Literary Devices

Themes
Themes

Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.
The Corruption of Socialist Ideals in the Soviet Union
Animal Farm is most famous in the West as a stinging critique of the history and rhetoric of the
Russian Revolution. Retelling the story of the emergence and development of Soviet
communism in the form of an animal fable, Animal Farm allegorizes the rise to power of the
dictator Joseph Stalin. In the novella, the overthrow of the human oppressor Mr. Jones by a
democratic coalition of animals quickly gives way to the consolidation of power among the pigs.
Much like the Soviet intelligentsia, the pigs establish themselves as the ruling class in the new
society.
Read about another novel influenced by the rise of the Soviet Union in Anthony Burgess’ A
Clockwork Orange.

The struggle for preeminence between Leon Trotsky and Stalin emerges in the rivalry between
the pigs Snowball and Napoleon. In both the historical and fictional cases, the idealistic but
politically less powerful figure (Trotsky and Snowball) is expelled from the revolutionary state
by the malicious and violent usurper of power (Stalin and Napoleon). The purges and show trials
with which Stalin eliminated his enemies and solidified his political base find expression
in Animal Farm as the false confessions and executions of animals whom Napoleon distrusts
following the collapse of the windmill. Stalin’s tyrannical rule and eventual abandonment of the
founding principles of the Russian Revolution are represented by the pigs’ turn to violent
government and the adoption of human traits and behaviors, the trappings of their original
oppressors.
Although Orwell believed strongly in socialist ideals, he felt that the Soviet Union realized these
ideals in a terribly perverse form. His novella creates its most powerful ironies in the moments in
which Orwell depicts the corruption of Animalist ideals by those in power. For Animal
Farm serves not so much to condemn tyranny or despotism as to indict the horrifying hypocrisy
of tyrannies that base themselves on, and owe their initial power to, ideologies of liberation and
equality. The gradual disintegration and perversion of the Seven Commandments illustrates this
hypocrisy with vivid force, as do Squealer’s elaborate philosophical justifications for the pigs’
blatantly unprincipled actions. Thus, the novella critiques the violence of the Stalinist regime
against the human beings it ruled, and also points to Soviet communism’s violence against
human logic, language, and ideals.
The Societal Tendency Toward Class Stratification
Animal Farm offers commentary on the development of class tyranny and the human tendency to
maintain and reestablish class structures even in societies that allegedly stand for total equality.
The novella illustrates how classes that are initially unified in the face of a common enemy, as
the animals are against the humans, may become internally divided when that enemy is
eliminated. The expulsion of Mr. Jones creates a power vacuum, and it is only so long before the
next oppressor assumes totalitarian control.
The natural division between intellectual and physical labor quickly comes to express itself as a
new set of class divisions, with the “brainworkers” (as the pigs claim to be) using their superior
intelligence to manipulate society to their own benefit. Orwell never clarifies in Animal
Farm whether this negative state of affairs constitutes an inherent aspect of society or merely an
outcome contingent on the integrity of a society’s intelligentsia. In either case, the novella points
to the force of this tendency toward class stratification in many communities and the threat that it
poses to democracy and freedom.
The Danger of a Naïve Working Class
One of the novella’s most impressive accomplishments is its portrayal not just of the figures in
power but also of the oppressed people themselves. Animal Farm is not told from the perspective
of any particular character, though occasionally it does slip into Clover’s consciousness. Rather,
the story is told from the perspective of the common animals as a whole. Gullible, loyal, and
hardworking, these animals give Orwell a chance to sketch how situations of oppression arise not
only from the motives and tactics of the oppressors but also from the naïveté of the oppressed,
who are not necessarily in a position to be better educated or informed. When presented with a
dilemma, Boxer prefers not to puzzle out the implications of various possible actions but instead
to repeat to himself, “Napoleon is always right.” Animal Farm demonstrates how the inability or
unwillingness to question authority condemns the working class to suffer the full extent of the
ruling class’s oppression.
The Abuse of Language as Instrumental to the Abuse of Power
One of Orwell’s central concerns, both in Animal Farm and in 1984, is the way in which
language can be manipulated as an instrument of control. In Animal Farm, the pigs gradually
twist and distort a rhetoric of socialist revolution to justify their behavior and to keep the other
animals in the dark. The animals heartily embrace Major’s visionary ideal of socialism, but after
Major dies, the pigs gradually twist the meaning of his words. As a result, the other animals seem
unable to oppose the pigs without also opposing the ideals of the Rebellion.
By the end of the novella, after Squealer’s repeated reconfigurations of the Seven
Commandments in order to decriminalize the pigs’ treacheries, the main principle of the farm
can be openly stated as “all animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”
This outrageous abuse of the word “equal” and of the ideal of equality in general typifies the
pigs’ method, which becomes increasingly audacious as the novel progresses. Orwell’s
sophisticated exposure of this abuse of language remains one of the most compelling and
enduring features of Animal Farm, worthy of close study even after we have decoded its
allegorical characters and events.
Corruption
Animal Farm demonstrates the idea that power always corrupts. The novella’s heavy use of
foreshadowing, especially in the opening chapter, creates the sense that the events of the story
are unavoidable. Not only is Napoleon’s rise to power inevitable, the novella strongly suggests
that any other possible ruler would have been just as bad as Napoleon. Although Napoleon is
more power-hungry than Snowball, plenty of evidence exists to suggest that Snowball would
have been just as corrupt a ruler. Before his expulsion, Snowball goes along with the pigs’ theft
of milk and apples, and the disastrous windmill is his idea. Even Old Major is not incorruptible.
Despite his belief that “all animals are equal,” (Chapter 1) he lectures the other animals from a
raised platform, suggesting he may actually view himself as above the other animals on the farm.
In the novel’s final image the pigs become indistinguishable from human farmers, which
hammers home the idea that power inevitably has the same effect on anyone who wields it.
The Failure of Intellect
Animal Farm is deeply skeptical about the value of intellectual activity. The pigs are identified
as the most intelligent animals, but their intelligence rarely produces anything of value. Instead,
the pigs use their intelligence to manipulate and abuse the other animals. The novella identifies
several other ways in which intelligence fails to be useful or good. Benjamin is literate, but he
refuses to read, suggesting that intelligence is worthless without the moral sense to engage in
politics and the courage to act. The dogs are nearly as literate as the pigs, but they are “not
interested in reading anything except the Seven Commandments” (Chapter 3). The dogs’ use of
their intelligence suggests that intellect is useless—even harmful—when it is combined with a
personality that prefers to obey orders rather than question them.
The Exploitation of Animals by Humans
As well as being an allegory of the ways human exploit and oppress one another, Animal
Farm also makes a more literal argument: humans exploit and oppress animals. While the
animals’ rebellion is mostly comic in tone, it ends on a serious and touching note, when the
animals “wipe out the last traces of Jones’s hated reign. The harness-room at the end of the
stables was broken open; the bits, the nose-rings, the dog-chains, the cruel knives with which Mr.
Jones had been used to castrate the pigs and lambs, were all flung down the well” (Chapter 2).
The novella also suggests that there is a real connection, as well as an allegorical one, between
the exploitation of animals and the exploitation of human workers. Mr. Pilkington jokes to
Napoleon: “If you have your lower animals to contend with […] we have our lower classes!”
(Chapter 10). From the point of view of the ruling class, animals and workers are the same.

Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and
inform the text’s major themes.

Songs
Animal Farm is filled with songs, poems, and slogans, including Major’s stirring “Beasts of
England,” Minimus’s ode to Napoleon, the sheep’s chants, and Minimus’s revised anthem,
“Animal Farm, Animal Farm.” All of these songs serve as propaganda, one of the major conduits
of social control. By making the working-class animals speak the same words at the same time,
the pigs evoke an atmosphere of grandeur and nobility associated with the recited text’s subject
matter. The songs also erode the animals’ sense of individuality and keep them focused on the
tasks by which they will purportedly achieve freedom.

As Animal Farm shifts gears from its early revolutionary fervor to a phase of consolidation of
power in the hands of the few, national rituals become an ever more common part of the farm’s
social life. Military awards, large parades, and new songs all proliferate as the state attempts to
reinforce the loyalty of the animals. The increasing frequency of the rituals bespeaks the extent
to which the working class in the novella becomes ever more reliant on the ruling class to define
their group identity and values.

Food & Drink

In Animal Farm, references to food often serve to represent the labor of the working class or the
capital of the ruling class. Under the rule of the farmers, food is provided unequally amongst the
different species of animals, often depending on how much labor they contribute. After the
revolution takes place, Mollie is enticed back to working under human rule with the promise of
treats like sugar cubes—a symbol for the trivial comforts that the ruling class provide to the
working class to encourage their compliance. After taking over leadership of the farm, the pigs
are found eating milk and apples, despite the understanding that no animal should receive special
treatment, continuing the theme of unfair and unsustainable consumption of resources by the
ruling class. Rather than being treated with respect in his old age, the loyal comrade Boxer is
sent to a glue factory, where he will be killed. The money from his sale is spent on whiskey for
the pigs, symbolizing how workers in a capitalist or authoritarian system are worked to death to
sustain the lifestyles of the rich and powerful. In the final scene of Animal Farm, the pigs can be
seen dining with the humans. The decadence of this feast exposes the immense gluttony of the
ruling class at the expense of the vast majority of society.

Symbols
Symbols
Symbols are objects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.

