.

Fig.
129

If you have any such idea as that, you are quite wrong. Last
summer, when the leaves were large and fresh, the little buds, that
were not to unfold for nearly a year, began to form, growing
somewhat larger as the weeks went by, and folding themselves
tightly in the brown, leathery wrappings that were to keep them safe
from the cold of winter.
I should like you to pull off these wrappings, and see how well the
horse-chestnut tree defends from cold its baby leaves.
First you find about seven of these outside wrappings. The very
outer ones are thick and brown, and covered with the sticky stuff that
makes them proof against rain.
The next ones are brown and thick where their tips are exposed to
the air, while the inner ones are green and delicate. But altogether
they make a warm, snug covering for young leaves and flowers.
As for the baby leaves themselves, they are all done up in a furry
stuff that keeps them from catching cold, even if a gust of wind or a
few drops of rain should manage to make a way through the
waterproof and almost air-tight wrappings.
So you see that the leaves and branches and young flowers of a
plant or tree are looked after just as carefully as is the seed within
the seed case, or the baby plant in its seed shell.
 A HAPPY SURPRISE

Fig.
130

H ERE you see a branch from the red maple (Fig. 130).
On the flowering shoots three buds grow side by side. The
middle, smaller one holds the leaves. These leaves do not appear
until the two outer, larger buds have burst into flower clusters; for the
flowers of the red maple appear before its leaves.
I want you to bring to school as many different kinds of branches
as you can find, and I hope you will examine them all very carefully.
Notice the position of their buds, and whether these grow close
together or are scattered far apart, and whether one bud grows just
opposite another; and look for the marks left by the leaves which
broke off last fall.
 When the buds are large enough, you will find it interesting to pull
them apart (but you must do this with great care) and see how
beautifully wrapped are the baby leaves and flowers.
I chose the branch of the horse-chestnut for special examination,
because its large buds show their contents plainly.
When a bud grows on the tip of a stem, its work is to carry on that
stem; but when it grows just above a leaf scar, you can be sure that
it is a young branch. Such a branch may bear either leaves or
flowers, or both.
But buds do not all grow up at the same time, or necessarily at all.
The strongest ones are the first to open. The others may keep
quiet for some time, not unfolding, perhaps, unless some of the
earlier ones are killed. In this case, the waiting buds try to fill the gap,
and carry on the good work of clothing the tree with leaves and
flowers.
Sometimes they wait over till another year, and occasionally a bud
never opens at all.
You all enjoyed planting seeds, and watching them grow under
your very eyes.
Now I am going to propose to you a scheme which has given me
quite as much pleasure as my pot gardens.
When the buds on the winter branches have swelled the least little
bit, after a few warm days in February perhaps, go to the woods and
cut several branches in places where no one will miss them, and
take them home and put them in warm water, in a warm, bright
corner, and see what happens.
It will be a real joy to you, watching these little buds get bigger and
bigger, till the outer wrappings are forced apart, and either thrown
well aside, or pushed off altogether; and you will be filled with delight
when the delicate baby leaves begin to stretch themselves, or, better
still, when the pure, beautiful flowers burst from the brown, dead-
looking twigs.
 Get branches of cherry, apple, peach, and pear; and bring in the
pussy willow, the maple, the Forsythia, the spicebush, and, if you
can find it, the mountain laurel; and if you do not pass many
moments of almost breathless pleasure watching the wonders these
budding branches are so eager to reveal, you are not the children I
take you to be.
 SOME ASTONISHING BUDS

T HERE are some plants which do not put any winter wraps on
their delicate buds; and, strangely enough, these buds do not
seem to suffer for lack of clothing.
In a warm country this would not surprise us. If we were going to
spend the winter in the West Indies, we should not carry our furs with
us, for we should not meet any weather cold enough to make them
necessary; and so perhaps in the West Indies the buds have no
more need of winter clothing than we ourselves.
But if we were to spend the Christmas holidays somewhere in our
Northern mountains, if we were going for skating and coasting to the
Catskills or the Adirondacks, we should not fail to take with us our
warmest clothes.
And yet, if we walked in the Adirondack woods, we should meet
over and over again a shrub bearing naked buds, their folded,
delicate leaves quite exposed to the bitter cold.
This shrub is the hobblebush, the pretty flowers of which you see
on p. 246.
I do not understand any better than you why this hobblebush does
not tuck away its baby leaves beneath a warm covering. Neither do I
understand how these naked leaves can live through the long, cold
winter. I should like very much to satisfy myself as to the reason for
this, for they do live and flourish; and I wish that such of you children
as know the home of the hobblebush (and it is common in many
places) would watch this shrub through the winter, and see if you can
discover how it can afford to take less care of its buds than other
plants.
There is one tree which seems to shield its buds more carefully in
summer than in winter. This tree is the buttonwood. It grows not only
in the country, but in many of our city streets and squares. You know
it by the way in which its bark peels in long strips from its trunk and
branches, and by the button-like balls which hang from the leafless
twigs all winter.
If you examine one of these twigs, now that they are bare of
leaves, you see the buds quite plainly; but if it is summer time, when
the leaves are clinging to the branch, you see no buds, and suppose
that they are not yet formed.
But here you are wrong.
“How can that be?” you ask. You looked carefully, and nowhere
was there any sign of a bud.
But you did not look everywhere, after all.
If very carefully you had pulled off one of the leaves, you would
have found the young bud tucked safely away beneath the hollow
end of the leafstalk. This leafstalk fitted over it more neatly than a
candle snuffer over a candle (Fig. 131).

Fig. 131

Try this for yourselves next summer. I think you will be pleased
with this pretty arrangement.
We learned that the potato, even though it is buried in the earth
and does not look like it, is really one of the thickened stems of the
potato plant.
The “eyes” of the potato look as little like buds as the potato itself
looks like a stem. Yet these “eyes” are true buds; for, if we leave our
potatoes in the dark cellar till spring, the “eyes” will send out slender
shoots in the same way that the buds on the branches of trees send
out young shoots.
As I told you before, the usual place for a bud is just between the
stem and the leafstalk, or the scar left by the leafstalk; but if a stem
is cut or wounded, oftentimes it sends out buds in other than the
usual places.
This habit accounts for the growth of young shoots from stumps of
trees, and from parts of the plant which ordinarily do not give birth to
buds.
Some buds never open while fastened to the stem of the parent
plant; but after a time they fall to the ground, strike root, and send up
a fresh young plant.
The tiger lily, the plant that grows so often in old gardens, bears
such buds as these. We call them “bulblets” when they act in this
strange fashion.
Perhaps even more surprising than this is the fact that leaves
sometimes produce buds.

Fig. 132

In certain warmer countries grows a plant called the Bryophyllum.

If you look carefully at the thick, fleshy leaves of this plant, along its
notched edges you will see certain little dark spots; and if you cut off
one of these leaves and pin it on your window curtain, what do you
suppose will happen?