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Chapter 15

Respiratory System
Lecture Outline

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Respiration
Respiration includes the following processes:
1. Ventilation, or breathing, which is the
movement of air into and out of the lungs
2. The exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) between the air in the lungs
and the blood
3. The transport of O2 and CO2 in the blood
4. The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the
blood and the tissues.
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Functions
1. Respiration
2. Regulation of blood pH
3. Voice Production
4. Olfaction
5. Innate Immunity

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Upper Respiratory Tract

External nose
Nasal cavity
Pharynx

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Respiratory System 1

Figure 15.1
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Nose 1

External nose:
• composed of mainly of hyaline cartilage
Nasal cavity:
• extends from nares (nostrils) to choane
• choana: openings to pharynx
• hard palate is its roof

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Nose 2

Paranasal sinuses:
• air filled spaces within bone
• open into nasal cavity
• lined with mucous
Conchae:
• on each side of nasal cavity
• increase surface area of nasal cavity
• help in cleaning, humidifying, warming of air
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Nose 3

Nasolacrimal ducts:
• carry tears from eyes
• open into nasal cavity

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Functions of the Nose

Filters
Airway for respiration
Involved in speech
Olfactory receptors
Warms air
Sneezing dislodges materials from nose

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Pharynx 1

Pharynx: a common passageway for the respiratory

and digestive systems
Nasopharynx:
• takes in air
Oropharynx:
• extends from uvula to epiglottis
• takes in food, drink, and air
Laryngopharynx:
• extends from epiglottis to esophagus
• food and drink pass through
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Pharynx 2

Uvula:
• “little grape”
• extension of soft palate
Pharyngeal tonsil:
• aids in defending against infections

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Nasal Cavity and Pharynx

Figure 15.2a
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Lower Respiratory Tract

Larynx – lower portions of
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs

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Respiratory System 2

Figure 15.1
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Larynx 1

Located in the anterior throat and extends from

the base of the tongue to the trachea
Consists of cartilages
Thyroid cartilage:
• largest piece of cartilage
• called Adam’s apple

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Larynx 2

Epiglottis:
• piece of cartilage
• flap that prevents swallowed materials from
entering larynx

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Larynx 3

Vocal folds/cords:
• source of voice production
• air moves past them, they vibrate, and sound is
produced
• force of air determine loudness
• tension determines pitch
Laryngitis:
• inflammation of vocal folds
• caused by overuse, dry air, infection
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Anatomy of the Larynx

Figure 15.3
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Vestibular and Vocal Folds

Figure 15.4
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Trachea
Windpipe
Consists of 16 to 20 C-shaped pieces of cartilage
Contains cilia pseudostratified columnar epi.
Smoking kills cilia
Coughing dislodges materials from trachea
Divides into right and left primary bronchi
(lungs)

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Bronchi
Divide from trachea
Connect to lungs
Lined with cilia
Contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage

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Lungs
Primary organ of respiration
Cone shaped
The base rests on the diaphragm
The apex extends above the clavicle
Right lung has 3 lobes
Left lung has 2 lobes
Contains many air passageways (divisions)
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Lung Airway Passages 1

1. Primary bronchi
2. Lobar (secondary) bronchi
3. Segmental (tertiary) bronchi
4. Bronchioles
5. Terminal bronchioles
6. Respiratory bronchioles
7. Alveolar ducts
8. Alveoli
• Structures become smaller and more
• numerous from primary bronchi to alveoli
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Anatomy of the Trachea and Lungs

Figure 15.5
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Lungs, Lung Lobes, and Bronchi

Figure 15.6
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Lung Airway Passages 2

Alveoli:
• small air sacs
• where gas exchange occurs
• surrounded by capillaries
• 300 million in lungs
Asthma attack:
• contraction of terminal bronchioles leads to
reduced air flow
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Bronchioles and Alveoli

Figure 15.7
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Respiratory Membrane
In lungs where gas exchange between air and
blood occurs
Formed by walls of alveoli and capillaries
Alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles also
contribute
Very thin for diffusion of gases

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Layers of Respiratory Membrane

Thin layer of fluid from alveolus
Alveolar epithelium (simple squamous)
Basement membrane of alveolar epithelium
Thin interstitial space
Basement membrane of capillary endothelium
Capillary endothelium (simple squamous)

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 Alveolus and the Respiratory 30

Membrane

Figure 15.8
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Pleural Membranes and Cavities

Pleura:
• double-layered membrane around lungs
Parietal pleura:
• membrane that lines thoracic cavity
Visceral pleura:
• membrane that covers lung’s surface
Pleural cavity:
• space around each lung
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Pleural Cavities and Membranes

Figure 15.9
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Ventilation
Ventilation (breathing):
• a process of moving air in and out of the lungs
• uses the diaphragm, which is a skeletal muscle that
separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities

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Phases of Ventilation
Inspiration:
• breathe in
• uses the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles

Expiration:
• breathe out
• uses the diaphragm

Forceful expiration:
• uses internal intercostal muscles
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Thoracic Volume

Figure 15.10
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Pressure Changes and Air Flow

