UNIT -2

(LISTENING & SPEAKING SKILLS)

ACTIVE LISTENING: MEANING

To listen is to give attention to sound or action. When listening, one is hearing what others
are saying, and trying to understand what it means. The act of listening involves complex
affective, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Listening is the ability to accurately receive
and interpret messages in the communication process. Listening is key to all effective
communication. Without the ability to listen effectively, messages are easily misunderstood.
Listening is often confused with hearing. While hearing is a biological process, listening is
neurological cognitive regarding the process of auditory stimuli received by the auditory
system. It is psycho-physical activity that demands attention to words as well as gestures.

IMPORTANCE OF LISTENING

The importance of listening is to make a conscious effort not to just hear what people are
saying but to take it in, digest it and understand. Listening does not only enhance your
ability to understand better and make you a better communicator, but also makes the
experience of speaking to you more enjoyable to other people. Listening is a critical skill
and Learning is a result of listening.

Difference between Listening and Hearing

Hearing is through ears, but listening is through the mind.” The two activities hearing and
listening involve the use of ears, but they are different. The hearing is nothing but a sense
that helps you receive sound waves and noise by ears. It is the power of perceiving sounds.
On the contrary, listening is when you receive the sound waves and understand it by paying
full attention to the words and sentences of the speaker. It is one’s ability to correctly
receive and interpret the message transferred by the other party in the process of
communication.
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON HEARING LISTENING

Hearing refers to one's ability to Listening is something done consciously,

Meaning perceive sounds, by receiving that involve the analysis and
vibrations through ears. understanding of the sounds you hear.

What is it? An ability A skill

Nature Primary and continuous Secondary and temporary

Act Physiological Psychological

Interpretation of the message received by

Involves Receipt of message through ears.
ears.

Process Passive bodily process Active mental process

Occurs at Subconscious level Conscious level

Use of senses Only one More than one

We are neither aware nor we have We listen to acquire knowledge and

Reason
any control over the sounds we hear. receive information.

Concentration Not required Required

Active listening refers to a pattern of listening that keeps you engaged with your
conversation partner in a positive way. It is the process of listening attentively while someone
else speaks, paraphrasing and reflecting back what is said, and withholding judgment and
advice. It is a technique that is used in counselling, training, and solving disputes or
conflicts. It requires the listener to fully concentrate, understand, respond and then
remember what is being said. This helps in recognizing other's perspectives and feelings and
appreciating them. This not only helps in resolving conflicts but also helps foster a culture
of respect. Try to understand others' perspectives before responding.

Three Components to Active listening are:-

Comprehend. The listener pays attention to the speaker's verbal and non-verbal
language to fully understand what they're trying to communicate.
Retain. The listener tries to remember key points of the speaker's message using their
memory or via note-taking.
Respond. The listener tries to answer the speaker’s message as per his/her
understanding of meanings.

The benefits of active listening

Connecting listening skills to better leadership,

Better understand and make connections between ideas and information;
Change perspectives and challenge assumptions;
Empathize and show respect or appreciation, which can enhance our relationships; and
build self-esteem.
Can also help in making better impressions on employers

For Example: At the interview you really want the job, but you are really nervous. As a
result, you are having trouble paying attention to what the CEO of the company is saying in
your final interview. She asks you if you have any questions, and you ask something you
were wondering about in the elevator on the way up to this penthouse office. You’re unlikely
to get the job if you ask something she’s just talked about. Even if you, somehow, convince
her to hire you, you will make little progress at the firm if your supervisors often have to tell
you things again, or you make decisions that cost the company in lost profits because you
weren’t listening effectively in a team meeting. Hence, active listening can well be the
difference between profit and loss, between success and failure, between a long career and a
short one.

TYPES OF LISTENING:-
 1. Discriminative listening: - is first developed at a very early age perhaps even before
birth, in the womb. This is the most basic form of listening and does not involve the
understanding of the meaning of words or phrases but merely the different sounds that
are produced. In early childhood, for example, a distinction is made between the
sounds of the voices of the parents – the voice of the father sounds different to that of
the mother. We also develop the ability to recognize subtle differences in the way that
sounds are made – this is fundamental to ultimately understanding what these sounds
mean. Differences include many subtleties, recognizing foreign languages,
distinguishing between regional accents and clues to the emotions and feelings of the
speaker. Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is
happy or sad, angry or stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually
being said and aids communication.
2. Comprehensive listening: - it involves understanding the message or messages that are
being communicated. In order to be able use comprehensive listening and

therefore gain understanding the listener first needs appropriate vocabulary and language
skills. This problem can be multiplied in a group setting, like a classroom or business
meeting where numerous different meanings can be derived from what has been said.
Comprehensive listening is complemented by sub-messages from non-verbal
communication, such as the tone of voice, gestures and other body language. These non-
verbal signals can greatly aid communication and comprehension but can also confuse and
potentially lead to misunderstanding. In many listening situations, it is vital to seek
clarification and use skills such as reflection aid comprehension.