Animal Farm
Animal Farm, known at the beginning and the end of the novel as the Manor Farm, symbolizes
Russia and the Soviet Union under Communist Party rule. But more generally, Animal Farm
stands for any human society, be it capitalist, socialist, fascist, or communist. It possesses the
internal structure of a nation, with a government (the pigs), a police force or army (the dogs), a
working class (the other animals), and state holidays and rituals. Its location amid a number of
hostile neighboring farms supports its symbolism as a political entity with diplomatic concerns.

The Barn
The barn at Animal Farm, on whose outside walls the pigs paint the Seven Commandments and,
later, their revisions, represents the collective memory of a modern nation. The many scenes in
which the ruling-class pigs alter the principles of Animalism and in which the working-class
animals puzzle over but accept these changes represent the way an institution in power can revise
a community’s concept of history to bolster its control. If the working class believes history to lie
on the side of their oppressors, they are less likely to question oppressive practices. Moreover,
the oppressors, by revising their nation’s conception of its origins and development, gain control
of the nation’s very identity, and the oppressed soon come to depend upon the authorities for
their communal sense of self.

Graphic Novels on SparkNotes: Hamlet

The Windmill
The great windmill symbolizes the pigs’ manipulation of the other animals for their own gain.
Despite the immediacy of the need for food and warmth, the pigs exploit Boxer and the other
common animals by making them undertake backbreaking labor to build the windmill, which
will ultimately earn the pigs more money and thus increase their power. The pigs’ declaration
that Snowball is responsible for the windmill’s first collapse constitutes psychological
manipulation, as it prevents the common animals from doubting the pigs’ abilities and unites
them against a supposed enemy. The ultimate conversion of the windmill to commercial use is
one more sign of the pigs’ betrayal of their fellow animals. From an allegorical point of view, the
windmill represents the enormous modernization projects undertaken in Soviet Russia after the
Russian Revolution.
PROTAGONIST
The animals, as a group, are the protagonists of Animal Farm. Their goal is to achieve the vision set out
by Old Major: equality and freedom for all animals. This goal brings them into conflict with the reality of
political power. First they must confront power by rebelling against Mr. Jones. Later they must confront
power in a more subtle and dangerous form: the manipulation and deceit of the pigs. While the animals
defeat Mr. Jones easily, they are completely fooled by the pigs. By the time the animals recognize that the
pigs are stopping them achieving their goal, it is too late. The pigs are in a position to kill any animals
who continue to fight for their goal. By the end of the novella, the animals cannot even sing “Beasts of
England,” the song that expressed their dream of equality and freedom. In the story’s last moments, the
animals finally realize what they have been up against. By defeating their human farmer, they have not
defeated the reality of political power. They have only exchanged one set of rulers for another, identical
set.

Antagonist
Antagonist
The animals’ antagonist is the corrupting reality of political power. This abstract idea is
embodied by the different characters who wield power at different times. At first, the corruption
of political power is embodied in the cruel, lazy Mr. Jones. When Mr. Jones is defeated, the
Farm’s new rulers, the pigs, gradually come to embody the reality of political power. Now it is
the pigs who oppose the animals, in exactly the same way as Jones did, by exploiting and
oppressing them. From the beginning of the novella, the animals’ defeat by the power embodied
in the pigs is heavily foreshadowed. Much of the novella’s drama arises from the question of
whether, and when, the animals will recognize that their true antagonist is not humans or pigs but
power itself. The moment of reckoning comes in the novel’s final scene, when the animals see
that the pigs and the humans are exactly alike, because they are equally corrupted by political
power.

Setting
Literary Devices Setting

The Manor Farm—later called Animal Farm—is a small, independent farm somewhere in the
English countryside. The name “Manor Farm” tells us that it was once owned by a local
aristocrat, the lord of the manor. However, the farm has since come into the hands of Mr. Jones,
an unsuccessful, lazy, drunken farmer. Within the novella’s allegory, the Manor Farm represents
Russia and also the countries of Europe more generally: places once ruled by aristocrats, now
ruled by capitalists, and ripe for a Communist revolution. However, the Englishness of the
Manor Farm is also important. Small, independent farms are a treasured part of the British
national self-image, emblems of the coziness and tranquility of English political life. By
imagining such a farm undergoing a revolution, Animal Farm suggests that the corruption and
bloodshed of Stalinism is much closer to home than British readers may realize.

Style
Style

The style of Animal Farm is simple and clear. The novella’s language is concrete, factual and
delivered in short sentences. The simplicity of style culminates at the novella’s end, in one-
sentence paragraphs: “It was a pig walking on his hind legs.[…] He carried a whip in his trotter”
(Chapter 10). The simplicity and clarity of the novella’s style contrasts with the way Animal
Farm’s characters use language. Throughout the book, characters use language in deceptive
ways for political purposes. Some characters make their language complex in order to deceive,
like Squealer when he is explaining Napoleon’s actions. Other characters use simplistic language
to distort the truth, like the sheep with their slogan, “Four legs good, two legs bad.”
Alongside these examples of deceptive language, Orwell’s own writing style offers a constant
reminder that truth can be conveyed in straightforward language anyone can understand. The
strong contrast between the plainspoken style of the novel and the manipulative styles adopted
by characters who want to seize power illuminates the difference between truthful language and
political deception.

A notable feature of Animal Farm’s style is the use of the passive voice. For instance, when
Napoleon steals the cows’ milk, we are not told which character or characters notice that the
milk is missing. Instead we are told that “it was noticed that the milk had disappeared” (Chapter
2). The use of the passive voice emphasizes the animals’ helplessness: events occur without any
particular animal taking action, creating the impression that things happen without the animals’
consent. The passive voice also helps to show the power of rumor and false information in an
oppressive society. When no one knows exactly who said, did or “noticed” something, it’s easy
to claim that the thing didn’t really happen, or that it happened differently, and this is exactly
what the pigs do.

Point of View
Point of View

Animal Farm is told from a collective limited third-person point of view sometimes known as
“village voice.” The narrator knows everything the animals see, say, know and do as a group.
The narrator does not know what the pigs say and do when they are apart from the other animals,
and we rarely see the action through the eyes of individual animals. Occasionally, the reader is
granted brief glimpses of an animal’s individual point of view, most often Clover’s, because
Clover and Boxer are the heart of the animal group.
The collective point of view focuses our sympathy on the hopes and fears the animals share as a
political unit or class, rather than individual characters. The collective point of view also shows
how easily collective memory can be manipulated. Individual animals might remember what
really happened at the Battle of the Cowshed, but because readers don’t have access to individual
points of view, they can’t know for certain. Instead, readers only know what the animals say they
remember. When the pigs make it dangerous to tell the truth, then the false version of the Battle
is accepted, even by the narrator, as the “true” collective memory, and it no longer matters
whether individual animals remember something different.

The collective point of view also creates deep ironies in Animal Farm. While the story is told
from the simple, trusting point of view of the animals, the reader is consistently reminded that
their perspective is very limited. The effect can be comic, chilling, or sad, and sometimes all
three at once. For instance, when Napoleon takes the cows’ milk for the pigs, all the readers are
told is that when the animals “came back in the evening it was noticed that the milk had
disappeared” (Chapter 2). The irony here comes from the gap between what the animals see—
that the milk is missing—and what the reader sees: that Napoleon has taken it.
The animals’ trust is heartbreaking, because we see how easily they will be betrayed. Their trust
is also chilling—the reader can see that the pigs’ treachery is going to deepen. Animal Farm’s
irony serves a direct political purpose. By emphasizing the gap between what the Farm’s
inhabitants see going on and what the readers see as outsiders, the book invites readers to look at
their own society with outsiders’ eyes.
TONE
The tone of Animal Farm is initially playful and lighthearted, but it becomes bitter as the story
unfolds. The story begins with a tone suggesting the reader is embarking on a superficially silly
story about ridiculous humans and talking animals. The description of both the humans and
animals suggests a bemused, detached attitude toward the story. Orwell anthropomorphizes the
animals, which is to say he not only gives them the ability to speak, but gives them human
qualities and concerns. For example, Clover the horse “never quite got her figure back after her
fourth foal” (Chapter 1). The concern with physical appearance makes Clover seem like a foolish
woman.
However, as Napoleon’s regime worsens, chilling notes creep in. This bitterness is all the more
striking because it is embedded in an otherwise playful story. The progression from playfulness
to disturbing bitterness warns readers that however cozy life seems, society can easily collapse
into horror and bloodshed. At the same time, by making a silly, playful, fun story out of the
horrifying events of Stalin’s Terror, the novella also makes fun of Stalin, suggesting that
ultimately the Soviet dictator is as laughable as a talking pig.

Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing

Animal Farm makes heavy use of foreshadowing. Most of the plot’s main events are
foreshadowed in the opening chapter. This foreshadowing emphasizes the inevitability of what
happens, suggesting that violent revolution is doomed to fail, and that power always
corrupts. Animal Farm’s foreshadowing also serves to place particular emphasis on the events
Orwell saw as central to the failure of the Russian Revolution, and revolutions generally. The
events most heavily foreshadowed are the different stages of the farm’s collapse into violence.
Executions
Napoleon’s decision to execute other animals is foreshadowed in Chapter 1, when Old Major
says: “You young porkers who are sitting in front of me, every one of you will scream your lives
out at the block within a year.” This prophecy comes true, but instead of being killed by Mr.
Jones on the butcher’s “block,” the porkers are killed on Napoleon’s orders on the executioner’s
“block.” By using an example of Mr. Jones’s cruelty to foreshadow Napoleon’s, the novella
argues that the two regimes, human and pig, are essentially the same.

