International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 98 (2018) 59–66

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ichmt

Latest developments in boiling critical heat flux using nanofluids: A concise T

review
⁎
Mohammed Saad Kamela,b, , Ferenc Lezsovitsa, Adnan M. Husseinc, Omid Mahiana,d,e,f,
Somchai Wongwisesf,g
a
Department of Energy Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111 Budapest, Muegyetem rkp. 3., Hungary
b
Department of Mechanical Techniques, Al-Nasiriya Technical Institute, Southern Technical University, 64001 Thi-Qar, Al-Nasiriya, Iraq
c
Al-Haweeja Institute, Northern Technical University, Iraq
d
Center for Advanced Technologies, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
e
School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, PR China
f
Fluid Mechanics, Thermal Engineering and Multiphase Flow Research Laboratory (FUTURE Lab.), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King
Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Bangmod, Bangkok 10140, Thailand
g
The Academy of Science, The Royal Society of Thailand, Sanam Suea Pa, Dusit, Bangkok 10300, Thailand

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present paper is an overview of the latest developments regarding the application of nanofluids in boiling
Critical heat flux critical heat flux by means of both pool- and convective-flow boiling. Boiling heat transfer is a significant field in
Boiling heat transfer thermal engineering systems, and it is especially used for boiling in power plants as well as the cooling of nuclear
Nanofluids reactors and high-tech electronic systems. This concise review contains efforts to show how nanofluids could
Wettability and porous Nano-layer
play an essential role in achieving high heat flux with small temperature differences during the boiling pro-
cess—which, in turn, improves the critical heat flux (boiling crisis) for such an operation and makes the heat-
exchange system's performance safer and more durable. It is also expected that this work could be a helpful new
reference guide that will allow investigators to update their knowledge on the topic of boiling critical heat flux
using nanofluids. In addition, this work contains concise recommendations for future study directions.

1. Introduction
Nowadays there is an increasing demand for the development of
new products with high heat flux and compact space. For these pro-
ducts with high thermal loads, the liquid-cooling systems are more ef-
ficient than air-cooling systems [1–3]. Adequate cooling fluids are
needed to pass high energy from a solid surface to fluid by applying the
smallest temperature difference per unit time and area in the solid
surface. On the other hand, the active heat transfer modes-for example,
nucleate boiling-will offer a lot of heat transferring per unit area.
Therefore, new and functional cooling fluids should be used to over-
come the inherently poor thermal properties of conventional liquids
such as water, ethylene glycol, and engine oil. During the last decades,
considerable research effort has been devoted to finding new thermal
fluids with thermal properties that adequately satisfy the cooling re-
quirements of these high-tech products.
One of the essential passive techniques is the use of ultrafine par-
ticles, which provide efficient thermal-transport properties, in con-
ventional fluids. The boiling heat transfer has adapted to be one of the
most significant heat transfer modes in many industrial applica-
tions—such cooling compact heat-exchange systems, power plants,
nuclear reactors, and high-tech electronic products. Therefore, the li-
quid-vapor change phase could provide sufficient cooling for high
thermal loads due to the high latent heat of vaporization involved in the
boiling process at a relatively low superheat value [4–10]. An issue
called critical heat flux (CHF), or dry out—which is the most vital
problem related to nucleate boiling—limits the boiling process; con-
trolling this phenomenon will enable the heat-exchange systems to

Abbreviation: CHF, Critical heat flux; DNB, Departure from nucleate boiling; TEM, Transmission electron microscope; SEM, Scanning electron microscope; FESEM,
Field emission scanning electron microscopy; XRD, X-ray diffraction; AFM, Atomic force microscopy; DLS, Dynamic light scattering; PSC, Particle size count test;
MWCNT, Multi-walled carbon nanotubes; DIW, Deionized water; DW, Distilled water; rGO, Reduced graphene oxide; CS, Chitosan; AG, Arabic gum; EG, Ethylene
glycol; AC, Alternating current
⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Energy Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111
Budapest, Muegyetem rkp. 3., Hungary.
E-mail addresses: kamel@energia.bme.hu, kamel86@stu.edu.iq (M.S. Kamel).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2018.08.009