1. Informational listening: - Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in
informational listening. For example: - in day-to-day situations, in education and at
work, when you listen to the news, watch a documentary, when a friend tells you a
recipe etc. Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of
listening. When we’re listening to learn or be instructed we are taking in new
information and facts, we are not criticizing or analyzing. Informational listening,
especially in formal settings like in work meetings or while in education, is often
accompanied by note taking – a way of recording key information so that it can be
reviewed later.
 1. Critical listening: - In critical listening, the goal is to evaluate or scrutinize what is being
said. Critical listening is a much more active behavior than informational listening and
usually involves some sort of problem solving or decision-making. Our opinions, values
and beliefs are based on our ability to process information and formulate our own
feelings about the world around us. It is often important, when listening critically to
have an open-mind and not be biased by stereotypes or

preconceived ideas. By doing we will become a better listener and broaden our knowledge
as well as perception of other people and relationships.

1. Empathic listening: - It involves attempting to understand the feelings and emotions of

the speaker – to put yourself into the speaker’s shoes and share their thoughts.
Different from sympathy it involves a deeper connection – a realization and
understanding of another person’s point of view. Showing empathy is a desirable trait in
many interpersonal relationships – we may well feel more comfortable talking about our
own feelings and emotions with a particular person. They are likely to be better at
listening empathetically to us than others, this is often because of similar perspectives,
experiences, beliefs and values – a good friend, your spouse, a parent or sibling for
example.

Some other types of listening are:

Active listening
Passive listening
Appreciative listening (e.g. Musical/cultural programmes)
Conversational listening (it implies a constant exchange in the roles of speaker & listener)
Courteous listening

** If listening is done well, the “communication loop” is effectively completed between

speaker and receiver. The speaker shares a message with the receiver, having selected a
particular method to communicate that message. The receiver aims to interpret the message
and share understanding of the message with the speaker. We know that communication
effectiveness is determined by the level of shared interpretation of the message reached
through listener response and feedback. When
done successfully, the loop is complete, and both sender and receiver feel connected. The
active listener who employs the positive attribute is more likely to be better liked, he/she
also likely to be better able to reduce tension in situations and resolve conflict. Truly
listening to the words of a speaker is sure to make a positive difference in your interactions
whether they are academic, professional, or personal.

Stages of Listening Process

There are six stages of listening given as below:

Hearing
It refers to the response caused by sound waves stimulating the sensory receptors of the ear.
Therefore, the reception of sound waves, which we know as hearing, does not mean that
there is any conscious perception of what is being heard.

Attention

Our senses are constantly bombarded by countless stimuli from the world around us.
However, your brain screens these stimuli and permits only a few to come into focus. This
selective perception is known as attention.

Understanding

Hearing and perceiving a sound are not enough to enable meaningful messages to be
received. The next step understands the symbols we have seen and heard. To do this, we
must analyze the meaning of the stimuli we have perceived.

Remembering

Remembering is important to the listening process because it means that an individual has
also added it to the minds storage bank.

Evaluating

It is at this point that the active listener weighs evidence, sort fact from opinion, and
determines the presence or absence of bias or prejudice in a message.

Responding

This stage of the process requires that the receiver complete the process through verbal
and/or nonverbal feedback.

Factors Affecting Listening

 Environmental Setting
The Message Source (vis-à-vis Speakers Image/Reputation/Credibility, etc.)
The Message

Channel
The Listener: (a) Listeners Attitude (b) Listeners Needs (c) Listening Habits

Tips for Effective Listening

Look for Benefits/Opportunity from your point of view

Judge the content (not the appearance or delivery-style of speaker)
Avoid making a judgement until the message is complete
Listen for Central Themes or Ideas
Take fewer notes
Work hard to listen
Resist Distractions
Seek out difficult material rather than avoid it
Keep an open mind when incorporating an emotional word with which you are
comfortable
Listen between the lines (by remembering that THOUGHT is FASTER than
SPEECH!)

ART OF LISTENING

We turn to various forms of listening modes during communication, in different situations

depending on moods, mindset, topic, time of the day, relevance and importance. The
following strategies discussed below will help us to identify the difference between Active
and Passive listeners as well as helping us to develop the active listening skills.