When thoracic cavity volume increases pressure
decreases
When thoracic cavity volume decreases pressure
increases
Air flows from areas of high to low pressure

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Inspiration
Diaphragm descends and rib cage expands
Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure
decreases
Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high)
alveolar pressure (low)
Air moves into alveoli (lungs)

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Expiration
Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage recoils
Thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure
increases
Alveolar pressure is greater than (high)
atmospheric pressure (low)
Air moves out of lungs

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Changes

Figure 15.11
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Lung Recoil
Lung recoil:
• is the tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in
size
• occurs during quiet expiration
• is due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining
alveoli

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Surfactant
Surfactant:
• a mixture of lipoproteins
• is produced by secretory cells of the alveoli
• is a single fluid layer on the surface of thin fluid
lining alveoli
• reduces surface tension
• keeps lungs from collapsing

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Pleural Pressure
Pleural pressure is:
• pressure in the pleural cavity
• less than alveolar pressure
• keep the alveoli from collapsing

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Ventilation
Lung elasticity:
• lungs need to recoil between ventilations
• decreased by emphysema
Lung compliance:
• expansion of thoracic cavity
• affected if rib cage is damaged
Respiratory passageway resistance:
• occurs during an asthma attack, infection, tumor
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Pulmonary Volumes 1

Spirometer:
• device that measures pulmonary volumes
Tidal volume (TV):
• volume of air inspired and expired during quiet
breathing
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV):
• volume of air that can be inspired forcefully after a
normal inspiration

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Pulmonary Volumes 2

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):

• volume of air that can be expired forcefully after a
normal expiration
Residual volume (RV):
• volume of air remaining in lungs after a maximal
expiration (can’t be measured with spirometer)

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Pulmonary Volumes 3

Vital capacity (VC):

• max. amount of air a person can expire after a max.
inspiration
VC = IRV + ERV + TV
Total lung capacity (TLC):
TLC = VC + RV

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 Respiratory Volumes and Respiratory 47

Capacities

Figure 15.12
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 Factors that Influence Pulmonary 48

Volumes
Gender
Age
Height
Weight

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Gas Exchange 1

Respiratory membrane:
• where gas exchange between blood and air occurs
• primarily alveoli
• some in respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts

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Gas Exchange 2

Respiratory membrane:
• does NOT occur in bronchioles, bronchi, trachea
• influenced by thickness of membrane, total area of
membrane, partial pressure of gases

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Respiratory Membrane Thickness

Increased thickness decreases rate of diffusion
Pulmonary edema decreases diffusion
Rate of gas exchange is decreased
O2 exchange is affected before CO2 because CO2
diffuse more easily than O2

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Respiratory Membrane Surface Area

Total surface area is 70 square meters (basketball
court)
Decreased due to removal of lung tissue,
destruction from cancer, emphysema

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Partial Pressure
Partial pressure:
• the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture
of gases
• the total atmospheric pressure of all gases at sea
level is 760 mm Hg
• the atmosphere is 21% O2
• the partial pressure for O2 is 160 mm Hg
• the upper case letter P represents partial pressure
of a certain gas (Po2)
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Diffusion of Gases in Lungs

Cells in body use O2 and produce CO2.
Blood returning from tissues and entering lungs
has a decreased Po2 and increased Pco2
O2 diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary
capillaries (blood)
CO2 diffuses from capillaries into alveoli

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Gas Exchange

Figure 15.13
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Diffusion of Gases in Tissues

Blood flow from lungs through left side of heart
to tissue capillaries
Oxygen diffuses from capillaries into interstitial
fluid because Po2 in interstitial fluid is lower
than capillary
Oxygen diffuses from interstitial fluid into cells
(Po2) is less

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Gas Exchange in the Tissues

Figure 15.14a
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Gas Exchange in the Lungs

Figure 15.14b
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Blood pH 1

CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries

CO2 enters blood and is transported in plasma,
combined with blood proteins, bicarbonate ions
CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
bicarbonate ions dissociate into a hydrogen ion
and a bicarbonate ion
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
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Blood pH 2

Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of CO2

reacting with water
CO2 levels increase blood pH decreases

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Rhythmic Ventilation
Normal respiratory rate is 12 to 20 respirations
per minute (adults).
In children, the rates are higher and may vary
from 20 to 40 per minute.
The rhythm is controlled by neurons in the
medulla oblongata.
Rate is determined by the number of times
respiratory muscles are stimulated.

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Respiratory Structures in the Brainstem

Figure 15.15
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Nervous Control of Breathing

Higher brain centers allow voluntary breathing
Emotions and speech affect breathing
Hering-Breuer Reflex:
inhibits respiratory center when lungs are
stretched during inspiration

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Breathing

Figure 15.16
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Chemical Control of Breathing

Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata respond
to changes in blood pH
Blood pH are produced by changes in blood CO2
levels
An increase in CO2 causes decreased pH, result is
increased breathing
Low blood levels of O2 stimulate
chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies,
increased breathing
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Regulation of Blood pH

Figure 15.17
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