Chemistry

assignment
TOPIC :
BIOMOLECULES
“THERE ARE AS MANY ATOMS IN
A SINGLE AMOLECULE OF A DNA
AS THERE ARE STARS IN A
TYPICAL GALAXY.WE ARE ,EACH
OF US,A LITTLE UNIVERSE “

BY: AMARENDRA P SHUKLA

ROLL NO: 3
 CLASS: XI SCIENCE

CONTENTS
1. CERTIFICATE
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3. BIOMOLECULES
4. TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES
4.1 MICROMOLECULES
4.1.1. AMINO ACID
4.1.2. SUGAR
4.1.3. LIPID
4.1.4. NUCLEOTIDES
4.2. MACROMOLECULES
4.2.1. POLYSACCARIDES
4.2.2. NUCLEIC ACID
4.2.3. PROTEINS
5.MONOMERS
6.METABOLIC BASIS FOR LIVING
7.THE LIVING STATE
8.IMPORTANT QUESTION AND
CONCEPT OF BIOMOLECULES
MULJI
BHAI CERTIFICATE
MEHT THIS IS TO CERTIFY MASTER
AMARENDRA P SHUKLA A
A STUDENT OF CLASS XI
SCIENCE HAS SUCCESFULLY
INTER COMPLETED THE RESEARCH
NATIO PROJECT ON THE TOPIC
BIOMOLECULES UNDER
NAL THE GUIDANCE OF MRS
SAPNA SINGH DURING THE
SCHO ACADEMIC YEAR 2017-2018
OL

PRINCIPAL TEACHER EXTERNAL

IN CHARGE IN

CHARGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I WANT TO EXPRESS MY SINCERE

THANKS TO MY RESPECTED PRINCIPAL
MADAM AND CHEMISTRY TEACHER MRS
SAPNA SINGH FOR GIVING ME A CHANCE
TO RESEARCH ON THE TOPIC
BIOMOLECULES AND IT HAS BEEN MY
PLEASURE DOING SO .THIS HAS ADDED
MANY POINTS TO MY KNOWLEDGE
ABOUT CHEMISTRY AND ITS PRACTICAL
APPLICATION .I ALSO THANK THEM FOR
THEIR SUPPORT AND VALUABLE
GUIDANCE WHICH HAS SEEEMED GREAT
CONTRIBUTION IN COMPLETION OF MY
RESEARCH WORK AS A PROJECT.

BIOM A biomolecule or biologica

OLEC l molecule is a loosely used

ULES
term for molecules or more commonly ions
that are present in organisms. Biomolecules
including large macromolecules (or
polyanions) such
as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,and
nucleic acids, as well as small
molecules such as
primary metabolites, secondary metabolites,
and natural products.

Biology and its subsets

of biochemistry and molecular biology study
biomolecules and their reactions. Most
biomolecules are organic compounds, and
just four elements—
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen—
make up 96% of the human body's
mass. But many other elements, such as the
various biometals, are present in small
amounts.
TYPES OF BIOMOLECULES
MICRO MOLECULES
BIOMOLECULES
MACROMOLECULES
M < 1000 MICROMOLECULE
AMONIO ACID
SUGARS
LIPIDS
NUCLEOTIDES
M>1000 MACROMOLECULE
POLYSACCARIDES
NUCLEIC ACID
PROTEINS
MICROMOLECULE
AMONIO ACID

Amino acid contain

both amino and carboxylic acid functional
groups. (In biochemistry, the term amino
acid is used when referring to those amino
acids in which the amino and carboxylate
functionalities are attached to the same
carbon, plus proline which is not actually an
amino acid).
Modi昀椀ed amino acids are sometimes
observed in proteins; this is usually the
result of enzymatic modi昀椀cation
after translation (protein synthesis). For
example, phosphorylation of serine
by kinases and dephosphorylation
by phosphatases is an important control
mechanism in the cell cycle. Only two amino
acids other than the standard twenty are
known to be incorporated into proteins
during translation, in certain organisms:
 Selenocysteine is incorporated into some

proteins at a UGA codon, which is

normally a stop codon.
 Pyrrolysine is incorporated into some

proteins at a UAG codon. For instance, in

some methanogens in enzymes that are
used to produce methane.
Besides those used in protein synthesis,
other biologically important amino acids
include carnitine (used in lipid transport
within a cell), ornithine, GABA and taurine.
AROMATIC AMONIO ACID

SUGAR
MONOSHACCARIDES:
Simplest sugar,which cannot ne
hydrolysed further into smaller
sugars
 Composed of 3-7 C atoms:
 Triose (3C)
  Tetrose (4C)
 Pentose (5C)
 Hexose (6C)
 Heptose (7C)