Available online 08 September 2018

0735-1933/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.S. Kamel et al.
Nomenclature
⎯→
⎯q [kW m−2] Heat flux density
x
P [KPa] Pressure system
Dh [mm] Hydraulic diameter
∇T [K. m−1] Gradient temperature
m°[Kg/ s] Mass flow rate
Tw [K] Wall temperature
Tsat [K] Saturation temperature
ρ [Kg/ m3] Density
Ks [W/ m. K] Thermal conductivity of the solid surface
sustain their unity.
Advancement in technology has provided us an opportunity to
produce ultrafine materials on the nanoscale by using physical- or
chemical synthesis methods. Nanofluids are a new class of thermal
fluids that contain a dispersing solid particle of materials such as me-
tals, oxide metals, and ceramics that is usually in the size range of 1 to
100nm [11–17]. A nanometer is very tiny and hard to observe with
human eyes; it is around 1 × 10−9 of a meter and is used to measure
ultrafine things such as the size of atoms, human hair, and blood cells.
It is well recognized that solid materials, especially metals, have
higher thermal conductivities than liquids do. In other words, nano-
fluids were shown to have significantly more-functional thermophysical
properties, especially the thermal conductivity, compared to conven-
tional fluids [18–20].
The aim of this work is to review the latest experimental studies
associated with CHF's enhancement of boiling heat transfer with na-
nofluids from 2016 to date. The collected experimental data are sum-
marized and discussed. In addition, this work highlights the most-im-
portant reasons behind CHF's improvement through the use of
nanofluids. Therefore, this work will be useful for investigators who are
interested in the field of boiling heat transfers that involve the use of
nanofluids.
2. The mechanism of boiling heat transfer
Boiling heat transfer happens when the temperature of a solid sur-
face, Tw, is sufficiently above the saturation temperature, Tsat, of the
liquid that contacts the solid surface. It is a phase change from a liquid
state to a vapor state in which the vapor bubbles grow and collapse to
bulk fluid. Boiling heat transfer is one of the most effective heat transfer
modes, and it has been used in a variety of technological and industrial
applications related to heat-exchange systems, energy conversion, and
the cooling of high-power electronics and nuclear reactors [21–23].
Nukiyama introduced the first attempt at establishing a criterion for
boiling heat transfer [24,25]; he was the pioneer who conducted the
first experimental investigation of boiling heat transfer in 1934 in
Japan. He used a platinum heating wire as a heating element inside a
water test chamber at 100 °C, and the wire's electrical resistance mea-
sured the temperature of the surface heater during the run. His results
indicated that the heat of the boiling water increased rapidly as the wire
was heated above 100 °C; this increase continued until the temperature
of the heating element reached about 149 °C, which is the point of CHF.
Since that experiment, investigators of boiling heat transfer area have
carried out intensive efforts to understand this phenomenon [26–29].
Bulk-fluid motion boiling is classified into two main categories: pool
boiling and flow boiling (forced convective boiling). In next portion, we
will concisely explain them.
As reported above, when the liquid is in contact with the heating
surface, boiling will happen at the solid-fluid interface if the tempera-
ture of the solid surface is significantly above the saturation tempera-
ture of the fluid. Boiling can be divided into two main types. Pool
boiling is a type of boiling heat transfer in which the heating surface is
60
International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 98 (2018) 59–66
Greek letters
φ [%] Phi (Volume friction)
μ [Ps.a] Mu (Viscosity)
Subscripts
x x-direction
sat saturation
w wall
submerged in a pool of stationary liquid. The buoyancy effect of the
produced vapor plays a vital role in circulating the fluid near the
heating surface; thus, bubbles grow and collapse into the bulk fluid.
During past decades, many investigators have studied pool boiling heat
transfer [30,31] in order to understand this mechanism. Forced con-
vective flow boiling has been used in more industrial applications
compared to pool boiling [32,33]. It refers to the boiling of a moving
stream of fluid within the heating surface that carries it.
3. Critical heat flux
Heat flux in boiling heat-transfer applications is one of the main
parameters for controlling and operating the heat-transfer systems with
high flux densities that are used in boilers, evaporators, and the cooling
of electronic devices and nuclear reactors. The boiling process has a
thermal limit at which the departure from nucleate boiling occurs,
depending on boiling conditions. This point called CHF, or dry out,
causes overwhelming problems for heat surfaces due to the sudden
increase in surface temperature and abrupt decrease in the heat transfer
rate [1,34–37,53]. In such circumstances, the most critical issue is that
the boiling efficiency is directly interlinked with the failure of the
materials of the heating surface. Thus, it is essential to control the CHF
to ensure the safety of the heat-exchange systems. Considerable efforts
have been made to improve boiling CHF by applying attractive
methods, and one of these involves the use of nanofluids as working
fluids in the boiling process. In next sections, we will describe the latest
enhancement studies of CHF using nanofluids.
4. Recent progress on boiling critical heat flux using nanofluids
Transferring a large heat flux with small-wall superheating is the
primary concern of scientists and researchers in the area of boiling heat
transfer. Many efforts have been made after 2003 to study the perfor-
mance of boiling heat transfer using nanofluids due to its potential
application in various heat-exchange systems. Gathered data from the
Scopus database show the latest experimental investigations on the
topic of the CHF of boiling heat transfer using nanofluids in both pool
and flow boiling. The most current record is presented in Fig. 1—which
clearly shows that more than 30 articles, conference papers, review
papers, etc. that are related with studies of the CHF of boiling using
nanofluids have been published since 2016. All reviewed studies in the
survey explain that the primary reasons for CHF improvement are the
porous layers created by nanoparticle deposition as well as the effective
thermophysical properties of nanofluids [40–60]. The modification of
the geometry and topology of the heating surface during the boiling of
nanofluids plays a crucial role in improving the features of a solid
surface by changing many parameters such as surface roughness,
wettability, and porosity for developed nanolayers. However, it has
been shown that it is not difficult to enhance CHF by up to 200% by
using low concentrations of nanoparticles [51,57].
Since Choi and his team [18] in 1995 detected the term of nano-
fluids at Argonne National Laboratory, USA, researchers have
M.S. Kamel et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 98 (2018) 59–66