There are three "A’s," which are attitude, attention, and adjustment, play a key role in
listening skills. Once you understand how these impact your listening, they most
likely will stay in your mind and keep you on your toes when it comes to the times you need
them the most.

Paying Attention: - We often listen to communication in an unconscious manner;

(watching TV while eating or talking). By not being active improper listening is very
harmful as communication is prone to distortion, which will also lead to waste of time.
The active listener shows keenness through expressions and alertness, by asking
questions about speech, if required express listener’s ideas (physical and psychological).
Active listening skills can also be improved by listening to commentaries on TV, radio
by concentrating on themes, ideas etc.
Physical Appearance: - expressions, bodily movement and postures play an important
role in conveying meaning. They are involuntary therefore truthful. In order to
enhance listening skills, one should pay attention to physical messages conveyed by the
speaker in order to access accuracy and sincerity in the speech.
Focus on the Speaker: - try to focus on the flow of the thought and try to ignore other
feelings like take equal interest in the speeches as speakers. As a wise listener one must
look for valid reasons for criticism, adopting a receptive and constructive attitude to
criticism can lead to self-improvement. ● Dealing with distractions:- one often faces
distractions due to presence of an attractive face in the room, or with the smell of
perfume, also with the period of continuous learning people get tired and lose interest
in the messages, it feels hard to stay with the messages it is called “brain time”. To
overcome the distraction, one should try to stay active by anticipating, try to grasp and
recall the speech better, exercise mental discipline to remain focused on the message.
Don’t focus on fragmented messages and don’t interrupt the speaker in between, never
jump to conclusions. Effective listening is possible only when the listener patiently
listens to the complete speech, puts conscious efforts, no awkward postures, be
mentally prepared with energy and a positive attitude.

For example: - superiors should take care to provide an ambience conductive to

sympathetically hear their subordinates.

Do’s and Don'ts in Listening:-

 1. Do’s:- mentally prepared, understanding, evaluating speech not the speaker, unbiased
to the speaker, fight distractions, be open minded, ask questions (for clarity),
paraphrase from time to time, send appropriate nonverbal signals.
2. Don'ts:- undue emphasis on the vocabulary, too much attention to clothes accessories
etc., prepare your responses while the speaker is speaking, hold prejudices, distracted by
outside influences, concentrate too hard, interrupt too often, show boredom.

Characteristics of a Good Listener: - Listening actively, engaging positively, participating

fully, encouraging the speaker consciously, don’t pretend to show interest as glazed eye
contact or strained expressions will give you away

READING SKILLS

Reading is to mind what exercise is to the body, to enhance knowledge. Reading

comprehension is the ability to process text, understand its meaning, and to integrate with
what the reader already knows.

The proficiency in reading refers to self-esteem improvement. In order to enhance

proficiency in reading we should adopt methods like; reading various materials, long
proportion reading, circle unknown words, recall and improve understanding while
reading, improve attention and concentration, promote personal involvement and critical
thinking.

Techniques for Good comprehension or Reading Style:-

1. Skimming:- It is the quick process, previewing the text(read quickly) for getting a gist
of something and noticing details in order to understand the text, the type, purpose of
the author and general contents. The technique you use when you're going through a
 newspaper or magazine: you read quickly to get the main points, and skip over the
detail.

It's useful to skim: - to preview a passage before you read it in detail to refresh your
understanding of a passage after you've read it in detail.

1. Scanning: - It means reading slowly and carefully while looking for specific information
or focus. The technique you use when you're looking up a name in the phone book:
you move your eye quickly over the page to find particular words or phrases that are
relevant to the task you're doing. It's useful to scan parts of texts to see if they are useful
to you; like, the introduction or preface of a book the first or last paragraphs of
chapters, the concluding chapter of a book.
2. Churning:- this process is slower in reading style that involves grasping of concepts. It
means “chewing the cud” (churning out butter from milk) i.e. contemplating or
analyzing/ extracting meanings from the words or sentences in order to follow the
process of interpretation. After you skim and scan the text quickly to get the core idea
and a general gist’s of the content. In order words you must have a slow reading of the
text once or twice so as to understand its primary and secondary ideas in detail.

The process involves:-

Reading between the lines- to understand the hidden meanings and intention behind the
explicitly stated words. This means to understand the implied meaning or what

is being unsaid by ‘connecting the dots’. Suppose, one of your friends says, ‘i am eagerly
looking for your birthday party’. But when you say ‘I am afraid it may be cancelled for
some reasons’ he/she doesn't appear to be concerned. In such situations you can understand
that your friend is not interested in your birthday party.

