Copyright © 2020 American Scientific Publishers

All rights reserved SENSOR LETTERS

Printed in the United States of America Vol. 18, 1–8, 2020

Comparative Study of Efficient Design, Control and

Monitoring of Solar Power Using Internet of Things
Parminder Kaur11 ∗ , Vikas Pandey1 , and Balwinder Raj2
1
National Institute of Technical Teacher Training and Research, 160019, Chandigarh, India
2
VLSI Design Lab, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, NITTTR Chandigarh, 160019, India

(Received: xx Xxxx xxxx. Accepted: xx Xxxx xxxx)

The shortage of electricity is a major constraint to economic growth. Renewable energy such as
solar energy has many advantages but also has many challenges to enhance its efficiency which
is limited by the weather changes, dust particles, and material dependant properties. This affect
various parameters like fill factor, short circuit current (jsc ), open-circuit voltage (Voc) and module
efficiency. This paper represents different materials used in solar cell structures and gives a realistic
approach of factors affecting the performance of photovoltaic modules. The material used must
produce cost-effective solar cells by reducing the amount of silicon material used in its production
and enhance the power output. To enhance the performance of the PV cell, various methods and
technologies are used. Effective use of solar power can be obtained using Internet of Things (IoT)
technology which is used for solar tracking, monitoring, and forecasting.
Keywords: Conversion Efficiency, Fill Factor (FF), Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc), Photovoltaic (PV)
Power, Solar Tracking, Solar Energy.

1. INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world we are facing the challenges of
scarcity of fossil fuels and higher environmental issues,
therefore it is essential to stick to the conservation of
energy. To overcome the electric energy demand, humans
have been seriously advanced the future path of sustainable
development by harnessing renewable energy like solar
energy. Thus the solar cell is the best suited among various
energy sources to meet the requirement of energy more
economically as a long-term source. The solar cell also
termed as photovoltaic is a device that converts incident
radiation to the source of electricity [1].
The detailed operation of the photovoltaic system is dis-
cussed in the literature [2]. The generation of electron-hole
pair within the space charge region of the PN junction
occurs when the incident photons energy exceeds the
energy bandgap of the material to make the flow of cur-
rent according to the Junction voltage. Different materi-
als used for solar panel comprises mainly those based
on the use of silicon such as the Monocrystalline, poly-
crystalline, and amorphous forms, the III–V compounds
∗
Corresponding author; E-mail: balwinderraj@gmail.com
RESEARCH ARTICLE
(e.g., gallium arsenide, indium phosphide and gallium anti-
monide), cadmium telluride, copper gallium indium dis-
elenide, and copper indium disulphide, organic solar cell
and perovskites solar cell [1].
Figure 1 represents the development of photovoltaic cell
efficiency obtained from four generation technologies dur-
ing the years. The aims of all generation are to optimize
the efficiency and reduce the cost of the panel during
the year compared to the previous one. Each material has
unique strengths and characteristics that influence its suit-
ability for various applications. Multijunction solar cell
with CPV technology gives best efficiency of 47% as
reported by NREL [3]. Regardless of various advantages,
there are few limitations of the solar cell such as sun-
light doesn’t radiate at night and it is not constant all the
time. Major factors affect the efficiency of the solar cell
is operating temperature and insulation i.e., solar cell per-
formance stagnates with increasing temperature. Variation
in solar irradiance, temperature, weather, and many other
factors causes an impact on power generation of solar PV
module. Using IoT technology we can develop the moni-
toring system of solar cell that eases the control, commu-
nication, and automation of the generating units, allowing
to guarantee the predicted energy generation performance.

Sensor Lett. 2020, Vol. 18, No. xx 1546-198X/2020/18/001/008 doi:10.1166/sl.2020.4225 1

 Comparative Study of Efficient Design, Control and Monitoring of Solar Power Using IoT Kaur et al.

Fig. 1. Best research cell efficiency obtained from different solar cell technologies by NREL [3].