GLUCOSE:

GLACTOSE:

LIPID
For lipids present in
biological membranes, the
Lipids (oleaginous) are chie昀氀y fatty
acid esters, and are the basic building
blocks of biological membranes. Another
biological role is energy storage
(e.g., triglycerides). Most lipids consist of
a polar or hydrophilic head (typically
glycerol) and one to three nonpolar
or hydrophobic fatty acid tails, and therefore
they are amphiphilic. Fatty acids consist of
unbranched chains of carbon atoms that are
connected by single bonds alone
(saturated fatty acids) or by both single
and double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids).
The chains are usually 14-24 carbon groups
long, but it is always an even number.
hydrophilic head is from one of three
classes:
 Glycolipids, whose heads contain

an oligosaccharide with 1-15 saccharide

residues.
 Phospholipids, whose heads contain a

positively charged group that is linked to

the tail by a negatively charged
phosphate group.
 Sterols, whose heads contain a planar

steroid ring, for example, cholesterol.

Other lipids
include prostaglandins and leukotrienes whi
ch are both 20-carbon fatty acyl units
synthesized from arachidonic acid. They are
also known as fatty acids
NUCLEOTIDES
Nucleotides are organic molecules that
serve as the monomer units for forming
the nucleic acid polymers deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA), both
of which are essential biomolecules in
all life-forms on Earth. Nucleotides are the
building blocks of nucleic acids; they are
composed of three subunit molecules:
a nitrogenous base a 昀椀ve-carbon
sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and at least
one phosphate group. They are also known
as phosphatenucleotides.
A nucleoside is a nitrogenous base and a 5-
carbon sugar. Thus a nucleoside plus a
phosphate group yields a nucleotide.
Nucleotides also play a central role in life-
form metabolism at the fundamental,
cellular level. They carry packets of
chemical energy—in the form of
the nucleoside
triphosphates ATP, GTP, CTP and UTP—
throughout the cell to the many cellular
functions that demand energy, which
include synthesizing amino
acids, proteins and cell membranes and
parts; moving the cell and moving cell parts,
both internally and intercellularly; dividing
the cell.

Purine + pyridimine monomers

Higher nucleotides store energy in their

higher energy P bond
Nicotinamide + riboplavin
coenzymes
Coenzymes: non protein organic moiety of
holoenzymes
MACROMOLECULE
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymerized
monosaccharides, or complex
carbohydrates. They have multiple simple
sugars. Examples are starch, cellulose,
and glycogen. They are generally large and
often have a complex branched
connectivity. Because of their size,
polysaccharides are not water-soluble, but
their many hydroxy groups become
hydrated individually when exposed to
water, and some polysaccharides form thick
colloidal dispersions when heated in
water. Shorter polysaccharides, with 3 - 10
monomers, are called oligosaccharides .A
昀氀uorescent indicator-displacement
molecular imprinting sensor was developed
for discriminating saccharides. It
successfully discriminated three brands of
orange juice beverage. The change in
昀氀uorescence intensity of the sensing 昀椀lms
resulting is directly related to the saccharide
concentration.

Nucleic acid
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or
large biomolecules, essential to all known
forms of life. They are composed
of monomers, which are nucleotides made
of three components: a 5-carbon sugar,
a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.
If the sugar is a simple ribose,
the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the
sugar is derived from ribose as deoxyribose,
the polymer is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Nucleic acids are the most important of all
biomolecules. They are found in abundance
in all living things, where they function to
create and encode and then store
information in the nucleus of every living
cell of every life-form organism on Earth. In
turn, they function to transmit and express
that information inside and outside the cell
nucleus—to the interior operations of the
cell and ultimately to the next generation of
each living organism. The encoded
information is contained and conveyed via
the nucleic acid sequence, which provides
the 'ladder-step' ordering of nucleotides
within the molecules of RNA and DNA.

DNA AND RNA STRUCTURE

DNA structure is dominated by the well-
known double helix formed by Watson-
Crick base-pairing of C with G and A with T.
This is known as B-form DNA, and is
overwhelmingly the most favourable and
common state of DNA; its highly speci昀椀c and
stable base-pairing is the basis of reliable
genetic information storage. DNA can
sometimes occur as single strands (often
needing to be stabilized by single-strand
binding proteins) or as A-form or Z-
form helices, and occasionally in more
complex 3D structures such as the
crossover at Holliday junctions during DNA
replication.