abnormal increases of the wall superheat temperatures for the TiO2 and
SiO2 nanofluids took place when the heat flux was sufficiently high.
They considered that this behavior was due to the partial detachment of
the nanoparticle porous layer produced on the heating surface. They
concluded from the experimental results that the CHF of all of the na-
nofluids increased several times compared with water. In addition, the
maximum CHF value was measured for the Al2O3-based water nano-
fluid with a high particle concentration compared with other nano-
particle types.
Cheedarala et al. [47] prepared an eco-friendly nanofluid by dis-
persing cupric oxide (CuO)-chitosan nanocomposite into deionized
water to produce a stable and highly efficient nanofluid. They used
various weight concentrations of CuO-chitosan in the range of
0.003–0.06 wt% and then dispersed the nanocomposite into the base
fluid (DIW). Their results indicated that the maximum enhancement for
CHF was up to 79% with a 0.06 wt% for nanofluids. In addition, their
Fig. 1. Annual publications on CHF of boiling using Nanofluids searched on results demonstrated that the roughness of the NieCr wire heater sur-
Scopus database in 7- February- 2018. face was used due to the presence of the porous layer, which formed
during the boiling process, thus increasing the wettability of the heating
surface and reducing the contact angle for the liquid droplet on the
investigated the heat transfer performance of thermal conductivity,
surface. Fig. 4 displays the scanning electron microscope used to detect
convective heat transfer, and boiling heat transfer using nanofluids
the porous layer that formed on the heater surface following the boiling
[38]. The results that Das et al. [39] obtained were somewhat contrary
process for several mass fractions of nanocomposite-materials-based
to expectations and thus caused the researchers to reconsider the ex-
deionized water.
pected behavior of boiling using nanofluids. The investigators con-
Paul et al. [48] introduced an experimental investigation placing
ducted more studies to determine the truth behind the contrary find-
emphasis on the apparent rewetting temperature of a vertical tube with
ings. The recently available results on the effect of nanofluids on boiling
upward flow via an alumina-based water nanofluid. Their results re-
CHF are discussed in the next section. Table 1 summarizes the state-of-
vealed that the enhanced CHF using nanofluids could be a return to the
the-art experimental studies on boiling CHF using nanofluids by means
deposition of nanoparticles, which results in the formation of several
of both pool and flow boiling heat transfer.
micro-cavities. Therefore, this could modify the surface wettability and
He et al. [41] experimentally investigated the CHF of the pool
roughness, in turn increasing the nucleation site density responsible for
boiling heat transfer of ethylene glycol (EG) and deionized water
the earlier collapse of the vapor film. Moreover, they studied the in-
mixtures with ZnO nanoparticles in various mixture concentrations.
fluence of the initial wall temperature on the variation of heat flux with
Their results indicated that the CHF improved for ZnO nanofluids
the presence of the nanofluids as displayed in Fig. 5. The results in-
compared with deionized water as displayed in Fig. 2. It can be clearly
dicated that an enhancement of the CHF occurs with increasing the
seen that the boiling curve representing heat flux versus superheat
initial wall temperature for both water and nanofluids due to the re-
temperature was shifted to the left using a 75:25 EG-to-deionized water
wetting of the liquid inside the tube.
DIW mixture concentration. It can be concluded from their work that