2. ADVANCEMENT IN SOLAR CELL 2.1. First Generation Solar Cell

STRUCTURE USING DIFFERENT
MATERIAL
Based upon the use of materials, the solar cell is catego-
rized into different classes. The summary of these gener-
ations is presented in Figure 7. Silicon remains dominant
material for solar cell because of its non toxicity, low cost,
RESEARCH ARTICLE
These are also called as silicon wafer-based solar cells
refer to p–n junction PV cell which is made from thick
crystalline silicon film doped with other elements. These
are the oldest but widely used high efficient solar cells.
2.1.1. Monocrystalline Solar Cells

abundance availability in nature and stable conversion effi-
ciency. The more efficient solar module reduces the BOS
(balance of system) cost more as compared to inefficient
solar modules because of fewer panel requirement, less
roof space, fewer mounting materials, and less installation
times.
The m-si cells have single crystal lattice structure of
pure silicon which is often made using the Czochralski
process with almost no defects and impurity [4]. Sili-
con is an indirect energy bandgap semiconductor which
results in high optical absorption. Thus a hundred microns
thick layer is enough to absorb the maximum of the sun-
light spectrum. They have cylindrical shaped wafers. The
efficiency of monocrystalline silicon cells has recently
reached 24.4% [5].

2.1.2. Polycrystalline Silicon Cells

Poly-si cells constitute different silicon crystals, coupled
to one another in individual cell. Molten silicon is cast

Fig. 2. Structural view of single junction a-si cell [11]. Fig. 3. Schematic view of multijunction a-si photovoltaic [9].

2 Sensor Letters 18, 1–8, 2020

Kaur et al. Comparative Study of Efficient Design, Control and Monitoring of Solar Power Using IoT
into square ingots, which is cooled and cut it into square
wafers. Lower capital costs, less energy required for pro-
duction and higher packing density of cells make it more
advantageous over the Czochralski method. Despite many
advantages, they are less efficient 19–20% compared to
single crystal solar cell.
2.2. Second Generation Solar Cell (Thin Film
Solar Cells)
Thin-film technology utilizes less and thinner material than
wafers for design of cell which makes panel flexible and
deformed. The main advantage of using this technology is
less material usage lower the material cost as well as the
amount of energy required for manufacturing of cells [6].
However, it has efficiency lower as compared to the silicon
wafer cells. These are further classified as:
2.2.1. Amorphous Silicon Cells
The a-si cells are composed of silicon atoms in a thin
homogenous layer which absorbs light more effectively
than c-si. It is hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H)
in which hydrogen improve the quality of material and
performance of cell. It also has a direct optical energy
bandgap as well as a strong absorption coefficient which
means very less amount of material is needed to absorb
most of the incident light [7]. Therefore it reduces material
usage and hence costs. The basic structure of a-Si has a
p–i–n configuration in which the formation of electron-
hole pairs occurs due to the absorption of solar radiations
and a field is created in i-layer due to their work-function
difference [8].
As per rule, the higher the initial energy conversion effi-
ciency of the device, the more performance will degrade
during outdoor exposure. Therefore to improve the sta-
bility and efficiency of the cell, two or more pin struc-
tures are stacked on top of one another with different
energy bandgap i-layers to make multijunction structures
as shown in Figure 4. The stabilized efficiency of single-
junction a-si is 12% and of multijunction solar cell reaches
14%. The low stabilized conversion efficiency (less than
Fig. 4. Schematic view of DSSC [28].
Sensor Letters 18, 1–8, 2020
14%) due to degradation of induced light makes a-Si:H
solar cells less important.
2.2.2. Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
The chalcogenide-based cell is one of the cheaper, eco-
nomically viable photovoltaic (PV) devices. It has direct
bandgap of 1.5 eV which presents high absorption coeffi-
cient and improves the performance of panel. CdTe pho-
tovoltaic’s efficiency usually operates in the range of 9%–
11% [1]. However, main environmental issue with this
module is the toxic nature of cadmium which makes it
least beneficial for large scale commercialization. Signifi-
cantly, developers of other solar cell technologies, such as
CIGS are attempting to manufacture cadmium-free solar
panels.
2.2.3. Copper-Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS)
CIGS cells also called as the chalcogenide-based cells are
promising light absorber material having direct band, high
absorption co-efficient and less material wastage. CIGS
based thin film technology have achieved an efficiency of
22.8% comparable to crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafer based
solar cells. However, the price of indium raises the material
issue for CIGS cells.
2.3. Third Generation Solar Cells
These are the new promising thin film technologies that
RESEARCH ARTICLE
aim to achieve high-efficiency with lower cost and less
energy intensive to manufacture. It employs a new range
of solar technologies that include polymer solar cells, tan-
dem cells, nanocrystalline cells, and dye-sensitized solar
cells. Among all the technologies included in the third gen-
eration, tandem cells provide the highest efficiency with
Fig. 5. Image of multijunction photovoltaic [7].
3
 Comparative Study of Efficient Design, Control and Monitoring of Solar Power Using IoT Kaur et al.

formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an elec-

trolyte, a photoelectrochemical system [10]. When sunlight
falls on dye molecules, it initiates a series of electrochem-
ical processes similar to natural photosynthesis to generate
electron–hole pairs. However, due to poor optical absorp-
tion of sensitizer, low conversion efficiency and stability
is attained.

2.3.2. Multijunction III-V Solar Cells

Fig. 6. Image of concentrated photovoltaic cells [12].
architecture contain a number of the junction of different
bandgap levels to a stack.
2.3.1. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC)
Dye-Sensitized cells, commonly referred to as Gratzel
cells are low cost thin film cells based on a semiconductor
Solar panel made by using single material transforms only
15% of available energy into useful electricity. Therefore,
multiple cells in stack with different band gaps are com-
bined to boost the efficiency of the PV module. An III–V
tandem solar panel made from different semiconductor
materials captures a broader range of solar spectrum and
increases the productivity of electricity [11]. The silicon
heterojunction reduced recombination loss for greater effi-
ciency. Among the various multijunction cells, the triple
junction is considered common so far. Triple junction

Generation Material used/combination Efficiency(%) Advantages Disadvantage References

First generation Mono-crystalline solar cells 24.4% Occupy less space. More Expensive and complicated [5, 27]
(MCSC) efficient than manufacturing process.
polycrystalline solar cell.
Stability and non-toxicity
of silicon.
Polycrystalline solar cell 19% Cheaper to produce than Efficiency is smaller than [5, 27]
Mono-crystalline solar MCSC
RESEARCH ARTICLE

cells
Second generation Cadmium telluride 22% Performs better at high Tellurium is not abundant in [7]
temperature. It outperform nature. Toxic nature of
silicon panel in low light cadmium.
and shaded condition.
CIGS 22% • Low material wastage Less stable. Complicated [5]
• The cost of production is structure.
low
Amorphous silicon 12% • Absorb more energy than Lower efficiency than c-si [5, 28]
c-si due to high absorption
coefficient.
• Less expensive.
• Lighter weight.

Third generation Perovskites solar Cell 23% Excellent thermal stability Contain toxic element: Lead. [13, 14]
Poor LCOE.
Dye-sensitized Solar Cells 12% Robust in nature. Flexible. Low stability. [10, 29]
Perform in low sunlight.
Non-concentrated 38–42% Small area is required. Used High cost [3]
multijunction for space application.
Concentrated multijunction 47% Higher productivity CPV perform efficiently in [3]
throughout the day due to concentrated light as long
tracking. Reflectors are as modules are kept cool
cheap. with some heat sinks.
Complexity in increased
Fourth generation Graphene 10% • High conductivity [5]
• High transparency and
lightest material
• Flexible
• Mechanical hardness

Fig. 7. Comparative study of various solar cells.

4 Sensor Letters 18, 1–8, 2020

Kaur et al. Comparative Study of Efficient Design, Control and Monitoring of Solar Power Using IoT