Stereo 3D image of a group I intron

ribozyme gray lines show base pairs; ribbon
arrows show double-helix regions, blue to
red from 5' to 3' end; white ribbon is an RNA
product.
RNA, in contrast, forms large and complex
3D tertiary structures reminiscent of
proteins, as well as the loose single strands
with locally folded regions that
constitute messenger RNA molecules. Those
RNA structures contain many stretches of A-
form double helix, connected into de昀椀nite
3D arrangements by single-stranded loops,
bulges, and junctions. Examples are RNA,
ribosomes, ribozymes, and riboswitches.
These complex structures are facilitated by
the fact that RNA backbone has less local
昀氀exibility than DNA but a large set of
distinct conformations, apparently because
of both positive and negative interactions of
the extra OH on the ribose. Structured RNA
molecules can do highly speci昀椀c binding of
other molecules and can themselves be
recognized speci昀椀cally; in addition, they can
perform enzymatic catalysis (when they are
known as "ribozymes", as initially
discovered by Tom Cech and colleagues.
PROTEINS
Proteins are large biomolecules,
or macromolecules, consisting of one or
more long chains of amino acid residues.
Proteins perform a vast array of functions
within organisms, including catalysing
metabolic reactions, DNA
replication, responding to stimuli,
and transporting molecules from one
location to another. Proteins di昀昀er from one
another primarily in their sequence of amino
acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide
sequence of their genes, and which usually
results in protein folding into a
speci昀椀c three-dimensional structure that
determines its activity.

STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN
The particular series of amino acids that
form a protein is known as that
protein's primary structure. This sequence is
determined by the genetic makeup of the
individual. It speci昀椀es the order of side-chain
groups along the linear polypeptide
"backbone".
Proteins have two types of well-classi昀椀ed,
frequently occurring elements of local
structure de昀椀ned by a particular pattern
of hydrogen bonds along the
backbone: alpha helix and beta sheet. Their
number and arrangement is called
the secondary structure of the protein.
Alpha helices are regular spirals stabilized
by hydrogen bonds between the backbone
CO group (carbonyl) of one amino acid
residue and the backbone NH group (amide)
of the i+4 residue. The spiral has about 3.6
amino acids per turn, and the amino acid
side chains stick out from the cylinder of the
helix. Beta pleated sheets are formed by
backbone hydrogen bonds between
individual beta strands each of which is in
an "extended", or fully stretched-out,
conformation.
When two or more polypeptide chains
(either of identical or of di昀昀erent sequence)
cluster to form a protein, quaternary
structure of protein is formed. Quaternary
structure is an attribute of polymeric (same-
sequence chains) or heteromeric (di昀昀erent-
sequence chains) proteins like hemoglobin,
which consists of two "alpha" and two "beta"
polypeptide chains.

Apoenzymes
An apoenzyme (or, generally, an apoprotein)
is the protein without any small-molecule
cofactors, substrates, or inhibitors bound. It
is often important as an inactive storage,
transport, or secretory form of a protein.
This is required, for instance, to protect the
secretory cell from the activity of that
protein. Apoenzymes becomes active
enzymes on addition of a cofactor. Cofactors
can be either inorganic (e.g., metal ions
and iron-sulfur clusters) or organic
compounds, (e.g., 昀氀avin and heme). Organic
cofactors can be either prosthetic groups,
which are tightly bound to an enzyme,
or coenzymes, which are released from the
enzyme's active site during the reaction.

Isoenzymes
Isoenzymes, or isozymes, are multiple forms
of an enzyme, with slightly di昀昀erent protein
sequence and closely similar but usually not
identical functions. They are either products
of di昀昀erent genes, or else di昀昀erent products
of alternative splicing. They may either be
produced in di昀昀erent organs or cell types to
perform the same function, or several
isoenzymes may be produced in the same
cell type under di昀昀erential regulation to suit
the needs of changing development or
environment. The relative levels of
isoenzymes in blood can be used to
diagnose problems in the organ of secretion.

MONOMERS
A monomer is a molecule that, as a
unit, binds chemically
or supramolecularly to other molecules to
form a supramolecular polymer. Large
numbers of monomer units combine to form
polymers in a process called polymerization.
Molecules of a small number of monomer
units (up to a few dozen) are
called oligomers. The term
"monomeric protein" may also be used to
describe one of the proteins making up
a multiprotein complex.
Biopolymer groupings, and the types of
monomers that create them.
 For lipids (Diglycerides, triglycerides),

the monomers are glycerol and fatty

acids.
 For proteins (Polypeptides), the

monomers are amino acids.