Inferring meanings- lexical and contextual- this refers to enhancing your vocabulary can boost
your reading speed and comprehension. Good vocabulary enables you to detect subtle
differences in sentence meaning that may hold the key to the meaning of an entire paragraph or
passage. We can categorize the word knowledge into four categories:-

1. I never saw it before.

2. I have heard of it but don't know what it means.
3. I recognize it in context- it has something to do with…
4. I know it.

Reading requires you to make inferences that depend on the prior knowledge-lexical word
and contextual meanings. This is the first step towards understanding a written message, one
needs to perceive words and phrases used to recognize their definitions to follow what you
read. The words in isolation convey one meaning but words integrated (linked) groups
convey another i.e. special meanings.

Therefore it is necessary:-

To have domain knowledge to give meanings to otherwise confusing sentences. (Know

individual meanings of words).
Example: - gigantic and luminous; the earliest star formed like a pearl inside a shell of
swirling gas.
Don't stop reading when you are not able to recall the word meanings.
Get a clue of the meaning of a word from the text.

Meaning of an unknown word through its extended definition or stated qualities.

If you know antonyms you can guess the meaning.
Remembering words through appropriate phrases; “hallowed halls of academia”.

Understanding the discourse of coherence- it refers to logical development of ideas through

a piece of writing on a particular subject. It uses a variety of expressions like; but, yet, so,
as, since, while, whereas, nonetheless, despite, consequently, either, indeed, eventually, hence,
in conclusion. These words are used to join the ideas to one another and are called
‘connectors’ or ‘signal words’, it shows the connection between what has been written and
what is going to be written.

To achieve discourse of coherence- avoid short sentences, maintain logical organization of

sentences, and transition up to your use.
4. Assimilation: - it refers to taking in or comprehending the text so you can answer the
questions based on the text. It is the end process after skimming, scanning and churning.

It includes:-

Structure of the text- most text starts with title and sometimes subtitle, after that comes the
introduction and the body followed by conclusion and summary. An important aspect of
reading is prediction. The better you can predict what you are going to read, the faster and
more effectively you will read. The prediction process begins with the title as we take a
guess about the text when paragraphs are linked in a way to put subject matter prediction
in the right way.

Structure of a paragraph- A typical paragraph consists of three parts: - topic (heart of the
paragraph, the topic sentences contains the new aspects of the subject of the text; the
second part consists of sentences which develops support for the topic

sentence. It may contain arguments, explanations, details, examples, and other supporting
evidence. The third part of the paragraph is often summary or linking sentences to the next
paragraph.

Punctuation- it is partly based on grammar. Commas are used to separate clauses. If you
understand the meaning and usage of punctuation marks, it will be easier to understand
the grammatical structures. Punctuation also refers to how the author wants you to
interpret the text; brackets (addition to sentence).

Author’s viewpoint- the author shows his/her opinion either by adding certain phrases or by
adding value to a word; shows expressions of surprise, shock, regret, happiness etc.

Summarize- it is advisable to make notes of essential information in the text, the result is a
short outline of the text containing all its important aspects.

The following steps should follow to write a summary: - familiarize yourself with material, select
important information, paraphrase information, insert link between sentences and paragraphs
(using connectors), adjust length.

What Is Effective Listening?

Effective listening is actively absorbing information given to you by a speaker, showing that
you are engaged and interested, and providing feedback to the speaker so they know the
message was received. Effective listeners show speakers that they have been heard and
understood.

12 Traits of an Effective Listener

1. Listens without distractions

1. Keeps eyes on the speaker to communicate interest

2. Concentrates on what's being said
3. Doesn’t pre-judge the message(s)
4. Avoids interrupting
5. Interjects only to enhance understanding using “what” and “how” questions
6. Summarizes for clarity
7. Reads and reacts properly to emotions
8. Uses positive body language; head nodding, eye contact, body lean
9. Listens for what is unsaid
10. Allows for silence when appropriate
11. Creates an atmosphere for unhurried conversation

Why Effective Listening Matters

To a large degree, effective leadership is effective listening. People most valued leaders who:
sought out their ideas; were concerned for their wellbeing; and, sought to build
partnerships.

Effective listening skills are essential to developing all three. By listening more effectively,
leaders get more honest information from the people they manage; increase others' trust
in them; reduce conflict; better understand how to motivate others; and, inspire a
higher level of commitment in the people they lead. Essentially, leaders build better
relationships by listening more effectively.

Discipline to Become Better Listeners

1. Be Present

Let go of multi-tasking and pay attention. Maintain eye contact and good posture. Be
aware of facial expressions and provide encouragers – small ways that you can indicate
“I’m with you” including nodding your head and saying “yes” and “got it.”