Boxer’s Death
Boxer’s death is foreshadowed in Chapter 7, when Napoleon’s dogs “go quite mad” and attack
Boxer. Although Boxer is unharmed, this incident foreshadows Napoleon’s decision to have
Boxer killed. Boxer’s death is also foreshadowed by the novella’s many references to the pasture
that will be set apart for retired animals. As the pigs’ treachery unfolds, it becomes clear to the
reader that the retirement pasture will never exist. As a result, every reference to Boxer’s
retirement becomes an ironic foreshadowing of his betrayal and death. When Boxer himself
looks forward to retiring, he is unwittingly foreshadowing that Napoleon will betray him, which
emphasizes the cruelty of Napoleon’s deception.

Napoleon’s Treachery
Animal Farm strongly foreshadows that Napoleon and the other pigs will betray the ideals of the
rebellion. From the beginning of the novella, the pigs take control of Old Major’s ideas and twist
them into new shapes: first “Animalism,” then the simplistic slogan of the sheep: “Four legs
good, two legs bad.” The manipulation of Old Major’s ideas foreshadows the ultimate betrayal of
the rebellion’s goals, when the commandments of Animalism are replaced by the slogan: “All
animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others” (Chapter 10).
Napoleon’s treachery begins with small deceptions, like taking all the cows’ milk for the pigs,
which foreshadow the bigger deceptions to come, such as the lie that Boxer has been taken to
hospital. Napoleon’s dogs are threatening from the moment they appear, which foreshadows
their role in the violent oppression that follows.

Metaphors & Similes

Metaphors & Similes

Chapter I
But no animal escapes the cruel knife in the end.

In this metaphor, Old Major compares the fate of all farm animals to a “cruel
knife,” suggesting that the farmer will kill all of them no matter how hard they work or how
valuable they think they are to the farm.

Chapter II
“Comrade,” said Snowball, “those ribbons that you are so devoted to are the badge of
slavery. Can you not understand that liberty is worth more than ribbons?”

In this metaphor, Snowball compares the decorative ribbons that Mr. Jones plaits into Mollie’s
mane to a badge marking her as a slave; after the Rebellion, Snowball throws these ribbons onto
the fire and burns them along with other objects that remind the animals of “Jones’s hated
reign.”
. . . then they raced back to the farm buildings to wipe out the last traces of Jones’s hated
reign.

In this metaphor, the narrator compares the ousted Farmer Jones to a tyrant king overthrown by
his subjects.

Chapter V
A fat red-faced man in check breeches and gaiters, who looked like a publican, was
stroking her nose and feeding her with sugar.

In this simile, the narrator compares the man feeding Mollie sugar to a bartender (publican),
suggesting that his kindnesses appeal to her vices.

In glowing sentences he painted a picture of Animal Farm as it might be when

sordid labour was lifted from the animals’ backs.

In this metaphor, the narrator compares Snowball’s rhetorical skill to that of a painter whose
words become vivid pictures for his listeners.

Though not yet full-grown, they were huge dogs, and as fierce-looking as wolves.

In this simile, the narrator compares the puppies reared by Napoleon to ferocious wolves.

In January there came bitterly hard weather. The earth was like iron and nothing could be
done in the fields.

This simile compares the hardness of the frozen soil to that of iron, suggesting that it was
impossible to plow during the winter.

Chapter VI
All that year the animals worked like slaves.

In this simile, the narrator likens the animals of Animal Farm to slaves, an ironic comparison
because the animals believed that they had actually been slaves to Mr. Jones before the
Rebellion.

Chapter VIII
Friend of fatherless!

Fountain of happiness!
In his obsequious poem “Comrade Napoleon,” Minimus fawningly calls Napoleon a “friend of
the fatherless” and “fountain of happiness,” suggesting that the farm’s ruthless leader is actually
an endless source of compassion and kindness

This time they did not heed the cruel pellets that swept over them like hail.

When Mr. Frederick’s men attack the farm, the narrator compares their bullets to a hailstorm.
FULL BOOK ANALYSIS
The central conflict of Animal Farm arises when the animals’ desire for freedom and equality is
corrupted by the consolidation of political power amongst the pigs. The animals’ original goal is
expressed in the first chapter, in Old Major’s teachings and especially in “Beasts of England,”
the song that becomes the anthem of Animal Farm. At the beginning of the novella, political
power is embodied by the farmer, Mr. Jones, who indulges himself while the animals starve. The
animals win easily when they rebel against Mr. Jones, and as a result they make the mistake of
thinking they have overcome political power itself. In reality they have only overcome one of the
forms that political power can take. By the end of Chapter 2, when Napoleon steals the cows’
milk, the political power becomes embodied by the pigs.

Key Facts
Key Facts

At a Glance:
Full TitleAnimal Farm: A Fairy Story
AuthorGeorge Orwell (pseudonym of Eric Arthur Blair)
Type Of WorkNovella
GenreDystopian animal fable; satire; allegory; political roman à clef (French for “novel with a
key”—a thinly veiled exposé of factual persons or events)
LanguageEnglish
Time And Place Written1943–1944, in London
Date Of First Publication1946
PublisherHarcourt Brace & Company

Indepth Facts:
NarratorAnimal Farm is the only work by Orwell in which the author does not appear
conspicuously as a narrator or major character; it is the least overtly personal of all of his
writings. The anonymous narrator of the story is almost a nonentity, notable for no individual
idiosyncrasies or biases.
Point Of ViewThe story is told from the point of view of the common animals of Animal Farm,
though it refers to them in the third person plural as “they.”
ToneFor the most part, the tone of the novel is objective, stating external facts and rarely
digressing into philosophical meditations. The mixture of this tone with the outrageous trajectory
of the plot, however, steeps the story in an ever-mounting irony.
TensePast
Setting (Time)As is the case with most fables, Animal Farm is set in an unspecified time period
and is largely free from historical references that would allow the reader to date the action
precisely. It is fair to assume, however, that Orwell means the fable to be contemporaneous with
the object of its satire, the Russian Revolution (1917–1945). It is important to remember that this
period represented the recent past and present at the time of writing and that Orwell understands
the significance of the story’s action to be immediate and ongoing rather than historical.
Setting (Place)An imaginary farm in England
ProtagonistThere is no clear central character in the novel, but Napoleon, the dictatorial pig, is
the figure who drives and ties together most of the action.
Major ConflictThere are a number of conflicts in Animal Farm—the animals versus Mr. Jones,
Snowball versus Napoleon, the common animals versus the pigs, Animal Farm versus the
neighboring humans—but all of them are expressions of the underlying tension between the
exploited and exploiting classes and between the lofty ideals and harsh realities of socialism.
Rising ActionThe animals throw off their human oppressors and establish a socialist state called
Animal Farm; the pigs, being the most intelligent animals in the group, take control of the
planning and government of the farm; Snowball and Napoleon engage in ideological disputes
and compete for power.
ClimaxIn Chapter V, Napoleon runs Snowball off the farm with his trained pack of dogs and
declares that the power to make decisions for the farm will be exercised solely by the pigs.
Falling ActionSquealer emerges to justify Napoleon’s actions with skillful but duplicitous
reinterpretations of Animalist principles; Napoleon continues to consolidate his power,
eliminating his enemies and reinforcing his status as supreme leader; the common animals
continue to obey the pigs, hoping for a better future.
ThemesThe corruption of socialist ideals in the Soviet Union; the societal tendency toward class
stratification; the danger of a naïve working class; the abuse of language as instrumental to the
abuse of power
MotifsSongs; state ritual
SymbolsAnimal Farm; the barn; the windmill
ForeshadowingThe pigs’ eventual abuse of power is foreshadowed at several points in the
novel. At the end of Chapter II, immediately after the establishment of the supposedly egalitarian
Animal Farm, the extra milk taken from the cows disappears, and the text implies that Napoleon
has drunk it himself. Similarly, the dogs’ attack on Boxer during Napoleon’s purges, in Chapter
VII, foreshadows the pigs’ eventual betrayal of the loyal cart-horse.

Chapters 2 –7 trace the development of the pigs’ power, and the other animals’ growing
awareness that they have not achieved their goal after all. The pigs—and Napoleon in particular
—come to embody political power in three ways. First, they claim more and more of the farms’
resources for themselves. They start by stealing milk and apples, then eventually sell animal
products to buy human luxuries like whisky. Second, the pigs become more violent, introducing
the dog police force and ordering executions. Third, the pigs claim the power to determine what
truth is. Squealer changes the Commandments of Animalism and the story of the Battle of the
Cowshed. Meanwhile, the animals slowly come to realize that their lives are no better than they
were before the Rebellion.

The climax of the novella occurs in Chapter 7, when Napoleon decides to sell the hens’ eggs.
The hens finally recognize that the pigs are their antagonists, and they rebel. Their rebellion is
brutally crushed and the hens are executed. Now, Boxer is the only character still clinging to the
hope that freedom can be achieved. He has worked tirelessly to achieve this goal set forth by Old
Major, which for Boxer is represented by his hope of one day retiring to a special pasture.
However, when the time comes for Boxer to retire, he is sold and killed. Boxer’s betrayal marks
the moment in which political power—embodied in Napoleon and the pigs—completely defeats
the animals. In Animal Farm’s final pages, the animals watch the pigs dining with human
farmers, and find they are unable to tell the difference between humans and pigs. The pigs have
become one with the human farmers because both groups are equally corrupted by the reality of
political power.