Akbari et al. [49] used silver-nanoparticle-based distilled water
the CHF enhanced significantly for all nanofluids compared to host
nanofluids with re-entrant inclined angle minichannels on the copper
fluid.
heating surface to study the CHF of the saturated pool boiling process.
Sarafraz et al. [42] adopted a chemical sol-gel method for synthe-
Their study focused on examining various parameters, such as the mi-
sizing zirconium oxide nanoparticles. They experimentally studied the
crostructure, the surface topography, and the contact angle of the
pool boiling CHF of zirconium oxide nanofluids on a discoid copper
heating surface following the deposition of a silver nanolayer during
heater. Their results demonstrated that the porous nanolayer produced
the boiling process. In their work, the test chamber for the boiling
on a heating surface is responsible for enhancing the CHF point up to
process consisted of a test specimen (copper conical shape), which was
29% via a decreased contact angle for the liquid drop on the surface, in
submerged in working fluids inside a Pyrex container at atmospheric
turn improving the wettability and capillary wicking forces. Fig. 3
pressure as schematically displayed in Fig. 6. Their results indicated
displays the CHF enhancement values with a superheat wall for various
that through the increase of the nanofluid concentration, the CHF in-
mass fractions.
creased up to 50% for re-entrant–inclined minichannels compared with
Sarafraz et al. [44] conducted an experimental study of the pool
inclined minichannels and up to 90% compared with a plane polished
boiling heat transfer of aqueous alumina nanofluids. They studied the
copper surface. Moreover, the nanoporous layer of the polished surface
enhancement of heat flux up to the critical point for the concentric
caused an increase in the contact angle due to the hydrophobic beha-
circular microstructure surface, which they modified by using the
vior.
computer numerical control machine technique with various geome-
Ali et al. [50] experimentally studied pool boiling heat transfer
trical specifications. Their results indicated that the CHF significantly
enhancement by using a TiO2-based water nanofluid. They found that
improved for nanofluids as expected. Moreover, the enhancement of the
the CHF increased approximately 13% for the weight concentration and
CHF was increased via increasing the mass concentration of the given
15% for the TiO2-based water nanofluid compared with 12% for the
nanofluid, the nanoparticle size, and the interspace between micro-
weight concentration of the used nanoparticles.
structures as well. The main reasons for CHF improvement are capillary
Ham et al. [51] conducted an experimental study of pool boiling
wicking action and the role of the inflow liquid inside the fouling layer.
characteristics using Al2O3-nanoparticle-based deionized water. They
Sulaiman et al. [46] carried out an experimental investigation of
focused on investigating the effect of surface roughness on the CHF
heat transfer performance in saturated pool boiling using nanofluids.
using nanofluids. Their results revealed that the CHF at surfaces with a
Their work tested the influence of nanoparticle types (TiO2, Al2O3, and
roughness of 177.5 nm and 292.8 nm improved by 224.8% and 138.5%
SiO2), concentration, and two kinds of dispersion conditions (fine and
respectively. On the other hand, the CHF deteriorated for a high-vo-
coarse dispersions) on the boiling heat transfer characteristics in satu-
lume concentration of nanofluids for both levels of surface roughness,
rated pool boiling using nanofluids. Their results revealed that
and the reason behind this is the decreasing of the wettability of the

