THEORETICAL MODELS FOR

TEACHING AND RESEARCH

Feminist Theory
Jo Ann Arinder

Feminist theory falls under the umbrella of critical theory, which in general have the purpose of
destabilizing systems of power and oppression. Feminist theory will be discussed here as a
theory with a lower case ‘t’, however this is not meant to imply that it is not a Theory or cannot
be used as one, only to acknowledge that for some it may be a sub-genre of Critical Theory,
while for others it stands alone. According to Egbert and Sanden (2020), some scholars see
critical paradigms as extensions of the interpretivist, but there is also an emphasis on oppression
and lived experience grounded in subjectivist epistemology.

The purpose of using a feminist lens is to enable the discovery of how people interact within
systems and possibly offer solutions to confront and eradicate oppressive systems and structures.
Feminist theory considers the lived experience of any person/people, not just women, with an
emphasis on oppression. While there may not be a consensus on where feminist theory fits as a
theory or paradigm, disruption of oppression is a core tenant of feminist work. As hooks (2000)
states, “Simply put, feminism is a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation and oppression. I
liked this definition because it does not imply that men were the enemy” (p. viii).

Previous Studies
Marxism and socialism are key components in the heritage.of feminist theory. The origins of
feminist theory can be found in the 18th century with growth in the 1970s’ and 1980s’ equality
movements. According to Burton (2014), feminist theory has its roots in Marxism but
specifically looks to Engles’ (1884) work as one possible starting point. Burton (2014) notes that,
“Origin of the Family and commentaries on it were central texts to the feminist movement in its
early years because of the felt need to understand the origins and subsequent development of the
subordination of the female sex” (p. 2). Work in feminist theory, including research regarding
gender equality, is ongoing.

Gender equality continues to be an issue today, and research into gender equality in education is
still moving feminist theory forward. For example, Pincock’s (2017) study discusses the impact
of repressive norms on the education of girls in Tanzania. The author states that, “…
considerations of what empowerment looks like in relation to one’s sexuality are particularly
important in relation to schooling for teenage girls as a route to expanding their agency”
(p. 909). This consideration can be extended to any oppressed group within an educational
setting and is not an area of inquiry relegated to the oppression of only female students. For
example, non-binary students face oppression within educational systems and even male students
can face barriers, and students are often still led towards what are considered “gender
appropriate” studies. This creates a system of oppression that requires active work to disrupt.

Looking at representation in the literature used in education is another area of inquiry in feminist
research. For example, Earles (2017) focused on physical educational settings
to explore relationships “between gendered literary characters and stories and the normative and
marginal responses produced by children” (p. 369). In this research, Earles found evidence to
support that a contradiction between the literature and children’s lived experiences exists. The
author suggests that educators can help to continue the reduction of oppressive gender norms
through careful selection of literature and spaces to allow learners opportunities for appropriate
discussions about these inconsistencies.

In another study, Mackie (1999) explored incorporating feminist theory into evaluation
research. Mackie was evaluating curriculum created for English language
learners that recognized the dual realities of some students, also known as the intersectionality of
identity, and concluded that this recognition empowered students. Mackie noted that
valuing experience and identity created a potential for change on an individual and community
level and “Feminist and other types of critical teaching and research provide needed balance to
TESL and applied linguistics” (p. 571).Further, Bierema and Cseh (2003) used a feminist
research framework to examine previously ignored structural inequalities that affect the lives of
women working in the field of human resources.

Model of Feminist Theory

Figure 1 presents a model of feminist theory that begins with the belief that systems exist that
oppress and work against individuals. The model then shows that oppression is based on
intersecting identities that can create discrimination and exclusion. The model indicates the idea
that, through knowledge and action, oppressive systems can be disrupted to support change and
understanding.
Concepts

The core concepts in feminist theory are sex, gender, race, discrimination, equality, difference,
and choice. There are systems and structures in place that work against individuals based
on these qualities and against equality and equity. Research in critical paradigms requires the
belief that, through the exploration of these existing conditions in the current social order, truths
can be revealed. More important, however, this exploration can simultaneously build awareness
of oppressive systems and create spaces for diverse voices to speak for themselves (Egbert &
Sanden, 2019).