THEORY OF MARXISM

The main aim of Marxism is to bring about a classless society, and ‘Animal Farm’ is generally
considered to be a Marxist novel, as all its characters share a similar ambition at the beginning.
‘Animal Farm’ represents an example of the oppressed masses rising up to form their own
classless society, whilst offering a subtle critique on Stalin’s Soviet Russia, and communism in
general. Orwell is, ironically, revolutionary in his work, as contextually in 1945, communism
was a ‘taboo’ subject, punishable in post-war America by arrest and even death. It is clear from
the political references in ‘Animal Farm’, that Orwell considered Russia, and consequently
communism as a…show more content…
In this way, Orwell portrays the ways in which the Russian people were influenced by
figureheads and ideological saints. ‘Napoleon’, another of Orwell’s characters, portrays the role
of the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin – ‘Man of Steel’. The novel identifies Stalin’s ambition to
lead and control the masses, winning over his more intelligent and influential counterpart, Leon
Trotsky, who is represented by ‘Snowball’. ‘Napoleon’ also identifies himself with the French
military leader Napoleon Bonaparte, whom Orwell considered to be a repressive power seeker
and dictator.

The resemblance of some of the novel’s events to events in Soviet history is indubitable. For
example, Snowball’s and Napoleon’s power struggle is a direct allegory of Trotsky’s and
Stalin’s. Frederick’s trade agreement with Napoleon, and his subsequent breaking of the
agreement, represents the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact that preceded World War II. The
Battle of the Windmill represents World War II itself. The fact that Orwell’s characters reflect so
 obviously the figureheads in Soviet Russia is paramount to the effect of its dramatic and satirical
critique. The purpose of satire is to point out or illustrate societal flaws by mocking them or
highlighting their absurdity. So the outcome of satire can be the change of those behaviours.
Animal Farm was published on the heels of World War II, in England in 1945 and in the United
States in 1946.

'Animal Farm' Themes and Symbols

Table of Contents

 Political Allegory
 Totalitarianism
 Corruption of Ideals
 Power of Language
 Symbols


Jeffrey Somers
Updated on March 12, 2019

George Orwell's Animal Farm is a political allegory about revolution and power.
Through the tale of a group of farm animals who overthrow the owner of the
farm, Animal Farm explores themes of totalitarianism, the corruption of ideals,
and the power of language.

Political Allegory
Orwell frames his story as a political allegory; every character represents a figure
from the Russian Revolution. Mr. Jones, the original human owner of the farm,
represents the ineffective and incompetent Czar Nicholas II. The pigs represent
key members of Bolshevik leadership: Napoleon represents Joseph Stalin,
Snowball represents Leon Trotsky, and Squealer represents Vyacheslav Molotov.
Other animals represent the working classes of Russia: initially passionate about
revolution eventually manipulated into supporting a regime that was just as
incompetent and arguably more brutal than the previous one.

Totalitarianism
Orwell argues that any revolution led by a small, conspiratorial group can only
degenerate into oppression and tyranny. He makes this argument through the
allegory of the farm. The revolution begins with firm principles of equality and
justice, and initially, the results are positive, as the animals get to labor for their
own direct benefit. However, as Orwell demonstrates, revolutionary leaders can
become as corrupt and incompetent as the government they overthrew.

The pigs adopt the human ways they once fiercely opposed (drinking whiskey,
sleeping in beds), and they make business deals with farmers that benefit them
alone. Meanwhile, the other animals see only negative changes in their lives. They
continue to support Napoleon and work harder than ever despite the decline in
quality of living. Eventually, the promises of heated stalls and electric light—what
they've been working for all along—become fantasy.

Animal Farm suggests that totalitarianism and hypocrisy are endemic to the
human condition. Without education and true empowerment of the lower classes,
Orwell argues, society will always default to tyranny.

Corruption of Ideals
The pigs’ descent into corruption is a key element of the novel. Orwell, a socialist,
believed the Russian Revolution had been corrupted by power-seekers like Stalin
from the start.

The animals' revolution is initially led by Snowball, the key architect of

Animalism; at first, Napoleon is a secondary player, much like Stalin. However,
Napoleon plots in secret to seize power and drive Snowball away, undermining
Snowball's policies and training the dogs to be his enforcers. The principles of
equality and solidarity that inspired the animals become mere tools for Napoleon
to seize power. The gradual erosion of these values reflects Orwell’s criticism of
Stalin as nothing more than a tyrant hanging onto power through the fiction of a
communist revolution.

Orwell doesn’t reserve his vitriol for the leaders, however. The animals
representing the people of Russia are depicted as complicit in this corruption
through inaction, fear, and ignorance. Their dedication to Napoleon and the
imaginary benefits of his leadership enable the pigs to maintain their hold on
power, and the ability of the pigs to convince the other animals that their lives
were better even as their lives become demonstrably worse is Orwell’s
condemnation of the choice to submit to propaganda and magical thinking.

Power of Language
Animal Farm explores how propaganda can be used to control people. From the
start of the novel, Orwell depicts the animals being manipulated by common
propaganda techniques, including songs, slogans, and ever-changing
information. Singing "Beasts of England" evokes an emotional response that
reinforces the animals' loyalty to both Animalism and the pigs. The adoption of
slogans like Napoleon is always right or four legs good, two legs
bad demonstrates their unfamiliarity with the complex philosophical and
political concepts underlying the revolution. The constant alteration of the Seven
Commandments of Animalism demonstrates how those in control of information
can manipulate the rest of a population.

The pigs, who serve as the leaders of the farm, are the only animals with a strong
command of language. Snowball is an eloquent speaker who composes the
philosophy of Animalism and persuades his fellow beasts with the power of his
oratory. Squealer is adept at lying and spinning stories to maintain control. (For
example, when the other animals are upset about Boxer’s cruel fate, Squealer
quickly composes a fiction to defuse their anger and confuse the issue.)
Napoleon, while not as smart or as eloquent as Snowball, is skilled at imposing
his own false view on everyone around him, as when he falsely inserts himself
into the historical record of the Battle of the Cowshed.

Symbols
As an allegorical novel, Animal Farm is rife with symbolism. Just as the animals
represent individuals or groups from Russian history, the farm itself represents
Russia, and the surrounding farms represent the European powers that
witnessed the Russian Revolution. Orwell’s choices about which objects, events,
or concepts to highlight are not driven by plot as in narrative fiction. Instead, his
choices are carefully calibrated to evoke a desired response from the reader.

Whiskey

Whiskey represents corruption. When Animalism is founded, one of the

commandments is ‛No animal shall drink alcohol.’ Slowly, however, Napoleon
and the other pigs come to enjoy whiskey and its effects. The commandment is
changed to ‛No animal shall drink alcohol to excess’ after Napoleon experiences
his first hangover and learns how to moderate his whiskey consumption. When
Boxer is sold to the Knacker, Napoleon uses the money to purchase whiskey.
With this act, Napoleon fully embodies the human qualities that the animals once
revolted against.

The Windmill

The windmill represents the attempt to modernize Russia and the general
incompetence of Stalin’s regime. Snowball initially proposes the Windmill as a
way of improving the farm’s living conditions; when Snowball is driven off,
Napoleon claims it as his own idea, but his mismanagement of the project and the
attacks from other landowners mean the project takes far longer to complete than
expected. The final product is of inferior quality, much like many of the projects
undertaken by the Soviets post-revolution. In the end the Windmill is used to
enrich Napoleon and the other pigs at the expense of the other animals.

The Commandments

The Seven Commandments of Animalism, written on the barn wall for all to see,
represent the power of propaganda and the malleable nature of history and
information when the people are ignorant of the facts. The commandments are
altered throughout the novel; each time they are changed indicates that the
animals have moved even further away from their original principles.

Theories

Karl Marx Sociologist:

Contributions And Theory
By
Olivia Guy-Evans
Updated on
April 20, 2023
Reviewed by
Saul Mcleod, PhD
Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory proposed by Karl Marx in the
19th century, and Marxists are those who ascribe to the ideas of Marxism.

Karl Marx was a German philosopher interested in exploring the relationship

between the economy and the people working within the economic system.

Marx’s theory was strongly based on the struggles of the working class during the
Industrial Revolution in Europe. He explained how there are power relationships
between the capitalists and the workers, which are exploitative and would
eventually cause class conflict.
 According to Marx, the workers are those from a low social class, which he
termed the proletariat, whereas those few in charge, the wealthy bosses, owners,
and managers, are what he termed the bourgeoisie.

The proletariat are the individuals who perform labor that is then taken and sold
by the bourgeoisie so that they themselves receive profit while the workers
receive minimal wages.

Noteworthy writings of Marxism include Capital by Marx and The Communist

Manifesto written by Marx and Friedrich Engels. These writings describe the
features of Marxist ideology, including the struggle of the working class,
capitalism, and how a classless society is needed to end the class conflict.

Key Takeaways

 Karl Marx was a German philosopher who, in the 19th century, began exploring
the relationship between the economy and the people who work within the
economic system.