1. Be Open

Suspend judgment and avoid jumping to conclusions. Be aware of and turn off any filters.
Do not evaluate by physical characteristics or by association.

1. Be More Interested than Interesting

Show interest through Inquiry, using phrases like please tell me more; how did it work; and what
do you think? Make it about them, not you. And unless requested, avoid giving advice, trying to
fix the situation, or sharing an experience.
 1. Be a Mirror

Acknowledge emotion without evaluation. Empathize. Appreciate what you hear. And
summarize or paraphrase to let the speaker know they have been heard and understood.

Modes of Listening

Communication is about talking and listening. Listening is key to effective communication.

You can be efficient in talking to someone but without the ability to listen effectively, your
message can be misunderstood. That begins the communication death spiral where things
break down and you get frustrated or irritated.

The best communicators listen with the right frame of mind to ensure that they maximize
their communication effectiveness. We call this listening modes.

Examples of listening modes:

1. Disengaged – your body is present but your mind is not. You hear the words that the
person is saying and can even repeat them but you are not really listening because your
mind is on something else.
2. Competitive – you are listening with the intention of “topping” what the other person is
saying. Whether its accomplishments, possessions or relationships, the underlying goal
is to prove that you are better than the other person.
3. Combative – this is an argumentative mode. You listen for flaws or weaknesses in what
is being said and wait for an opening to point them out. You are constantly formulating
your point of view and creating comebacks that attack the speaker or their message.
4. Passive – you listen carefully and seek to understand. You don’t ask questions or validate
your understanding.
5. Active – you demonstrate your interest in what the speaker thinks, feels or means in
their message. You restate what you hear to reflect the message back to the speaker for
 validation. The validation is what makes this the most effective listening mode and
distinguishes it from all the other modes.

Pay attention to your listening mode. Ensure that you are in the proper frame of mind to
achieve results. Is your goal to be right, or is your goal to maintain and build a
relationship? Too often people enter conversations without examining their listening mode
and how that mode will impact the outcome of the conversation.

Listening well will transform your conversations, your relationships and your life.

NOTE-TAKING

Note-taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient source, such
as an oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture. Notes of a meeting are usually called
minutes. The format of the initial record may often be informal and/or unstructured. One
common format for such notes is shorthand, which can allow large amounts of information
to be put on paper very quickly. Note-taking is an important skill for students, especially at
the college level. Many different formats are used to structure information and make it
easier to find and to understand, later. There are a number of different ways to take notes,
and it is desirable that you use the method you feel most at ease with.

Efficient notetaking is necessary for students to have a record of lectures for future study
and review. Listening is a skill that requires the constant application of certain principles
until they become habitual.

Here are some suggestions:

1. Be prepared to listen by keeping up to date with your textbook reading. Read the
chapter before the lecture!
2. Determine the main idea and all important details that were given in connection with
it.
3. Learn to recognize that the speaker is making an important point by:

a. pausing

a. giving examples

a. repeating what has been said

a. repeating the textbook

a. increasing volume or changing pitch of voice

a. taking more time on one area

a. adding class activities or worksheets

a. using body language (facial expression, gestures, posture, pace)

a. writing on the chalkboard

a. using direct statements (this is very important) or signal words (examples:

significant, most)

Ten Ways to Improve Listening

 1. Find area of interest - maintain eye contact even if the subject appears boring.
There will be some information that will be useful.
2. Judge the content, not delivery. Find out what the speaker knows, not how he
presents it.
3. Withhold evaluation until comprehension is complete – don’t become
preoccupied with rebuttal before idea is completely presented. Don’t listen
defensively.
4. Listen for ideas - main ideas, central facts, organizational patterns.

1. Be flexible in notetaking.

1. Work at listening - spend energy to give conscious attention.

1. Resist distractions - a matter of concentration.

1. Exercise your mind - develop an appetite for hearing a variety of presentations

difficult enough to challenge your mental capacities.
2. Keep your mind open - be careful of emotional impact of certain words - don’t
listen defensively composing a rebuttal.
3. Capitalize on thought speed.

Speech speed - 100-200 words per minute

Thought speed - 400-500 or more words per minute.

Take advantage of differential - do not allow distractions during this time.

Ten Questions to Ask Yourself While Listening

1. What is he saying; what does it really mean?

1. How does that relate to what he said before?

1. Where is he going; what’s the point he’s trying to make?

1. How is that helpful; how can I use this?

1. Does this make any sense?

1. Am I getting the whole story?

1. How does this relate to what I already know?

1. Is he leaving anything out?

1. How does this relate to what I already know?

1. Do I understand what he’s saying or should I ask for clarification?

Ten BAD Listening Habits

1. Finding the subject uninteresting

1. Judging delivery, not content.

 1. Allowing excessive emotional involvement

1. Listening for details, not central ideas

1. Using non-flexible notetaking

1. Paying poor attention to the speaker

1. Being easily distracted

1. Avoiding difficult material

1. Refusing to accept new ideas

1. Thinking about irrelevant topics

General Guidelines

Use white space to separate major ideas.