61

Table 1
Summarized studies of boiling CHF using nanofluids since 2016 up to date.
Ref/ year
Sarafraz and Hormozi [40]/
2016
He et al. [41]/ 2016
Sarafraz et al. [42]/ 2016
Sarafraz et al. [43]/ 2016
Sarafraz et al. [44]/ 2016
Kamatchi et al. [45]/ 2016
Sulaiman et al. [46]/ 2016
62
Cheedarala et al. [47]/ 2016
Paul et al. [48]/ 2016
Akbari et al. [49]/ 2017
Ali et al. [50]/ 2017
Ham et al. [51]/ 2017
Ciloglu [52]/ 2017
Hashemi and Noie [53]/
2017
Choi et al. [54]/ 2017
Dareh et al. [55]/ 2017
Kshirsagar and Shrivastava
[56]/ 2018
*Data not recorded
M.S. Kamel et al.
Nanofluids; Concentration of nanomaterials %; Boiling type Heating surface geometry Surface analysis Remark on CHF
diameter (nm)
MWCNT/ DIW; 0.1–0.3 wt%; D = 10–20 nm and Pool boiling Discoid copper heater XRD and TEM Enhanced up to 95% for 0.3% mass fraction.
L = 1500–2000 nm
ZnO/ DIW-EG with (75:25, 85:15 and 95:5 by Pool boiling Ni-Cr wire heater SEM Improved for nanofluids.
volume) of EG and DW; 5.25 wt%; 30
ZrO2/ W-EG with (50:50); 0.025–0.1 Vol%; 20–25 Pool boiling Discoid copper heater SEM, XRD and PSC Increased for nanofluids up to 29%.
CNT/ DIW; 0.1–0.3 wt%; D = 10–20 nm and Pool boiling Discoid copper heater SEM, XRD and TEM Improved using functionalized CNT nanofluids up to 31%.
L = 1500–2000 nm
Al2O3/ DIW; 0.1–0.3 wt%; 20 and 50 Pool boiling Discoid copper heater TEM, XRD, Thermograph Enhanced with increase concentration, particle size and
TG165 camera and PSC interspace between microstructures.
rGO/ DIW; 0.1–3 wt%; Flakes thickness Pool boiling Ni-Cr wire heater SEM and XRD Enhanced about 145 to 245%.
26,000–47,000 nm
Al2O3/ DIW; 0.04–1 wt%; 13 Pool boiling Discoid copper heater * Increased about 2.5–3 times higher than that for pure water
TiO2/ DIW; 0.04–1 wt%; 21 for all nanofluids.
SiO2/ DIW; 0.04–1 wt%; 20
CuO-chitosan (CS)/ DIW; 0.003–0.06 wt%; * Pool boiling Ni-Cr wire heater XRD, SEM, TEM, AFM and XRPS Improved about 79% for 0.06 wt% CuO-CS nanofluid.
Al2O3/ water; 0.1 and 0.3 Vol%; 26 Flow boiling Stainless steel (SS316) tube with direct FESEM Enhanced with nanofluid compared to water and this
electrical Joule heating method enhancement increase with increasing concentration of
particles
Ag/ water; 0.025–0.05 Vol%; 20 Pool boiling Discoid copper heater SEM and Camera Enhanced up to 50%.
TiO2/ water; 12 and 15 wt%; 5–30 Pool boiling Discoid copper heater * Increased about 13% for 15% weight concentration.
Al2O3/ DIW; 0.001–0.1 Vol%; 50 Pool boiling Brass bar with discoid copper 3D optical profiler Increased for surface roughness up to 224.8% at
concentration 0.05 Vol%.
SiO2/ DIW; 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 Vol%; 20 Pool boiling Hemispherical copper block heater AFM Improved up to 45% for nanofluid.
MWCNT/ water; 0.001 and 0.01 Wt%; Flow boiling Stainless steel grade 316 with direct * Increased for flow boiling of nanofluid.
D = 10–20 nm and L = 30,000 nm electrical Joule heating method
Fe3O4/ DIW; 0.01 Vol%; 25 Flow boiling Stainless steel grade 316 SEM Enhanced up to 40% for nanofluid compared to water.
Al2O3/ DIW; 0.0025–0.01 Vol%; 20–25 Pool boiling Discoid copper heater TEM and SEM Enhanced in boiling of 0.01 Vol% nanofluids for both
polished and machined surface up to 20% and 25%
respectively.
Al2O3/ DW; 0.3–1.5 wt%; 30 Pool boiling Ni-Cr wire heater SEM and XRD Improved with increasing concentration and maximum
enhancement about 87% at 1.5 wt%.
International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 98 (2018) 59–66
M.S. Kamel et al.
Fig. 2. Heat flux vs. superheat for ZnO-EG/DW nanofluids (Reprinted from He
et al. [41], with permission from Elsevier.)
Fig. 3. Heat flux enhancement vs. temperature difference at different mass
concentrations of ZrO2 (Reprinted from Sarafraz et al. [42], with permission
from Elsevier.)
contact liquid.
Ciloglu [52] carried out an experimental study of nucleate pool
boiling heat transfer by using a SiO2-based deionized water nanofluid.
His results indicated that the CHF improved up to 45% for nanofluids
with an increase in the concentration of SiO2 nanoparticles. It can be
concluded from his findings that the main reason for CHF enhancement
is the reduction of the contact angle between the liquid droplets and the
surface. This, in turn, enhanced the surface wettability that led to CHF
improvement.
Hashemi and Noie [53] investigated flow-boiling CHF by using
multi-walled carbon nanotubes inside a 10-mm horizontal stainless
steel tube at atmospheric pressure. In their study, to obtain a stable
nanofluid, they used gum arabic as a stabilizer in 1:1 concentrations,