 The basic idea of Marx’s theory is that society is characterized by the struggle
between the workers and those in charge. The workers are those of lower social
classes, which he termed the proletariat.

 The few in charge, who are the bosses, owners, and managers of an upper social
class, are what he termed the bourgeoisie. The proletariat are the individuals
who perform the labor, while the bourgeoisie obtains the profits from this
labor. From this system, Marx argued that the workers are exploited while
those in power get more powerful and wealthier.

 The workers are viewed as slaves of the bourgeoisie, given wages for their labor
that is the minimum subsidence so that they can just about survive while also
depending on their labor that they cannot simply quit (Marx & Engels, 2019).

 The writings ‘Capital’ by Marx and ‘The Communist Manifesto’ written by Marx
and Friedrich Engels are noteworthy pieces that lay out what is now referred to
as Marxism.
  These writings discuss capitalism, which is believed to eventually stagnate due
to the increased struggle between the social classes.

 Marxist ideology predicts that there will be a proletariat revolution whereby

capitalism will end, to be replaced by communism.

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Contents
 What Are The Basic Principles Of Marx’s Theory?
 Impact of Marx’s Theory on Sociology
 Strengths of Marxism
 Criticisms of Marxism
 Frequently Asked Questions

What Are The Basic Principles Of

Marx’s Theory?
Class Struggle

Marx argued that there were two social classes; the working-class laborers,
known as the proletariat, and the wealthy bourgeoise, who controlled the
workers.

Marx argued that there is a struggle between the social classes. While the
bourgeoisie is concerned with the means of producing via the laborers, those who
conduct the labor, the proletariat, want to end this exploitation.

Marx explained that there is a constant conflict between the proletariat and the
bourgeoisie. While the bourgeoisie aims to make as much profit as possible by
exploiting the labor of others, the proletariat is dissatisfied with this exploitation
and wants to end it.

Class tensions are thought to increase with the opposing desires of those who
want bigger profits and the workers who defend their right to fair pay and
working conditions.

Competition in the market and the desire for bigger profits compels the
bourgeoisie to further exploit their workers, who defend their rights and working
conditions. These opposing desires of pushing the rate of exploitation in opposite
directions create class tensions.

Over time, there is a broader division of labor and increased use of machinery to
complete the labor. Marx and Engels argued that with this came an increase in
the burden of toil, whether by the work hours getting longer, an increase in the
amount of work in a given time, or by the increased speed of the machinery.

The workers are viewed as slaves of the bourgeoisie and the machine, given wages
for their labor that is the minimum subsidence so they can just about survive
while also depending on their labor (Marx & Engels, 2019).

The struggle between social classes was initially confined to individual factories.
However, as capitalism has matured, personal struggles have become generalized
to coalitions across factories and eventually manifested at societal levels
(Rummel, 1977).

Marxists believe that the division between classes will widen with the exploitation
of the workers deteriorating so severely that the social structure collapses and
transforms into a proletarian revolution . A classless society will pursue erasing
any exploitation or political authority (Rummel, 1977).
Theory of Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic system in which private individuals have the means of

control over their own property, with the motivation to make as much profit as
possible.

Marx describes capitalists as those who exploit the hard work of the laborers and
pay them as little as possible to ensure the highest profits. The capitalists believe
they are entitled to the profits made from their workers’ labor which Marx viewed
as theft.

Marx described the capitalists as the bourgeoisie business owners who organize
the means of production, such as any tools or machinery used, and are entitled to
any profit made.

Marxists believe that most societies are capitalist. That such a system is accepted
without the need for violence or coercion is said to reflect the fact that the
capitalists have a strong influence over ideas in society (Rose, 2005).

Marx saw profit as theft since the capitalists are stealing the hard work of the
laborers, selling goods and services for an enormous profit while paying the
laborers as little as possible. Workers’ labor is bought and sold like any other
commodity.

That such a system is accepted without the need for violence or coercion reflects
the fact that the capitalists have a strong influence over ideas in society (Rosen,
2005).

Marx viewed capitalism as an unstable system that would eventually result in a

series of crises. The means of exploitation built into a capitalist economic system
will be the source of social revolt and ultimately lead to capitalism”s dismantling.

Communism

Marx and Engels proposed that there would eventually be a proletariat revolution
caused by continued exploitation by capitalists. The workers will revolt due to
increasingly worse working conditions and wages.

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels proposed that after the
proletariat revolution, the means of production from the bourgeoisie would end
and be replaced with collective ownership over economic assets. This is a move
from capitalism to communism.
The result of the revolution is that capitalism will be replaced by a classless
society in which private property will be replaced with collective ownership. This
will mean that society will become communist. With private property abolished,
the means of production will come to a common agreement, what is called the
communal ownership of goods.

Communism would aim to create a classless society in which no social class

would exploit the labor of the other. In a communist society, accumulated labor is
but a means to widen, enrich, and promote the laborer’s existence (Marx &
Engels, 2019).

According to Marxism, the key features of communist society are that there
would be no private property or inherited wealth, steeply graduated income tax,
centralized control of the banking, communication, and transport industries, and
free public education (Marx & Engels, 2019).

Conflict Theory

Karl Marx is known as the developer of conflict theory. This is the idea that
society is in a state of perpetual conflict because of two or more groups with
competing and incompatible interests. It is the theory that power struggles and
dynamics drive societal change.

Marx concentrated on the conflict between the social classes: those of

the bourgeoisie and the proletariat . The power the bourgeoisie hold can be found
in their material resources, accumulated wealth, and social status.

As capitalism develops, there are fewer but more powerful individuals in the
upper class, which creates conflict with a majority oppressed class. The two
groups are in a struggle, and resources are unjustly distributed to the few.

Marx reasoned that as the social conditions worsened for the workers (e.g.,
through lower pay), they would develop a class consciousness that revealed that
their exploitation was at the hands of the capitalist. The workers can make
demands to ease the conflict, but conditions would eventually get worse again.

According to Marx, the only way to end the cycle of conflict is to bring about
communism.

Theory Of Alienation
Alienation means the lack of power, control and fulfillment experienced by
workers in capitalist societies which the means of producing goods are privately
owned and controlled.

Marx described a division of labor, meaning that the production workers

increasingly feel separated from their work. Workers have moved away from an
artisanal approach to work when one person works on one product.

With the increase in machinery, technological advancements, and assembly lines

where many people work on one product, there is a loss of meaning to individual
workers (Marx, 1992).

As this division of labor increases along with the extent of production required
for the market, the workers become more dependent on their labor for mere
survival. As capitalist production becomes more technical, the workers’
productivity increases, but the final product of their labor is not for the worker to
enjoy – it is the property of the capitalist (Prychitko, 2002).

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels suggest that under capitalism,
the proletariat lose all individual character, becoming ‘an appendage of the
machine’, thus, their work becomes alien (Marx & Engels, 2019).

The proletariat loses agency over their work lives, instead, this is determined by
the bourgeoisie, including when and how long to work. Thus, the workers view
their labor as something alien to them.

Marx describes alienated labor as forced and involuntary labor in which the
worker finds no purpose, pleasure, contentment, or power. The worker feels
isolated and insignificant, seeing their labor as purely for wages (Mukhopadhyay,
2020).

As the division of labor increases along with the extent of production required for
the market, the workers become more dependent on their labor for mere survival.
Their productivity increases as capitalist production become more technical, but
as a result, the final product is not for them to enjoy, rather, it is the property of
the capitalist (Prychitko, 2002).

Thus, the workers view their labor as something alien. Not only the object but the
process of production is alien, for it is no longer a creative activity.

Marx describes alienated labor in his writings as forced and involuntary labor in
which the worker finds no purpose, pleasure, contentment, or power. The worker
feels isolated and insignificant, seeing their labor as purely for wages
(Mukhopadhyay, 2020).

Historical Materialism

Marx proposed a theory of historical materialism in which he describes stages or

epochs that societies pass through. These are primitive communism, slave
society, feudalism, capitalism, and advanced communism.

Marx used historical materialism to attempt to explain where society has come
from, why it is the way that it is, and where it is heading.

Primitive communism was a time when society was free of social class divisions,
and there were simply hunters and gathers who obtained enough food for
survival. Since there was not a surplus of production, there was no exploitation.

Slave society is thought of as the first stage of exploitation. This is when there was
a division between the wealthy aristocrats and those who were slaves. This epoch
gave way to more advanced productive forces, with the means of production
being by the people who were the property of the slaveowners.

Feudalism was a dominant social system in medieval Europe in which society was
divided into landowners and land occupiers. It was a system in which people
were given land and protection by the nobles, who had to work and fight for them
in return. Essentially, in feudalism, the landowners exploited the land occupiers.

Marx proposed that the current society is a capitalist one in which there are
private property owners who exploit the labor of their workers, whom they pay as
little as possible to obtain high profits. This epoch is viewed as the wealthiest in
society exploiting the poorest.

Marx’s prediction for the next epoch of society is that it will be an advanced
communist one. In a communist society, there would be shared resources and
wealth and no exploitation.

This was Marx’s idea of a utopia in which the system benefits most people in
society rather than a small minority.

Impact Of Marx’s Theory On

Sociology
Karl Marx has remained a prominent and influential figure in the world of
sociology. In particular, his ideas on conflict theory gave rise to other conflict
theories which developed later, including race-conflict theory, gender-conflict
theory, and intersectional theory.