technology is get replaced by the four junction solar cell
solar cells that give efficiency value up to 44%.
Not only bandgap energy of material affects the perfor-
mance of the device but also specific material properties
such as absorption coefficient, mobility, minority car-
rier lifetime, and availability of suitable barrier materials.
These devices have been designed to operate under the
condition of matching the current generated by each layer.
This condition makes it sensitive to spectral changes that
occur due to the movement of the sun in the sky and by
the atmospheric phenomenon.
2.3.3. Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV)
CPV technology converts sunlight into electricity as a con-
ventional solar cell system does but utilizes cost-efficient
concentrating optics (curved mirrors or lenses) to focus
solar radiation onto a solar panel that enables continuous
improvement in the performance. In order to achieve the
highest efficiency, multijunction solar cells are used. The
use of expensive solar cell material is reduced by 500 or
1000 times by concentrating solar radiation onto the small
area of solar cell material [12]. Hence, electricity is gen-
erated at a lower cost than traditional silicon solar panels.
However, solar tracker and sometimes a cooling system is
used to achieve high cell performance.
2.3.4. Perovskites Solar Cell (PSCs)
Among the most promising of solar cell materials,
thin sheet in place of pt to manufacture conducting elec-
trode in DSSC improves its efficiency.
3. PARAMETER AFFECTING EFFICIENCY
OF SOLAR CELL
The most significant factors that impact the performance
of solar cells is temperature, dust, amount of irradiation
falling, MPPT (maximum power point tracking), shading,
angle of tilt [16]. The study of these factors can help to
enhance the conversion efficiency and output power. Since
these parameters cannot be measure directly, other per-
formance parameters such as conversion efficiency, open-
circuit voltage (Voc) ratio, and fill factor are estimated. The
fill factor (FF) measures the ratio of the maximum power
obtained from the photovoltaic module to the product of
Voc and Isc. It determines the quality of a cell.
Vmpp Impp
FF =
Voc Isc
When photon strikes the solar module the only portion is
converted into electricity, the rest part of it is converted
to heat increasing the junction temperature. As a result
bandgap reduces, which deteriorates open circuit voltage
(Voc) linearly and raises short circuit current slightly caus-
ing drop in solar power, fill factor, and cell efficiency. The
output power of silicon-based solar cells at higher temper-
atures decreases up to 0.65%/ž [17]. Figure 8 shows effect
of temperature on Voc and Isc. As temperatures increases,

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Perovskites gives remarkably efficient sun-traps due to
voltage is affected more as compared to current.
significant property of large absorption coefficient. But
The decrease in open circuit voltage causes variation
the presence of a toxic element in the Lead (Pb) based
in fill factor value while increase in short circuit current
halide Perovskites hinders their commercialization. Fur-
due to temperature value does not contribute much to fill
ther, degradation of these Perovskites in the presence
factor. Figure 9 shows graph of fill factor (FF) against
of moisture makes it less stable and therefore has poor
temperature [19].
LCOE [13] However, Pb free halide double Perovskites
In order to reduce the rate of thermal degradation of a
with formula A2 M(IV)X6 exhibits excellent stability in
PV module, the operating temperature of the surface of the
humidity, hot weather and light generate high-performance
panel is needed to reduce. It can be done by cooling the
of solar module [14] The efficiency of PSCs has recently
solar panel to prevent the cell from damage and degrada-
reached to 23.7%, comparable to that of conventional sil-
tion [20]. The Improvement of Silicon Solar Cells can also
icon photovoltaic cells [15].

2.4. Fourth Generation Solar Cells

This solar cell technology is formed by combining low
cost polymers with nanomaterials such as graphene, metal
oxide, and metallic nanoparticles. Most of the solar panel
can generate power only on sunny days, which limit the
generation of electricity. A new trend of fourth genera-
tion technology in the solar cell system using a wonder
material “Graphene” brings its new usage by producing
electricity in all weathers [5]. Electrons travel much faster
in graphene relative to silicon material which makes it a
good candidate for its usage as an additional layer in pre-
vious cells. The substitution of ITO (indium tin oxide) by
graphene and its derivative improves the flexibility as well Fig. 8. Temperature effect on short circuit current and open circuit
as transparency of solar cell. Further, usage of graphene voltage [18].