and they found the stability by using the zeta potential technique. Their
experimental results revealed that the CHF could improve using a na-
nofluid compared with pure water.
Choi et al. [54] experimentally studied the subcooled flow boiling
CHF by using magnetite-nanoparticle-based deionized water. Their re-
sults indicated that the CHF improved up to 40%, and this enhancement
increased with the increasing of the mass flux in a slug flow region.
They used the liquid sublayer to dry out the model and Kelvin-Helm-
holtz instability to evaluate the influence of the deposited porous layer
63
International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 98 (2018) 59–66
on CHF behavior. The main reason for CHF improvement was the re-
duction of the contact angle, which led to an increase of the wettability
of the surface.
From all of the above-reported studies, investigators and scientists
concluded that two essential purposes exist behind CHF enhancement
using nanofluids as working fluids. They include bulk effects, or the
improvement of the thermophysical properties of nanofluids, and sur-
face modification effects, which are due to the deposition of a nano-
porous layer on the heating surface during the boiling process. Fig. 7
displays the main effect factors on boiling the CHF for both pool and
convective flow boiling heat transfer using nanofluids. However, it is
difficult to interlink the physical meaning and the experimental results
of the investigators. Hence, increased efforts should be made to un-
derstand thoroughly the physical mechanism of CHF improvement.
5. Conclusion and recommendation
The latest studies on the topic of boiling CHF using nanofluids have
been reviewed and briefly discussed in the present work. It can be
concluded from all of the reported studies since 2016 until the present
that a significant increase in CHF occurs when nanofluids are used. In
addition, it was not difficult to find improvement of up to 40% in
boiling essential heat flux. The reason for this has to do with many
issues related to surface modification as well as the active thermo-
physical properties of nanofluids themselves. The following conclusions
can be drawn from the above-reported studies associated with the CHF
using nanofluids.
- No study over the past two years has been conducted to determine if
the deterioration of the CHF occurs when nanofluids are used.
Therefore, using nanofluids as a working fluid in boiling applica-
tions is considered to be quite useful for achieving high heat flux via
a small wall superheat temperature.
- Although the nanolayer (porous layer) produced due to the de-
position of the nanoparticles was the main reason for the enhance-
ment of boiling CHF, the nanoparticles' suspension in bulk fluid
might also be a reason that cannot be overlooked.
- Many explanations concerning the improvement of boiling CHF
using nanofluids were discussed, with the main reasons being the
wettability of the heating surface due to the decrease of the contact
angle and the capillary wicking forces as a result of the growth of
the porous nanolayer.
- The surface roughness of the heating surface also was an essential
parameter for enhancement of CHF, and it is directly interlinked
with a deposited porous layer of nanoparticles, and this was assured
by some reviewed studies.
- There are a few studies related to the CHF of convective flow boiling
heat transfer, and this is perhaps due to the complexity to conduct
the experimental facility for such type of boiling.
Investigators and scientists have accepted that two significant pur-
poses exist for the enhancement of boiling CHF using nanofluids: the
bulk fluid effects related to the improvement of the thermophysical
properties of nanofluids, and the surface modification effects associated
with wettability, surface roughness, active nucleation sites, etc.
However, the following are some the future directions for the topic of
CHF using nanofluids:
• Using other types of nanoparticles of varying sizes and in various
concentrations will be a promising enhancement passive method,
but a cost-effective approach should also be considered to select a
cheaper nanomaterial synthesis method.
• Combining the application of boiling using nanofluids and micro-
structured surfaces may provide superior heat flux density.
• Various micro-structured surface characteristics should be tested on
boiling heat transfer, such as surface roughness, minichannels, and
M.S. Kamel et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 98 (2018) 59–66