These theories provide sociologists with ways to understand power, control,

freedom, and exploitation in society.

Due to Marx’s understanding of capitalism, we have more of an understanding of

how society functions and why we may have certain ideas about labor.

In general, there are negative connotations about those who are unemployed,
considering those who take too much time off as lazy and holding the belief that
more belongings make people happier. Marx provided the understanding that
capitalism may be the cause of why society holds these views and how it teaches
us to be competitive and conformist.

Strengths Of Marxism
Marx’s ideas of society are a source of many useful insights and arguments, many
of which remain relevant for modern analyses of society. While some ideas may
have lost some relevance, the legacy of Marxism has endured (Burawoy & Wright,
2001).

Many institutions are believed to use capitalist ideology still to justify

inequalities. For instance, educational institutions socialize children into working
hard and being obedient.

With the increase of technological advancements in the workplace and the

seemingly excessive number of products in the modern world – a lot of which
would be considered non-essential- supports Marx’s ideas about capitalism.

Marxism can help sociologists understand how past revolutions have occurred in
capitalist societies. It is considered a social theory of vital importance for
understanding the issues and possibilities of social change and social
reproduction in modern societies.

While not every element within Marxism is sustainable, Marxist ideas can be
built upon to challenge and transform it (Burawoy & Wright, 2001).

Criticisms Of Marxism
Marxism can be criticized for being overly simplistic in the idea of society being
split into two social classes. There are different levels of wealth in society, so it is
more likely that there are several social classes.

Likewise, Marx’s theory ignores other factors which can contribute to social
inequality, such as a person’s race and religion. A person’s gender is also mostly
ignored by Marxism. Feminists would suggest that gender provides a greater
social division in society rather than social class.

Marxism is argued to be a doctrine with little relevance for serious social change.
It is said to be ideological for mobilizing political parties and social movements
but lacks scientific credibility (Burawoy & Wright, 2001). It is thought to be
unlikely that there would be total social class equality in a communist society.

Further, communist ideas have been introduced in some countries and have
shown not to fare well. For instance, there was a fall of communism in the former
socialist state of the USSR. Therefore, a Marxist society, while promising in
theory, may not be fully sustainable unless reconstructed.

Frequently Asked Questions

What Are The Main Goals Of Marxism?
The main goal of Marxism is to achieve a classless society that is not only adopted
in one society but on a global scale.

Marx’s idea was to design a social system that eliminates exploitation and
differences in power between groups of people.

In communism, the proletariat has political power, and private property is

abolished. In a communist society, private ownership will be replaced with
collective ownership over economic assets.

What Is The Importance of Marxism In Society?

Karl Marx is one of the most prominent and influential figures in sociological
theory. These ideas on conflict theory have given rise to different conflict
theories, such as race-conflict theory, gender-conflict theory, and intersectional
theory.
Marx’s explanations of capitalism have provided a deep understanding of how
society functions and enabled people to think critically about the labor they do.

Marx further offered the knowledge that capitalism may be why society holds
particular views about labor, including negative judgments about those who do
not work and why people are competitive and conformist.

Is Marxism Still Relevant Today?

While some ideas of Marxism may be outdated and may not necessarily be a
comprehensive theory for social change, they can still help understand some of
the key social mechanisms in a society divided by class.

Marxism offers a way to understand history and economics, as well as an

explanation of the global capitalist crisis. It can be argued that exploitation is still
at the heart of a capitalist system enforced by those in the upper social classes.

Marxism also captures how capitalism develops and impacts specific world
regions, specifically how some regions are developed unevenly relative to one
another. Marxists would argue that unregulated commodification comes with
environmental hazards, the costs of which are becoming increasingly clear
(Fasenfest, 2018).

References
Burawoy, M., & Wright, E. O. (2001). Sociological marxism. In Handbook of
sociological theory (pp. 459-486). Springer, Boston, MA.

Callinicos, A. (2011). The revolutionary ideas of Karl Marx. Haymarket Books.

Fasenfest, D. (2018). Is Marx still relevant?. Critical Sociology, 44(6), 851-855.

Marx, K. (1873). Capital: A critical analysis of capitalist production. Humboldt.

Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1967). The communist manifesto . 1848. Trans. Samuel
Moore. London: Penguin, 15.

Marx, K., & Engels, F. (2019). The communist manifesto. In Ideals and
Ideologies (pp. 243-255). Routledge.

Mukhopadhyay, R. (2020). Karl Marx”s Theory of Alienation. Available at SSRN

3843057.
Poulantzis, N. (1975). Social Classes in Contemporary Capitalism. London: New
Left Books.

Prychitko, D. L. (Ed.). (2002). Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays

after the Collapse of Communism. Edward Elgar Publishing.

Rosen, M. (2005). Marx, Karl. Ed. Edward Craig. The Shorter Routledge
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 619-631.

Rummel, R. J. (1977). Understanding conflict and war: Vol. 3: Conflict in

perspective. Beverly Hills: Sage

. Subaltern

The word subaltern comes from the Italian word subaterno, meaning "inferior or
inferior." Since then, the word subaltern has been used in different contexts and
for many interpretations. It was first used by Italian socialist critic Antonio
Gramsci to define subordinate classes from a political and historical
perspective, such as proletarians, peasants, slaves, women, and even
religious groups. As Antonia Gramsci points out, "The ultimate goal was to
transform the subordination of subaltern social groups, through writing and
analyzing the histories of different subaltern groups and contributing to the
development of historical understandings of potential strategies for such
transformation" (Gramsci, 1971). Each society has an upper class section that
controls public life and enjoys numerous rights of freedom, power, and
dominance. On the contrary, the section of the common people is socially
and economically crushed. This class is excluded, voiceless, and lacks sovereignty
and representation of all kinds. Gayatry Chacravorty Spivak is a leading voice in
Subaltern Studies. Also, she is a vital pioneer in postcolonial experiments.
She has offered deep insights into the colonial power of former colonies.
Raised in India, studied and graduated in Britain and America, her works have a
great impact on the poor communities of the third world. The most
prominent work on subalternity by Spivak is her controversial essay of 1988,
"Can the Subaltern Speak? The title of her essay is, in some ways, vague
and misleading. She thinks that no-one will hear them even when the subalterns
speak. She confirms that in a society, privileged people, intellectuals, religious
leaders, and politicians, to name a few, will speak for the subordinate groups. In
her essay,
the word "speak" pertains to the voice of the underclass, stolen by the elite class
in any society. Many of Spivak's subalternity considerations can be construed
by means of many theoretical interpretations. Graham suggests: Spivak
combines ideas from Marxism* (here an approach critical of capitalist economic
exploitation), feminism* (promotion of equality between the sexes), and
deconstruction. These specialties help her make an argument about the
oppression caused by differences in power, gender, and access to knowledge.
(Riach, 2017) She concludes her essay by asserting that subalterns cannot truly
speak because they cannot represent and express themselves self-sufficiently. By
losing voice and representation, their traditional identity is lost too.
Subalternity "is a position without identity, a position where social lines of
mobility, being elsewhere, do not permit the formation of a recognizable basis of
action" (Spivak, 2005). Subaltern studies shed light on the secondary classes
in a society that aims to liberalize their oppressed voices and challenge their
traditionally authoritative voices. Biswas stresses that "the movement basically
arose as a critique of elite-based historiographic schools of thought, including
Marxist and Cambridge historiography" (Biswas, 2010). The term quickly
appeared when certain colonized countries gained freedom and self-
governance in the 1960s. As a critical movement or approach, Subaltern
Studies was initiated during the 1970s in the discipline of history (Ludden,
2002). Subaltern studies plateaued in the 1980s as a movement named the
(SSG)Subaltern Studies Group has been coordinated by some writers of
different backgrounds. Some of this organization's early followers were European
authors raised in the west and kept interested in postcolonial and subaltern
studies. Several of the subaltern writers were born in subaltern cultures

but later moved and resided in the west, like Spivak, Bhabha, and Edward Said.
In their literatures, they tried to give voice to the people, articulate their
passive representation, and unveil the unpleasant face of the colonization of the
white man. In postcolonial and subaltern studies, George Orwell is regarded as
one of the most effective authors. Born and raised in a subaltern culture,
Orwell’s writings have always been very conscious and praiseworthy. Animal
Farm The Indian-based British novelist George Orwell was born and died as Eric
Arthur Blair and is considered one of the greatest British writers. He was born in
1903 in Bengal, as a fragment of India's British colony. He became a
member of the Burmese colonial police and soon gave up imperialist feelings.
His resentment was evident in some of his outstanding essays like "Shooting
an Elephant," "A Hanging," and his first novel, "Burmese Days," published
in 1934. Growing offended and fully aware of the ugly face of the Soviet
regime, Orwell wrote "Animal Farm" in 1945. It is one of his landmark
contributions in the literary realm. It is indeed a literary allegory against the
corruption and exploitation of humanity by man during the Russian uprising
under Stalin's iron-fist rule. The novel begins with a colonial notion of Mr. Jones
managing the animal farm and exercising all sorts of exploitation and slavery
against the animals. The animals are working hard from dawn to sunset, and all
the privileges go to Mr. Jones, who represents humanity. Mr. Jones' bond with
the animals is superior and inferior. Harrison explains, "Colonizers often
described their colonial subjects as existing outside history in unchanging,
timeless societies, unable to progress without their intervention and assistance.
In such a way, they justified their actions, including violence against those who
resisted colonial rule "(Harrison, 2012). It is,