Try to limit your notes to one concept or section per page.
Use abbreviations and/or symbols wherever possible to avoid long sentences.
Write down the information in your own words.

Note-Taking Tips for Students:

Taking notes in class is one of the most effective ways to understand the material being
presented in class. Unless you have a photographic mind, you'll need to learn this
important skill. Follow these general guidelines mentioned as below:

Come to class prepared: Always bring enough paper and a writing instrument of your choice to
class.

Start a new page for each new class: Put the date on the top of the first page. This way, you
will know where the notes for each class begin, which will help you keep the material
organized. Consider keeping your notes organized in their own binder.

Don’t try to write down every word your teacher says: You will not be able to, even if you can
write very fast. More importantly, in trying to do so, you will miss the overall point your teacher
is trying to make.

Write down the big ideas: Listen for facts, connections, and main ideas. This may take a
while to get used to, because you will need to divide your attention between listening to the
teacher (or other students) and writing your notes. Don’t get frustrated. In time, this will
become easier.

Use abbreviations for commonly occurring names and words: You can develop your own
abbreviations, so long as you don’t forget what they stand for.

Leave lots of room on the page: When writing, leave ample space between ideas. This is like
pausing before you begin a new sentence. Your notes will much easier to read, and you’ll
have space to add information later on, if needed. Don’t try to cram everything onto one
piece of paper.

Use diagrams and pictures wherever necessary: Sometimes it is helpful to draw pictures that
illustrate the connections between ideas, sequences, or events. Don’t be afraid to draw
pictures that will help you understand the material.

Write down corresponding page numbers from your textbook: Teachers often use the textbook
to refer to ideas you’re learning in class. Recording the page number of corresponding ideas and
homework assignments can come in handy later on.

Review your notes for accuracy: It’s a good idea to look over your notes sometime after class
for accuracy and completeness. Consider doing this just before doing your homework to get
yourself back in the mindset of the material.

Obtain notes for missed classes: Sometimes it’s unavoidable to miss class, but that shouldn’t
stop you from getting notes for it. Consider forming a partnership with another student at
the beginning of class on whom you can rely (and, who can rely on you too!) for notes
when a class is missed. Your teacher may also be willing to share his or her notes with you.

How To Take Good Lecture Notes

A good set of lecture notes is one of your most important assets in getting ready for an
examination. If you have the facts in readable form, you are well equipped to do the
necessary reviewing. Many students take notes in a very haphazard style claiming that they
will copy them later.

This is a poor policy for two reasons:

1. usually the notes don’t get copied and the originals are not much use after a few days
or weeks have gone by, and

1. if the notes are copied, it is a waste of time because they can just as well be done
correctly in the first place.

Three important aspects of notetaking:

1. Notetakinghelpsyoulisten;itdoesnotinterferewithlisteningand comprehension.
2. Students who study their notes using the recitation method remember one and a half
times more after six weeks than students who do not review.
3. Students who take no notes or do not study their notes forget approximately 80% of the
lectures by the end of two weeks.

Good lecture notes must:

1. Present a neat, attractive appearance.

1. Indicate the main points of the lecture.

 1. Show the relationship of the details to the main points.

1. Include enough illustrative detail to enrich notes and content.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TAKING NOTES:

1. USE INK! Notes in pencil will smear and are hard to read anyway. Be sure to use a
large notebook.
2. Date your notes for reference in test preparation.

1. Leave wide margins and don’t crowd your lines together. Notebook paper is cheap

- never mind if you use a whole line for just one work. Plenty of white space is important in
order to show the relationships of ideas to each other.

1. Use notetaking shorthand to reduce as many ideas as possible.

a. Reduce to essential words - don’t use complete sentences.

a. Use symbols as a substitute for words.

a. Abbreviate by using initials, half words, creative spelling.

1. Don’t take too many notes. Do more listening than writing.

1. Don’t try to take down everything the lecturer says. All lecturers have to repeat a great
deal, but you only need to put it down once.
2. Don’t take down the first thing he says on any topic - it’s probably introductory
material.
3. Listen for signals. He’s almost sure to say something about “The first point I want to
discuss today…”
4. Don’t try to make a formal outline. You’ll only get bogged down in your letters and
numbers and won’t be able to concentrate on listening and trying to understand.
5. Underline the first main topic. Then write down, in list form but without numbers, the
most important things he talks about. (Don’t try to make sub- topics and sub-sub-
topics.) Keep on doing this until you find that he is talking about something else. Then
you will know it’s time for another main topic.