Fig. 4. Formed porous layers and the corresponding contact angle: (a–c) bare wire, (d–f) 0.003 wt%, (g–i) 0.006 wt%, (j–l) 0.03 wt%, and (m–o) 0.06 wt%
CuO–chitosan nanofluid coatings (Reprinted from Cheedarala et al. [47], with permission from Elsevier.).

Fig. 5. Influence of initial surface temperature on the boing curves for both Fig. 6. The boiling chamber presented (Reprinted from Akbari et al. [49], with
water and nanofluid (coolant injection rate Q = 0.02667 Kg/s and distance permission from Elsevier.).
from the bottom of the tube Z = 580 mm) (Reprinted from Paul et al. [48], with
permission from Elsevier.)

64
M.S. Kamel et al.
Fig. 7. The factors affect the boiling CHF using nanofluids.
microchannels with various orientations and shapes.
•
Applying combined enhancement methods, such as using a magnetic
field with ferrofluids (magnetic nanoparticles), is a promising heat
transfer enhancement method.
•
New eco-friendly and highly efficient nanocomposites (nano-
particles and polysaccharides) should be prepared and tested for the
boiling heat transfer process (i.e., strong starch or glycogen poly-
saccharides with various nanoparticles).
•
Hybrid nanofluids with two or more nanoparticles types should be
applied with mixture base fluids, for example, ethylene glycol/
water and glycerine/ water in various concentrations.
Acknowledgment
The authors acknowledge the Hungary Government for their fi-
nancial support as the Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarship. In addi-
tion, the authors would like to thank the Tempus Public Foundation
(TPF) in Hungary for their continued administrative support since the
application stage until the graduation. The fifth author acknowledges
the support provided by the “Research Chair Grant” National Science
and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) and King Mongkut's
University of Technology Thonburi through the “KMUTT 55th
Anniversary Commemorative Fund”.
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