subsequently, a typical subaltern relationship. He is treating them like subalterns

and depriving them of any right to recreation and independence. Man is the only
creature that consumes without producing. He does not give milk, he does not
lay eggs, he is too weak to pull the plough, he cannot run fast enough to catch
rabbits, yet he is lord of all animals. He sets them to work, he gives back to them
the bare minimum that will prevent them from starving, and the rest he
keeps for himself’ (Orwell, Animal Farm, P. 4). Old Major’s dream is a
turning moment in the connection between both the colonizer, Mr. Jones,
and the colonized animals. This dream ignites the spirit of revolution within the
animals and guides them towards the next step: rebellion. For the colonized it is
certainly not a mere dream, but rather a genuine search for voice, justice, and
autonomy. The long behaviour of man in terms of enslavement,
manipulation, and brutality must come to an end. The colonized animals
grow impatient with Mr. Jones and it has been summarized in Manor’s words,
" Man, man, is the only real enemy we have. "(Animal Farm, Chapter 4). The
revolution represents the decolonization stage when the native inhabitants, the
animals inside the farm, rule themselves. And in their endeavour to
maintain a peaceful relationship, they organize a constitution of seven
commandments, which signifies freedom, justice, and equality among the
animals. With Mr. Jones' deportation and farm responsibility being back to the
colonized animals and being the smartest, the pigs take the authority to oversee
and run the farm on their shoulders. They start debating over their farm
administration by assigning all the privileges and leadership authorities to
themselves, along with other pigs. The pigs consider themselves the stronger, the
wiser, and those who

have fought fiercely in the rebellion. Establishing their own new empire, the pigs
replace man, and a new era of colonization starts again. The new era of
colonization focuses on slavery, hegemony, and monstrous injustice toward other
animals. Discrimination is now a new theme in neo-colonization that
emerges when pigs are seen as superior and the rest of the animals as inferior and
subaltern. The pigs now have some advantages which the rest of the animals do
not have. They have their meals in the kitchen and their recreation rooms; they
lie in relaxing beds and sleep extra hours compared to other animals. In addition,
the pigs as well as the dogs even have retirement privileges. All the laws
previously formulated in the commandments' farming constitution were later
breached to suit the pigs' interests: For the time being the young pigs were
given their instruction by Napoleon himself in the farm house kitchen. They took
their exercise in the garden, and were discouraged from playing with the other
young animals. About this time, too, it was laid down as a rule that when a pig
and any other animal met on the path, the other animal must stand aside: and
also that all pigs, of whatever degree, were to have privilege of wearing green
ribbons on their tails on Sundays. (Orwell, Animal Farm, P.73) Napoleon took
certain protective measures by growing certain dogs to impose his complete
dominance over the farm. And Napoleon hires Squealer the pig as his mouthpiece
to maintain his insolent manipulation and dominance over all animals. Every
time the animals doubt the intention of Napoleon, Squealer the sycophant will
justify the behaviour of Napoleon and convince the pathetic animals that
comrade Napoleon is doing his best. When the secret of missing milk was
discovered, Squealer did not spare any effort to persuade the animals:

Comrades!’ he cried.’ You do not imagine, I hope, that we pigs are doing this in a
spirit of selfishness and privilege? Many of us actually dislike milk and apples. I
dislike them myself. Our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our
health. Mile and apples (thus has been proved by science, comrades) contain
substances absolutely necessary to the well-being of a pig. We pigs are
brainworkers’ (Orwell, Animal Farm, P.23) Subalternity is often viewed as a
direct result of colonialism, and for Spivak, women are even double
marginalized by both colonialism and patriarchy, "a system in which men
have the upper hand and women have to submit to men’s will." In the context
of colonial production, the subaltern has no history and cannot speak. "The
subaltern as a female is even more deeply in shadow" (Spivak, 1988). Spivak
manipulates the novel's inactive position of female characters. This novel is said
to be a patriarchal book. The female characters are powerless and have
absolutely no voice. The novel begins with Major describing himself as a 12-year-
old pig with over four hundred children. Major represents fertility and protection
symbols The patriarchal reigning pigs end up receiving authority in the
novel: Napoleon, Snowball, and the other pigs. Spivak argues about how
women are doubly marginalized in subordinate societies. Mollie, the mare, is
defined as pretty and stupid. She is a source of trouble and the colourful ribbons
she was braided with were all she cared about. Her greatest concern was
getting white mane attention. She used to attend the animal meetings without
even hearing a single word about what the other animals said. Another female
character in the novel is Clover, a cart-horse. Her body appearance has changed
after her four foals; it is never the same again. Clover is not well-known for her
enormous labors, as she worked tirelessly with the other animals to construct the
windmill. Therefore, she was respected for her protective role of caring for the
ducklings who lost their mother. Women's characters are perceived as irrational,
pathetic, and negligible.

The powerless animals are now victims of the rebellion and its sufferers. They
have their dreams of a free animal society in which all equal. A society in which
the strong defend the weak and all animals work to the best of their abilities while
adhering to animalism principles. This represents the subaltern vision of a
society free of all forms of enslavement, forced labor, and violence. That was
evident in Clover 's lost hopes: if she herself had had any picture of the future, it
had been of a society of animals set free from hunger and the whip, all equal, each
working according to his capacity, the strong protecting the weak, as she had
protected the lost brood ducklings with her foreleg on the night of Major’s
speech. Instead – she did not know why- they had come to a time when no one
dared to speak his mind, when fierce, growling dogs roamed everywhere (Orwell,
Animal Farm P.57). Unfortunately, the animals are only victims of the two
periods of colonization: the colonization of Mr. Jones and the colonization of
pigs. They had already been treated with violence, manipulation, and a
totalitarian regime in both periods. Orwell does not only criticize the
exploitation of others by the privileged class, he also condemns the subaltern
groups' weak spirit and their complete submission to their lords. The story is
undoubtedly a bitter satire of the colonized because of their total self-
centeredness, materialism, lack of political sense and blind devotion to the
colonizers. Jonathan Culler underscores that "hegemony is an arrangement of
domination accepted by those who are dominated. Ruling groups dominate not
by pure force but through a structure of consent, and culture is part of this
structure that legitimizes current social arrangements (Culler, 2000). Such a
lack of resistance and undisputed ignorance prompts tyrants like Napoleon to
exercise their hegemony over them. Boxer, the horse valued for its strength,
represents the

innocent and devoted citizen who abides by the law and works hard for the
animals' sake. He is famous for his slogan, "If Comrade Napoleon says it, it must
be right. " And from then on, he adopted the maxim, "Napoleon is always right."
Besides his private motto of "I will work harder" (Animal Farm, 37). Conclusion:
The main objective of this paper is to illustrate subalternity in George Orwell's
Animal Farm. Orwell is one of the pioneers whose important landmark "Animal
Farm", 1945, suggestively contributed to exposing the dictatorship of the
colonizers and their violent policies against the people of the lower classes.
Subalternity is one of the main themes in the novel, as shown noticeably by Mr.
Jones' attitudes towards the animals and later by the injustice of the pigs against
the underprivileged animals. Animal Farm can be read as a novel simply as
an allegorical fictional work. It represents the revolution and rebellion of man
against the superpower class in a society. It is a bitter satire on how this
revolution turned into just another colonizing form. The farm has undergone
two colonization periods. The first when Mr. Jones takes control over the
farm and exercises multiple aspects of maltreatment and exploitation against
the animals that represent the subaltern group on the farm. The second phase
of colonisation is when the animals start a revolutionary rebellion against Mr.
Jones. The pigs dominate the farm and practice all sorts of enslavement and
dictatorships against the animals, replacing and acting like Mr. Jones.

periods of leisure. The worker sees himself as an 'outsider' or unrelated to his job or his development.
When he is working, he is not at home and he his is this "Forced Laborer". It is literally a way of fulfilling
needs outside of him. The second form of economic activity alienation struggles with the separation
from private ownership and wage labour. Since labor belongs to the proprietor rather than to the
worker, the laborer's economic activity is abstract, decided by others, and not liberating.Alienation from
species-being (Man’s separation from his species)  To Marx, the human being is a social and working
being, formed as a species-being representational. Human beings, unlike animals, behave not only for
their own purposes but also for their own species. Labor is what sets man apart from lower animals.
Animals always do labor, but they are specifically forced to do so. Man may produce only when he is
free and his production conforms to the ordains of beauty and is commensurate withnature's rules. As
labor develops into a way of self-preservation and food supply, the worker becomes alienated from their
species and the lifestyle of the species becomes simply an instrument of an individual's existence.
Alienation from other People (individual from other individuals)This is directly related to the other
forms, especially with the third. In the capitalist relations of production, not only are we alienated from
the commodity and the production process, but provided that we are alienated from our human
existence, it alsomeans that we are alienated from ourselves and each other in turn. So the dimension of
alienated labor deals with the fact that our social ties are alienated by themselves. Man feels isolated
from his own species, relatives, and associates. This spreads from man to man, and even to society. For
if a man feels conflict with or inside himself, then he is often in conflict with others. The states of the
workers are perhaps the most devastating, immediate effects for the worker. One very prominent
theme in Marx's writings is that the worker is a commodity and is regarded as such because of
exploitation by non-workers of other workers and because of the perceived position of the worker in
production. The consequences of all this are that man is viewed and exploited as an object, that he is
not regarded as a human being but only as property, as a necessary part of the economy, and that the
needs of man and the ability to grow his own faculties are entirely ignored as unimportant for the
system's objectives and with time, his position worsens even as a commodity

.ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION

According to Karl Marx’s theory, all these types of alienation enumerated by Marx are of the same
origin. In fact, all forms are different aspects of the self-alienation of man or his estrangement from his
own "basic nature" In the end; this is responsible for the growth of all social evils and antagonistic ties
between the individuals and society. Marxian alienation is a phenomenon that comprises many aspects
and elements of significance that can be empirically defined in four main types of manifestations.
Alienated labour is forced and external labour is something in which the worker finds no purpose, no
pleasure or fulfilment, no needs fulfilment, no independence or power, no mental development or
physical development. It is behaviour that belongs to another, it is not random and it simply is a way of
meeting the needs of physical life it can be seen how obvious it is in this system in which the worker
trades his labour for wages, the worker is in great disadvantage. It becomes just a wage earning activity.

between private ownership and alienated labor, coming to the conclusion that private ownership

is:

"the product, the result, the necessary consequence of alienated labor" (Marx 1968).