Constructs

Feminism is concerned with the constructs of intersectionality, dimensions of social life,

social inequality, and social transformation. Through feminist research, lasting contributions
have been made to understanding the complexities and changes in the gendered division of
labor. Men and women should be politically, economically, and socially equal and this theory
does not subscribe to differences or similarities between men, nor does it refer to excluding men
or only furthering women’s causes. Feminist theory works to support change and understanding
through acknowledging and disrupting power and oppression.

Proposition

Feminist theory proposes that when power and oppression are acknowledged and disrupted,
understanding, advocacy, and change can occur.
 Using the Model
There are many potential ways to utilize this model in research and practice. First, teachers and
students can consider what systems of power exist in their classroom, school, or district. They
can question how these systems are working to create discrimination and exclusion. By
considering existing social structures, they can acknowledge barriers and issues inherit to the
system. Once these issues are acknowledged, they can be disrupted so that change and
understanding can begin. This may manifest, for example, as considering how past colonialism
has oppressed learners of English as a second or foreign language.

The use of feminist theory in the classroom can ensure that the classroom is created, in advance,
to consider barriers to learning faced by learners due to sex, gender, difference, race, or ability.
This can help to reduce oppression created by systemic issues. In the case of the English
language classroom, learners may be facing oppression based on their native language or country
of origin. Facing these barriers in and out of the classroom can affect learners’ access to
education. Considering these barriers in planning and including efforts to mitigate the issues and
barriers faced by learners is a use of feminist theory.

Feminist research is interested in disrupting systems of oppression or barriers created from these
systems with a goal of creating change. All research can include feminist theory when
the research adds to efforts to work against and advocate to eliminate the power and oppression
that exists within systems or structures that, in particular, oppress women. An examination of
education in general could be useful since education is a field typically dominated by women;
however, women are not often in leadership roles in the field. In the same way, using feminist
theory for an examination into the lack of people of color and male teachers represented in
education might also be useful. Action research is another area that can use feminist theory.
Action research is often conducted in the pursuit of establishing changes that are discovered
during a project. Feminism and action research are both concerned with creating change, which
makes them a natural pairing.

Conclusion
Pre-existing beliefs about what feminism means can make including it in classroom practice or
research challenging. Understanding that feminism is about reducing oppression for everyone
and sharing that definition can reduce this challenge. hooks (2000) said that, “A male who has
divested of male privilege, who has embraced feminist politics, is a worthy comrade in struggle,
in no way a threat to feminism, whereas a female who remains wedded to sexist thinking and
behavior infiltrating feminist movement is a dangerous threat”(p. 12). As Angela Davis noted
during a speech at Western Washington University in 2017, “Everything is a feminist issue.”
Feminist theory is about questioning existing structures and whether they are creating barriers for
anyone. An interest in the reduction of barriers is feminist. Anyone can believe in the need to
eliminate oppression and work as teachers or researchers to actively to disrupt systems of
oppression.
 References
Bierema, L. L., & Cseh, M. (2003). Evaluating AHRD research using a feminist
research framework. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14(1), 5–26.

Burton, C. (2014). Subordination: Feminism and social theory. Routledge.

Earles, J. (2017). Reading gender: A feminist, queer approach to children’s literature

and children’s discursive agency. Gender and Education, 29(3), 369–388.

Egbert, J., & Sanden, S. (2019). Foundations of education research: Understanding theoretical
components. Taylor & Francis.

Hooks, B. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics. South End Press.

Mackie, A. (1999). Possibilities for feminism in ESL education and research. TESOL Quarterly,
33(3), 566-573.

Pincock, K. (2018). School, sexuality and problematic girlhoods: Reframing

‘empowerment’ discourse. Third World Quarterly, 39(5), 906-919.
Previous Section
Next Section
BACK TO TOP
LICENSE

Feminist Theory by Joy Egbert and Mary Roe is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

SHARE THIS BOOK

Powered by Pressbooks

 Open Source |
 Open Textbooks |
 Open Book Publishing |
 Learn More

Pressbooks on FacebookPressbooks on Twitter

 Increase Font Size