Intermolecular

Forces of
Liquids and
Solids; Phase
Changes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

Describe Explain Explain solid- Calculate

Relate
the what is liquid, liquid heat
phase
transitions happening vapor, and changes in
changes to
among gas, as a solid-vapor phase and
heat and
liquids, and system is transitions in temperatu
temperatu
solids in heated; terms of re
re
terms of amount of changes.
changes;
increase or energy
decrease in change;
molecular
order;
A homogeneous A gas or a liquid; a
part of a system substance that
in contact with
can flow.
other parts of
the system, but
separated by PHASE FLUID
well-defined
boundaries.

SOLID LIQUID
A phase of A phase of
matter with matter with
definite definite volume
shape and but no definite
volume. shape.
Intermolecula A phase of matter
r forces are with no definite
attractive shape or volume
forces of its own.
between
GAS
INTERMOL
molecules. ECULAR
FORCE

PHASE MELTING
Transformat CHANGES
ions of A phase
matter from change from
one phase solid to liquid
to another
A phase A phase
change change from
from solid liquid to gas.
to gas. SUBLIM VAPORIZ
ATION ATION

CONDEN FREEZING
SATION A phase
A phase
change from
change
from gas to liquid to
liquid. solid.
Process that A phase
gives off or change from
release heat gas to solid.
EXOTHE DEPOSITI
to the RMIC ON
surrounding PROCESS
s. ENDOTHE SPECIFIC
RMIC HEAT OF
The amount of
Process that PROCESS SUBSTANCE heat needed
absorbs to raise the
heat from temperature
the of 1 gram of a
surrounding substance by
s. 1℃
FOCUS QUESTIONS TO THE LESSON

What Why are How does the

some intermolecula
makes a gas
substances r force of
different gases at room
from a attraction in
temperature,
liquid or a substance
while others
solid? are not? relate to its
phase?
What causes the phase change in matter?

Phase changes are transformations of matter

from one physical state to another. They occur
when energy (usually in the form of heat) is
added or removed from a substance. They are
characterized by changes in molecular order;
molecules in the solid phase have the greatest
order, while those in the gas phase have the
greatest randomness or disorder.
What changes in molecular order occur during
phase changes?
 What are the types of phase changes?

• The change from solid to liquid is melting, liquid to gas is vaporization, and solid to
gas is sublimation. These changes take place when heat is absorbed (heat gained).
They are endothermic processes.
• The reverse change from gas to liquid is condensation, gas to solid is deposition,
and liquid to solid is freezing. These changes give off heat (heat lost) and are
exothermic processes.
How does a change in energy affect phase
changes?

Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed from a

substance.
When a substance is heated, the added energy is used by the
substance in either of two ways:
a. The added heat increases the kinetic energy of the particles and
the particles move faster. The increase in kinetic energy is
accompanied by an increase in temperature. b. The added heat is
used to break attractive forces between particles. There is no
observed increase in temperature when this happens. Often a
change in the physical appearance of the substance is observed,
such as a phase change.
How does a change in energy affect phase
changes?

Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed from a

substance.
Conversely, the removal or release of heat results in two
ways:
a. A decrease in kinetic energy of the particles. The motion of
the particles slow down. A decrease in temperature is
observed.
b. Forces of attraction are formed, and a phase change may
occur. No change in temperature is observed.
How does a change in energy affect phase
changes?

HEATING COOLING
CURVE CURVE
How does a change in energy affect phase
changes?

HEATING COOLING
CURVE CURVE

In both the heating and cooling curves, there are certain portions where the
temperature changes as heat is being added or removed, and portions
where the temperature remains constant even if heat is being added or
removed. What is happening at these portions?
1. When heat change is accompanied by a change in temperature, a change in
kinetic energies of the particles in the substance is occurring. The particles are
either moving faster or slowing down.
2. When temperature remains constant during heat change, the particles move
at the same speed. The heat added or removed is involved in breaking or
forming attractive forces. A phase change occurs at this temperature: solid
melts or liquid freezes at the melting point, which is also the freezing point;
liquid boils, or gas condenses at the boiling point, which is also the
condensation point
 MELTING AND FREEZING: SOLID- LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM

• During the transition, the average kinetic energy of the molecules does not
change, so the temperature stays constant. The melting point of a solid or the
freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which solid and liquid phases
coexist in equilibrium.
• Melting points are distinct for each substance. It is dependent on the strength
of attractive forces that hold the particles in the solid. The stronger the
attractive forces that hold the particles in the solid, the higher is the melting
point of the substance.
• The melting (or freezing) point of a substance when the external pressure is 1
atm pressure is called its normal melting (or freezing) point. For water, this
is 0℃.
• At 0℃ and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for water and ice is represented by
ice ⇋ water.
• When heat is added to this system at equilibrium, ice will continue to melt
until all have been transformed to the liquid state. The amount of heat
needed to convert the solid to the liquid state at the melting point is called
the heat of fusion of the substance.
 MOLAR HEAT OF FUSION AND MELTING POINT
• Heat of fusion is an extensive property. The actual amount of energy
involved in the transformation of a substance from solid to liquid is
dependent on the amount of sample used. Thus, this property is often
expressed in terms of molar quantities of sample.
• Molar heat of fusion (Δ𝑯𝒇𝒖𝒔 ) is the energy required to melt 1 mole of a solid.
• For water, the molar heat of fusion is 6.01 kJ / mol. and its vaporization is 40.7
kJ/mol. If the heat input is constant, a longer period is needed for one mole of
water to evaporate than the time needed for the ice to melt. An 18-gram
sample of ice at 0℃ will need 6.01 kJ of energy to be completely transformed
into liquid water, still at 0℃.
• Like melting points, heats of fusion are influenced by the strength of attractive
forces that exist between particles in the solid. The stronger the attractive
forces that hold the particles of the solid together, the larger is the heat of
fusion.
• The molar heat of fusion is equal to the amount of energy released when one
mole or 18 grams of liquid water at 0℃ freezes to ice, still at 0℃.
MOLAR HEAT OF FUSION AND MELTING POINT

Cooling a substance has the opposite effect of heating it, as can be seen from the cooling
curve.
• If heat is removed from a liquid at a steady rate, its temperature should decrease until the
freezing point is reached. As the solid is being formed, heat is given off by the system, as
attractive forces form and become stronger between particles. Even if heat is being
removed, the temperature of the system remains constant over the freezing period.
• After all the liquid has frozen, the temperature of the solid drops.
• The heat change (q) for a given sample during freezing or melting may be calculated
using the following equation: is given by
BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM
• When a liquid is heated, its temperature increases as the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases. When the molecules have sufficient energy to escape
from the surface, a phase change occurs. Evaporation or vaporization is the
process in which a liquid is transformed into a gas. The temperature at which
this occurs is the boiling point of the substance. While the liquid vaporizes,
the temperature remains constant.
• The boiling point is a characteristic of each substance, and is dependent on
the strength of attractive forces that hold the particles or molecules in the
liquid state. It is also dependent on the external or atmospheric pressure. The
boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm pressure is called its normal boiling point.
For water, this is at 100℃.
• The reverse of vaporization or boiling is called condensation. Condensation
occurs because a molecule strikes the liquid surface and becomes trapped
by intermolecular forces in the liquid. This process occurs at the same
temperature when the liquid vaporizes into the gaseous state. The boiling
point can thus be also called condensation point (dew point), and occur at
the same temperature.
BOILING AND CONDENSING: LIQUID-VAPOR
EQUILIBRIUM
• At the boiling point, both liquid and gaseous states
of the substance are present, and the
transformations of liquid to gas and gas to liquid
happen at the same time.
• At 100 ℃ and 1 atm, the dynamic equilibrium for
water and steam is represented by water ⇋ steam.
• As heat is absorbed, some water will boil off but the
temperature remains at 100 ℃ (373.15 K) until all
the liquid has vaporized. The amount of heat
absorbed by the sample as the liquid transforms
into gas is called heat of vaporization.
 MOLAR HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (ΔHvap) AND
BOILING POINT
• Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) is defined as the energy
(usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a
given temperature, usually, at the boiling point. The molar heat of
vaporization of water at 100℃ is 40.8 kJ/mol.
 SOLID-VAPOR EQUILIBRIUM