"The national economy is based on the reality of private ownership. But it does not explain

it." (Marx 1968)

In his manuscript, he further goes on to say the course and methods by which the capitalists

were exploiting the working class. He also commented on how the capitalists follow these

production models that favor them and cause the workers to be oppressed. Because of this

oppression, the ruling classes and the working classes segregated themselves. He termed this

practice as Alienation. It meant that working people put everything in their jobs, but got close to

nothing in return and thus causing class division between them both. Alienation includes all

aspects of life — religion, politics, economic and social relationships; but it specifically affects

labour.

Marx differentiated amongst four different types of alienated labour:

Alienation from the product (Objectification)

By alienating workers from the products of their labor, the laborer produces for him an alien,

objectified environment and is internally impoverished. To survive, the worker must create goods

by the use of the property of others and thus recreate a worldly objectification in the form of

goods and thus his own objectivity in the form of goods. Production is a permanent state for

human existence and a permanent trait of human nature. But when a man makes an object
through his own labour that objects clashes with himself. The producer is ceasing to own his own

thing. He continues to produce and the world of the objects produced surrounds him like an alien

and hostile world. Just like primitive men alienated themselves through their hostile nature,

modern humans alienated themselves through the object they create themselves.

Alienation from economic and own activity (Self-Alienation)

 This type of alienation alienates them from the act of production or the economy along

with their own activities. In this type, a man starts to reject his own self and does not

accept that this causes self-annihilation; Man is miserable, sad, and depressed. He cannot

nourish or improve his mental energy or his physical strength. In addition, he mortifies

his body and destroys his mind, sinks into a feeling of shame. In the economic sense,

there are two forms. In the first form, a man describes the external essence of labor that is

not part of human existence and does not contain spiritual or physical energy. This form

of labor is fundamentally foreign to the worker and is not performed or confirmed during

periods of leisure. The worker sees himself as an 'outsider' or unrelated to his job or his

development. When he is working, he is not at home and he his is this "Forced Laborer".

It is literally a way of fulfilling needs outside of him. The second form of economic

activity alienation struggles with the separation from private ownership and wage labour.

Since labor belongs to the proprietor rather than to the worker, the laborer's economic

activity is abstract, decided by others, and not liberating.

Alienation from species-being (Man’s separation from his species)

 To Marx, the human being is a social and working being, formed as a species-being

representational. Human beings, unlike animals, behave not only for their own purposes

but also for their own species. Labor is what sets man apart from lower animals. Animals

always do labor, but they are specifically forced to do so. Man may produce only when

he is free and his production conforms to the ordains of beauty and is commensurate with

nature's rules. As labor develops into a way of self-preservation and food supply, the

worker becomes alienated from their species and the lifestyle of the species becomes
simply an instrument of an individual's existence.

Alienation from other People (individual from other individuals)

This is directly related to the other forms, especially with the third. In the capitalist

relations of production, not only are we alienated from the commodity and the

production process, but provided that we are alienated from our human existence, it also

means that we are alienated from ourselves and each other in turn. So the dimension of

alienated labor deals with the fact that our social ties are alienated by themselves. Man

feels isolated from his own species, relatives, and associates. This spreads from man t

Animal Farm by George Orwell

Animal Farm(1945) is a political novel written by George Orwell. It is an allegory—a story
with a deeper meaning— of the Russian Revolution. The novel is about a group of English
animals that rebel against their human owner, kick him and the other humans off the property,
and run the farm for themselves. The primary characters include:

Name Type Role Symbolism

Shares his dream of freedom for farm Vladimir Lenin/Karl
Old Major Pig
animals Marx
Napoleon Pig Self-appointed leader of Animal Farm Joseph Stalin
Snowball Pig Napoleon's rival Leon Trotsky
Passes information to the animals on the
Squealer Pig Propaganda
farm and updates the Commandments
Boxer Horse Hardest worker on the farm Loyal working-class
Bourgeoise who fled
Mollie Horse She is conceited and avoids work
after the Revolution
She is a friend to Boxer, and she is
Clover Horse Working-class women
suspicious of the pigs
The oldest and most skeptical member on
Benjamin Donkey Intellectuals
the farm
Moses Raven He is Mr. Jones pet, and he spreads Religious exploitation
 information to animals outside the farm
Jessie and The puppies of Jessie and Bluebell, which
Bluebell's Dogs Napoleon takes to raise and educate in Secret police forces
Puppies secret
Owner of Manor Farm, which is the name
Mr. Jones Human Tsar Nicholas II
of the farm before the animals take over
Mr. Pilkington Human Owner of the neighboring farm, Foxwood Capitalist governments
Mr. Frederick Human Owner of Pinchfield, a neighboring farm Adolf Hitler
Animal Farm is divided into ten chapters. The novel starts hopeful but ends in oppression.

 Chapter 1: Old Major tells the animals about his dream of freedom and teaches them the
song "Beasts of England." He argues that man is the root of all their problems.
 Chapter 2: Old Major dies, and the pigs organize his message into Animalism, their
system of thought. The animals take over the farm, and they create the Seven
Commandments, the principles they live by.
 Chapter 3: The animals have their first harvest since the revolution, which has a larger
yield than any they had seen under the rule of humans. They are motivated to work
harder by freedom and cooperate well. The pigs try to teach the other animals to read, and
Napoleon and Snowball debate. It is discovered the pigs are taking all the milk and
apples.
 Chapter 4: Words of what happened to get around, inspiring the animal and frightening
humans. Mr. Jones and several other men attack, and the animals fight them off.
 Chapter 5: Mollie runs away after Clover finds her stash of sugar and ribbon. Snowball
and Napoleon continue to debate and constantly disagree. Snowball's platform is based
on a windmill that would reduce work, while Napoleon supports more work in the fields
and a larger harvest. Napoleon sends his dogs (nine puppies he had taken from Jessie and
Bluebell) to chase Snowball off the farm, and he becomes leader. Napoleon moves
forward with the plans for the windmill.
Napoleon tells the animals that the windmill will make their
lives easier, but it makes their lives harder. It is a symbol of
the lengths the Soviet Union went to modernize after the
revolution.

 Chapter 6: The animals work hard in the fields and on the windmill. Napoleon starts
trading with neighboring farms with Mr. Whymper, a local lawyer, acting as a liaison.
The pigs move into the house, and a winter storm knocks down the windmill.
 Chapter 7: The animals struggle through another harsh winter, and the animals work on
rebuilding a fortified windmill. Squealer slanders Snowball and uses him to spread
propaganda amongst the animals. Napoleon executes several animals and bans "Beasts of
England."
 Chapter 8: Napoleon sells wood to Mr. Frederick. Mr. Frederick gives him counterfeit
money and takes the wood. He then attacks the farm. The animals win, but they are hurt.
Some are dead, and the windmill is destroyed.
 Chapter 9: Boxer is hurt while working. The animals are told he is going to a vet, but he
is taken away by a glue-making and rendering company.
 Chapter 10: Only Clover, Benjamin, Moses, and some pigs are left who remember the
rebellion. Clover asks Benjamin to read the last remaining commandment, which reads:
"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others."
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Animal Farm Themes and Analysis

Orwell wrote Animal Farm as an allegory to the Russian Revolution, which
began in 1917. Orwell was a political writer, and he wanted to share his opinions
on the Revolution in an easy-to-digest format. He was unhappy with how the
Soviet Union attempted socialism, and his novel acts as a parody that criticizes
the implementation of socialism.
George Orwell was an opinionated British novelist who used
his work to make political statements. He is best known for
two novels, Animal Farm and 1984.

The novel is also a commentary on human nature within an organized society.

Orwell presents the idea that classism is almost impossible to eradicate within
government and society. This is seen in the transformation of the Seven
Commandments down to one line that declares, "some animals are more equal
than others." The pigs used their intelligence to manipulate and exploit the other
animals, becoming far worse oppressors than the humans had been. Themes
in Animal Farm that help develop the overall message of the story include:

Inevitability of Class Separation

The animals are equal when they first take over the farm. The pigs are
more intelligent, but they do not abuse their intelligence at first. However,
they slowly take more for themselves while oppressing the others until
they become far more oppressive than the humans had been.