Sensor Letters 18, 1–8, 2020 5

 Comparative Study of Efficient Design, Control and Monitoring of Solar Power Using IoT
Fig. 9. Effect of increase in temperature on fill factor.
attain by using the smaller width of the cell. A second and
better approach is the application of contact grids. Effi-
ciency is enhanced using optimum dimensions of contact
grids in solar cell which reduce resistive loss.
3.1. Irradiance
It is the measure of solar radiation striking the particu-
lar photovoltaic area. It is commonly expressed in W/m2 .
The standard level of incident solar energy at the earth’s
surface = “One sun” of solar insulation which is defined as
RESEARCH ARTICLE
1 kW per m2 of irradiance under spectral conditions specif-
ically defined by Air Mass 0 for space application, 1.5
Air Mass for terrestrial application at 25ž . When the sun’s
intensity increases at noon on sunny days, more packets of
photons strike the module causes an increase in solar cell
temperature and thus output power is reduced compared to
low temperature the cell. Figure 10 shows that an increase
in the intensity of solar radiation lowers the efficiency. The
highest value of efficiency for silicon solar cell is found to
be 11.4% at an irradiance of 0.55 kW/m2 [18].
Fig. 10. Variation in efficiency and irradiance with time.
6 Sensor Letters 18, 1–8, 2020
Kaur et al.
Fig. 11. PV graph for various tilt angles [23].
3.2. Dust
Dust accumulation on the surface of panel resists the
incoming radiation to reach onto module and consequently
decreases the output power [21]. To get better perfor-
mance, the surface of the solar module must be clean either
manually by water or add robots to wash the surface.
3.3. Angle of Tilt and Tracking System
The angle of tilt plays a crucial role in the performance of
PV panel. According to research, the Installation of solar
panels should be at an angle normally close to value the
local latitude [22]. So to maximize the conversion effi-
ciency, a photovoltaic module should be tilted at an opti-
mum angle throughout the year. Further increase in tilt
angles causes degradation of irradiance. It is concluded
from Figure 11 that 45ž angle of inclination gives better
output power as compared to other angles [23]. However,
due to the rotation of the earth, the angle between the solar
radiation and the solar surface keeps on changing. Simi-
larly, the range of sun’s radiations may vary according to
time, location, and climatic condition which cause varia-
tion in optimum tilt angle.
Fig. 12. The plot of comparison of power output between tracking sys-
tems and fixed panel.
Kaur et al. Comparative Study of Efficient Design, Control and Monitoring of Solar Power Using IoT
Sensor unit
Arduino
Cloud
User Raspberry Pi
Fig. 13. Schematic diagram of IoT based solar tracker monitoring.
Fixed solar systems are placed only in one direction
which causes degradation of intensity fall on the solar cell
surface. Therefore, an automated device is needed which
should rotate the solar panel constantly throughout the day
to get optimized output. To adjust the panels to an appro-
priate angle, single axis and 2 axis solar trackers with IoT
monitoring systems are used [24]. The choice for select-
ing trackers primarily depends upon physical attributes of
the land, however dual tracking system adjusts both the
altitude and azimuth angles and found to be more effi-
cient. It enhances the power output by frequent monitoring
radiations of the sun along with the concern direction to
get more solar radiation falling on it. The framework pre-
dicts the position of the sun in undesirable conditions like
cloudy weather, rainy weather, dust etc. Therefore, dual
axis tracking system gives highest power output relative to
single axis tracker and fixed solar system throughout the
year as shown in Figure 12 [25].
Solar panels are embedded with GSM to get the updated
information of system using internet of things (IoT). The
solar tracker system constitutes of the tracking devices, the
tracking algorithm, the sensors, positioning system, Wi-Fi
module, and Microcontroller. Schematic diagram of Solar
tracking system is shown below [26].
Initially, the sensor detects the variation of sunlight and
sends the information to an Arduino Uno. This detected
information is processed by Arduino Uno to control two
servo motors that hold the photovoltaic module to get
orientation toward the sun. The Arduino Uno sends this
data that has been taking by photovoltaic to Raspberry Pi
via serial communication protocol and show on the web
page through python content. The observing information
is transferred to the cloud for records. The sensor data
can be visualized by the user on the Mobile phone at any
time [30].
4. CONCLUSION
Herein, we intend to summarize the various types of mate-
rial used in photovoltaic cells. Double halide Perovskites
are among the most promising of the new solar cell materi-
als which exhibit excellent stability in heat, light and mois-
ture with an efficiency of 23%. Furthermore, improvement
Sensor Letters 18, 1–8, 2020
in the technology of solar panels has brought down the
price of solar electricity which makes it cost competitive
with other power sources. However, degradation over time
is a serious concern. The efficiency of modules deterio-
rated during undesirable condition like foggy days, stormy
days, rainy weather, dust etc. Hence, more attempts are
need to improve power efficiency of solar panel with IoT
technology which helps in monitoring solar cell smartly.
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