1. Don’t bother to number sub-topics unless the lecturer says: “There are three
reasons…,” or mentions a specific number of facts. Then number them so you will be
sure to learn that many facts when you study for your examination. In other words, don’t
number just for the sake of numbering, but make the numbers mean something.
2. Read your notes over as soon after class as possible to fix handwriting, spelling and
clarity.

NOTETAKING TECHNIQUE:

The 2-6-2 Form of Lecture Notes

1. Use lined notebook paper measuring 8-1/2” x 11” with three holes in the margin.
2. Before writing on your note paper, divide the sheets the following way:
 1. Take your notes in the large, open section of the paper just as you would take notes
ordinarily.

1. When going over your notes, place key questions in the two-inch margin on the left.
These questions will help you in your review of these notes at a later time.
2. Write brief summaries in the section 2 x 6 inches at the bottom of the page. These
will help you in your review, when you want to know general ideas, or which topics
deserve extra attention (these are the ones which seem vague to you.)

In reviewing notes, use the questions and summaries as “talking” or “starting” points for
recitation. Go into the notes themselves only when you feel that you are not prepared to
develop the questions and summaries.

Other Methods of Note-Taking

The Cornell Method: The Cornell Method is based on two columns: one containing the
keyword or concept, and the other containing the description or notes associated with the
keyword or concept. This method can be used while listening to the lecturer. In the right
hand column, you can list the main ideas or write a paragraph and then on the left hand
side note the keyword or concept that relates to your section of notes.
At the bottom of the page you should write paragraphs summarizing the information
contained in the notes.

The Outlining Method: This method involves writing a series of topics and sub- topics, and
identifying them by indenting the text, numbering the lines, or using a dash or bullet point.

Mind Mapping: A mind map is a diagram in which ideas, concepts and images are linked
together around a central concept, keyword or idea. The sub-concepts may be

organized into sub-groups or branches with more important concepts closer to the central
core.

Charting Method: Charting is effectively a table of rows and columns. The top row normally
classifies the concept with descriptions or keywords listed in the row below. This method
enables you to quickly identify facts and their relationships with other information.

The Sentence Method: With this method, you simply write every new concept or topic on
separate line. You can also number the information if you wish. It is recommended that you
use some form of visual aid to group related points together.

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS FOR NOTETAKING

Devise your own abbreviation for words used frequently in a course. Be consistent! Always
use the same abbreviation for the same word.
SOLUTIONS TO COMMON PROBLEMS IN NOTETAKING

Illegibility - It is usually sufficient that a student can read his own notes. It is advisable
to go over notes while still fresh in order to clarify any illegible parts. This is particularly
important in the case of notes that had to be taken rapidly.
Points Missed - Leave spaces. Try to fill in later from the text or by checking with
classmates or teacher.
Spelling of a Word Not Known - Write the word as best as possible phonetically. Code
(Sp?) and check later.
Missed Lectures - When a classmate must miss a lecture and entrusts you with taking
notes for him, use a piece of carbon paper and provide him with his own copy. Thus,
there is less chance that he will be using your notes at times when you would like to
have them available for review and also less chance of the notes being lost. If you must
miss a lecture, your classmates can reciprocate for you.
Ink or Paper Supply Becomes Exhausted - A replacement might be obtained from a
neighbor if it can be done quickly and unobtrusively. Otherwise the student should
listen especially carefully and write the missing notes as soon as he possible can. Since
forgetting is rapid when notes are not taken, it is wise to check paper, pencil, and ink
before leaving for class.
Poor Physical Situation - When seeing or hearing is difficult, a seat change for the next
lecture, or even during the same lecture, is in order. If a problem arises such as light
glare preventing students from seeing the place on the board where the lecturer is
 writing, the lecturer might be informed of this. He would probably rather be
interrupted to be informed of such a condition than to have part of his lecture lost.

Poor Physical or Emotional Condition - Try to concentrate deeply on the topics of the
lecture and to become very interested in them. Such practice may help a student forget
minor physical discomfort or emotional upset by detracting from it for a while

MAPPING

Here is an alternative way of notetaking: Since the brain does not deal with data in a
chronological linear fashion, and we do not listen “like someone sucking up spaghetti”,
mind map can show relationships and how the parts relate to the whole. Mapping allows
you to see the total picture.