• In a solid, the particles may be in fixed positions, but they are able
to vibrate in place and with increasing intensity as temperature
increases. When particles are able to acquire enough energy to
break attractive forces with adjacent particles, the energetic
particles may move into the gaseous state. This phase change is
called sublimation. One of the most familiar examples of
sublimation is that of dry ice.
• Sublimation is the process in which molecules go directly from
solid into vapor phase. The reverse process is called deposition,
where molecules make a transition directly from vapor to solid.
The process may be represented by the following equilibrium:
solid ⇋ vapor
 MOLAR HEAT OF SUBLIMATION
• Molar heat of sublimation (ΔHsub) of a substance is the amount of
energy that must be added to a mole of solid at constant pressure to
turn it directly into a gas, without passing through the liquid phase. This
enthalpy change associated with sublimation is always greater than
that of vaporization even if both sublimation and evaporation involve
changing a substance into its gaseous state because in sublimation,
the starting physical state of the substance is the solid state, which is
lower in energy than the liquid state where vaporization starts.
Sublimation requires that all the forces are broken between the
molecules (or other species, such as ions) in the solid as the solid is
converted into a gas. The molar heat of sublimation is generally
expressed as ∆𝐻𝑠𝑢𝑏 in units of Joules per mole. The sum of the heat of
fusion and the heat of vaporization can give a good estimate of the heat
of sublimation of a substance.
 HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN
TEMPERATURE
• When a system contains only one phase (solid, liquid, or
gas), the temperature will change when it receives energy
during heating or when energy is removed during cooling.
The amount of heat received or removed from the sample to
effect a given change in temperature can be calculated
using the specific heat of the substance. This is the
amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram
of a substance by 1℃. It is also equal to the amount of heat
lost by 1 gram of substance when its temperature drops by
1℃. The specific heat of a substance differs for the solid,
liquid, and gaseous states.
 HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN
TEMPERATURE
• Water as an example, has the following specific heat at
different phases:
 HEAT CHANGE WITH CHANGE IN
TEMPERATURE
Sample Problem:
You found a piece of copper metal weighing 3.10 g
imbedded in an ice block. How much heat is absorbed by
the piece of metal as it warms in your hand from the
temperature of the ice block at 1.5 ℃ to your body
temperature of 37.0 ℃? The specific heat of copper is 0.385
J/g- ℃. Assume that the metal is pure copper.
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF
STATE
Sample Problem 1: How much energy is required to
change 2600 gram of ice at 0˚C into water at the
same temperature?

Solution: Since the problem indicates no change in

temperature and involves a solid phase, then the
formula to be used is q = m Δ𝑯𝒇𝒖𝒔 .
q = m Δ 𝑯𝒇𝒖𝒔
= (2600 g) (6.01 kJ)
= 15,626 kJ
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF
STATE
Sample Problem 2: How much energy is required to
change 2600 gram of water at 100˚C into steam at
the same temperature?

Solution: Since the problem indicates no change in

temperature and involves a liquid phase, then the
formula to be used is
q = m Δ 𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑
= (2600 g) (40.79 kJ)
= 106,054 kJ
 PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGES OF
STATE
Sample Problem 3: Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed
to heat 346 gram of liquid water from 0℃ to 182 ℃. Assume that the
specific heat of water is 4.184 J/g ℃ over the entire liquid range and
the specific heat of steam is 1.99 J/g ℃.

Solution: The heat change (q) is calculated for each stage. The
calculation is broken down in three steps.

Step 1: Step 1: Heating of water from 0 ℃ to 100 ℃.

Step 2: Evaporating 346 g of water at 100 ℃ (a phase change)
Step 3: Heating steam from 100 ℃ to 182 ℃.
Step 4: The overall energy required is given by 𝒒𝑻 = 𝒒𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑
PRACTICE PROBLEM: ACTIVITY
NOTEBOOK

Q: Calculate the heat

released when 68.0 gram of
steam at 124 ℃ is
converted to water at 45℃.