 For Nucleic acids (DNA/RNA), the

monomers are nucleotides, each of

which is made of a pentose sugar, a
nitrogenous base and a phosphate
group.
  For carbohydrates (Polysaccharides
speci昀椀cally and disaccharides—
depends), the monomers
are monosaccharides.

METABOLIC BASIS
FOR LIVING
Metabolic pathways can lead to a more
complex structure from a simpler structure
(for example, acetic acid becomes
cholesterol) or lead to a simpler structure
from a complex structure (for example,
glucose becomes lactic acid in our skeletal
muscle). The former cases are called
biosynthetic pathways
or anabolic pathways. The latter constitute
degradation and hence are
called catabolic pathways. Anabolic
pathways, as expected, consume energy.
Assembly of a protein from amino acids
requires energy input. On the other hand,
catabolic pathways lead to the release of
energy. For example, when glucose is
degraded to lactic acid in our skeletal
muscle, energy is liberated. This metabolic
pathway from glucose to lactic acid which
occurs in 10 metabolic steps is called
glycolysis. Living organisms have learnt to
trap this energy liberated during
degradation and store it in the form of
chemical bonds. As and when needed, this
bond energy is utilized for biosynthetic,
osmotic and mechanical work that we
perform. The most important form of energy
currency in living systems is the bond
energy in a chemical called adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).

THE LIVING
STATE
 Thousand of chemical compound in a
living organism, otherwise called
metabolities or biomolecules are
present at concentration characterstics
of each of them. For example the blood
concentration of glucose in a normal
healthy individual is 4.5-5.0 mm while
that hormone would be nanograms/ml
 The most important fact of biological
system is that all living organism exist in
a steady-stale characterised by
concentration of each of these molecule
 These biomolecules are in metabolic 昀氀ux
 Any chemical or physical process move
simultaneously to equilibrium. The
steady state is non-equlibrium state .
one should remember from the physics
that system at equilibrium cannot
perform work. As living organisms work
continuously ,they cannot a昀昀ord to each
equilibrium. Hence the living state is the
non-equlibrium sready state to be able
to perform work; living process is a
constant e昀昀ort to prevent falling into
equilibrium. This is achieved by energy
input.
 Metabolism provide a mechanismfor the
production of the energy. Hence the
living state and metabolism are
synonomus. Without metabolism there
cannot be living state.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
AND CONCEPT OF
BIOMOLECULES
QUESTION 1 –
Why are biomolecules essential to life?
ANSWER-
Biomolecules are organic molecules especially
macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins
in living organisms. All living forms bacteria,
algae, plant and animals are made of similar
macromolecules that are responsible for life. All
the carbon compounds we get
from living tissues can be called biomolecules.

QUESTION 2-
What is the structure of a biomolecule?
ANSWER-
Biomolecular structure is the intricate folded,
three-dimensional shape that is formed by a
molecule of protein, DNA, or RNA, and that is
important to its function.

QUESTION 3-
What is the function of a biomolecule?
ANSWER-
Proteins make up the majority
of biomolecules present in a cell. These
molecules have enormous variation. Proteins are
responsible for many enzymatic functions in the
cell and play an important structural role .
Proteins are composed of subunits called amino
acids .
QUESTIONS 4-
What is the purpose of biomolecules?
ANSWER
Proteins carry out speci昀椀c functions inside cells,
and they act as enzymes to catalyze reactions all
over the body. ... Proteins are typically large
molecules that can be built up from chains of
amino acids called polypeptides. Nucleic acids
are central to the function of living cells.

QUESTION 5-
What are the biomolecules made of?
ANSWER
Biomolecules are made of building-block
monomers. A monomer is a small molecule that
can be combined chemically with other
monomers to form larger molecules. Monomers
are made up of relatively simple elements. The
most abundant elements in biological monomers
are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

QUESTION 6-
Why biological molecules are important?
ANSWER-
Most biological molecules have a core made of
carbon and hydrogen. Molecules di昀昀er in
structure and function, in part, because of
di昀昀erent functional groups. The major classes
of biological molecules that are important for
all living things are carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids.

QUESTION 7-
Is water a biomolecule?
ANSWER-
A biomolecule is a chemical compound that
naturally occurs in living organisms. ... As clear
from above, the essential constituent of bio-
molecules are carbon and hydrogen,
and water does not contain carbon ,hence, it can
not be considered as a bio-molecule.

QUESTION 8-
What type of biomolecule is an enzyme?
ANSWER-
Enzymes are usually proteins, and they act
as catalysts for reactions. The proteins vary
from enzyme to enzyme, depending on the
location and function. They are always in globular
form, to allow for easy accommodation for the
substrate and active sites.
THANK YOU