STEPS TO FOLLOW:

1. You need several sheets of blank paper, standard size.

1. Print the main subject in the middle of the page and draw a geometric shape around it.
2. All ideas plotted on a mind map should be expressed in just one or two key words.

1. Key words should be concrete, meaningful, and summon up the same image or idea
each time they are used. Strong nouns or verbs.
2. Think of subtopics that will represent all the data. Print these on lines connecting to
the main subject.
3. The supporting points come after subtopics.

ADVANTAGES:

1. The main idea is more clearly defined.

1. The relative importance of each idea is clearly indicated. More important ideas will be
nearer the center and less important ideas will be near the edge.
2. The links between the key concepts will be immediately recognizable because of
proximity and connection.
3. Recall and review will be more effective and rapid.

1. Structure allows for the easy addition of new information without scratching out or
squeezing in.
2. Each map will look different, aiding recall.

Every person has a unique communication style, a way in which they interact and exchange
information with others.
There are four basic communication styles: passive, aggressive, passive- aggressive and
assertive.

It’s important to understand each communication style, and why individuals use them. For
example, the assertive communication style has been found to be most effective, because it
incorporates the best aspects of all the other styles.

When we break down these four styles, we’ll better understand the characteristics of each
style, standard phrases and what makes them unique.

Passive

Individuals who use the passive communication style often act indifferently, yielding to
others. Passive communicators usually fail to express their feelings or needs, allowing others
to express themselves. Frequently, a passive communicator’s lack of outward
communication can lead to misunderstanding, anger build-up or resentment. At the same
time, these communicators can be safer to speak with when a conflict arises, because they
most likely will avoid a confrontation or defer to others.

Passive communicators often display a lack of eye contact, poor body posture and an
inability to say “no.” Passive communicators also act in a way that states “people never
consider my feelings.”

But passive communicators are also easy to get along with as they follow others and “go
with the flow.”

Examples of phrases that those who use a passive communication style would say or may
believe include:
 “It really doesn’t matter that much.”
“I just want to keep the peace”

Aggressive

It’s often apparent when someone communicates in an aggressive manner. You’ll hear it.
You’ll see it. You may even feel it.

The aggressive communication style is emphasized by speaking in a loud and demanding

voice, maintaining intense eye contact and dominating or controlling others by blaming,
intimidating, criticizing, threatening or attacking them, among other traits.

Aggressive communicators often issue commands, ask questions rudely and fail to listen to
others. But they can also be considered leaders and command respect from those around
them.

Examples of phrases that an aggressive communicator would use include:

“I’m right and you’re wrong.”

“I’ll get my way no matter what.”

“It’s all your fault.”

Passive-Aggressive

Passive-aggressive communication style users appear passive on the surface, but within he
or she may feel powerless or stuck, building up a resentment that leads to seething or acting
out in subtle, indirect or secret ways.

Most passive-aggressive communicators will mutter to themselves rather than confront a

person or issue. They have difficulty acknowledging their anger, use facial expressions that
don’t correlate with how they feel and even deny there is a problem.

Passive-aggressive communicators are most likely to communicate with body language or a

lack of open communication to another person, such as giving someone the silent
treatment, spreading rumors behind people’s backs or sabotaging others’ efforts. Passive-
aggressive communicators may also appear cooperative, but may silently be doing the
opposite.

Ultimately, passive-aggressive communicators are aware of their needs, but at times struggle
to voice them.

Examples of phrases that a passive-aggressive communicator would use include:

“That’s fine with me, but don’t be surprised if someone else gets mad.”
“Sure, we can do things your way” (then mutters to self that “your way” is stupid).

Assertive

Thought to be the most effective form of communication, the assertive communication

style features an open communication link while not being overbearing. Assertive
communicators can express their own needs, desires, ideas and feelings, while also
considering the needs of others. Assertive communicators aim for both sides to win in a
situation, balancing one’s rights with the rights of others.

Assertive communicators can express their own needs, desires, ideas and feelings, while also
considering the needs of others.

One of the keys to assertive communication is using “I” statements, such as “I feel
frustrated when you are late for a meeting,” or, “I don’t like having to explain this over and
over.” It indicates ownership of feelings and behaviors without blaming the other person.

Examples of phrases an assertive communicator would use include:

“We are equally entitled to express ourselves respectfully to one another.”

“I realize I have choices in my life, and I consider my options.”
“I respect the rights of others.”

How to Become an Assertive Communicator

Understanding how others communicate can be key to getting your message across to
them. In order to develop a more assertive communication style, here are a few tips to keep
in mind:

Take ownership (use “I” statements)

Maintain eye contact
Learn to say “no”
Voice your needs and desires confidently