1.

1 Atoms and Molecules

(a) Write isotope notation (C1)

Two or more atoms of the same element that have same proton number but different nucleon number
@
Two or more atoms of the same element that have same number of proton but different number of neutron

EXAMPLE 1

Complete the table below:

Isotope Notation no. of protons no. of neutrons no. of electrons

𝟐𝟒
𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈

𝟐𝟒 𝟐+
𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈

𝟏𝟗
𝟗𝑭

𝟏𝟗 −
𝟗𝑭

Nucleon number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons

No. of protons does not change when the atom become ion.
positively charge ion (+): atom lose electron
negatively charge ion (-): atom gain electron
(b) Interpret mass spectrum. (C2, C3)

Relative
abundance
(%) abundance
relative abundance Two peaks indicate two isotopes: 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝑵 and 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝑵

isotopic mass m/z

(c) Calculate the average atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of isotopes or a mass spectrum. (C3, C4)

The average of mass of its naturally occurring isotope weighted according to their abundances

The mass of one atom of an element compared to one twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12
EXAMPLE 2 (i) Average atomic mass of chlorine

Naturally occurring chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes. In every sample of

this element, 75.77 % of the atoms are 35Cl and 24.23 % are atoms of 37Cl.
The accurately measured atomic mass of 35Cl is 34.9689 amu and that of
37Cl is 36.9659 amu.

From these data, calculate:

i) Average atomic mass of chlorine
ii) Relative atomic mass of chlorine
(ii) Relative atomic mass of chlorine
Isotopes % abundance Isotopic mass
35Cl
37Cl

EXAMPLE 3

Nitrogen (N, Z = 7) has two naturally occurring isotopes. Calculate the

percentage abundances for 14N and 15N from the following:
atomic mass (average) of N = 14.0067 amu;
isotopic mass of 14N = 14.0031 amu;
isotopic mass of 15N = 15.0001 amu.

Isotopes % abundance Isotopic mass

14N
15N
EXAMPLE 4

Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron.

Isotopes % abundance Isotopic mass

10B
11B

EXAMPLE 5

The ratio of relative abundance of naturally occurring X isotopes is as below:

The atomic mass of 21X = 20.9989 amu and 22X = 22.0005 amu. Calculate
the average atomic mass of X.

Isotopes abundance % abundance Isotopic mass

21X
22X
 1.2 Mole Concept

Amount of substances that contains the same number of particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) as there are atoms in exactly in 12 g of C–12 atom

1 mol ≡ 6.02 x 1023 particles Avogadro’s number (NA)

Example: Example:
1 mol of H2O ≡ 6.02 × 1023 H2O molecules 1 mol of NaCl ≡ 6.02 × 1023 NaCl formula units
≡ 6.02 × 1023 O atoms ≡ 6.02 × 1023 Na+ ions
≡ 2 × 6.02 × 1023 H atoms ≡ 2 × 6.02 × 1023 Cl- ions

Mass−Mole Number of Particles−Mole

Calculate the number of moles of 2.50 g of H2O. A sample of molecular chlorine is found to contain 1.0 × 1020 molecules of Cl2. What
is the number of moles of Cl2 in this sample?
1 mol of H2O ≡ 18 g
1 mol of Cl2 ≡ 6.02 × 1023 molecules
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
2.50 𝑔 × = 0.139 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2
18 𝑔 1.0 × 1020 molecules × = 1.66 × 10−4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2
6.02 × 1023 molecules

Volume−Mole
At standard temperature-pressure, s.t.p, At room temperature,
1 mol of any gas ≡ 22.4 L 1 mol of any gas ≡ 24 L
What is the volume of 0.05 mol of O2 at s.t.p? What is the number of moles of 0.67 L of N2 at room temperature?
22.4 𝐿 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2
0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 × = 1.12 𝐿 0.67 𝐿 × = 0.0279 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑁2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2 24 𝐿
(a) Define the terms empirical and molecular formulae. (C1)
(b) Determine empirical and molecular formulae from mass composition or combustion data. (C3)
(c) Determine the empirical formula (formula unit) from experiment. (C3)

Shows the relative number of atoms of each element in the compound

Shows the actual number of atoms of each element of a molecule in the compound
EXAMPLE 6

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy and may help prevent the common cold. It is composed of 40.92% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen and 54.50% oxygen
by mass. The molar mass of ascorbic acid is 176 g mol−1. Determine its empirical formula and molecular formula.

Element C H O
Mass (g)
Mole (mol)

Mole ratio

Simplest
ratio

⸫ Empirical formula: You must NEVER round off values close to whole
number in order to get a simple ratio, but multiply
the value by a factor until we get a whole number.
However, if the value is very close to whole number
(±0.01), it is allowed to round off the value.
EXAMPLE 7

Combustion of a hydrocarbon, produces 1.83 g of carbon dioxide, CO2 and 0.901 g of H2O. Determine the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon.

Element C H
Mass (g)

Mole (mol)

Mole ratio

Simplest
ratio

⸫ Empirical formula:
(d) Define molarity (M), molality (m), mole fraction (X), percentage by mass (%w/w), percentage by volume (%v/v). (C1)

Concentration
Definition Formula
Terms
Molarity (M) The number of moles of solute in 1 L of solution
𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝐿)

Molality (m) The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent

𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)

Mole fraction (X) The ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total 𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
number of moles present in the solution 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 =
𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1 − 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Percentage by The ratio of the mass of solute to the mass of the solution, multiplied
mass (%w/w) by 100 percent 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% 𝑤⁄𝑤 = × 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Percentage by The ratio of the volume of solute to the volume of the solution,
volume (%v/v) multiplied by 100 percent 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% 𝑣⁄𝑣 = × 100%
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

SOLUTE Substance presents in a smaller amount

Acid-base:
SOLVENT Substance presents in a larger amount Dilution: MaVa = a
M1V1 = M2V2 M b Vb b
SOLUTION Homogenous mixture of two or more substance
solution = solute + solvent
(e) Calculate molarity (M), molality (m), mole fraction (X), percentage by mass (%w/w), percentage by volume (%v/v). (C3, C4)
EXAMPLE 8

A student prepared a solution of NaCl by dissolving 1.461 g of NaCl in a 250

mL volumetric flask. What is the molarity of this solution?

EXAMPLE 9

A solution containing 8.89 g glycerol (C3H8O3) in 75.0 g of ethanol (C2H6O).

What is the molality of the solution?

EXAMPLE 10

A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142 g of isopropyl alcohol (C3H7OH)

and 58.0 g of water. What are the mole fractions of alcohol and water?

EXAMPLE 11

A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) was dissolved in 54.6 g of

water. What is the percentage by mass of KCl in this solution?

EXAMPLE 12

A 200 mL of perfume contains 28 mL of alcohol. What is the percentage by

volume of the alcohol in this solution?

EXAMPLE 13

A 15.0 mL sample of 0.450 M K2CrO4 is diluted to 100 mL. What is the

concentration of the new solution?
For question that give only TWO information (concentration and density), assumptions can be made based on concentration.
Example:
Unit Concentration Formula Assumption (Suggestion)
Mole solute
Molarity Volume solution = 1L
V solution (L)
Mole solute
Molality Solvent = 1 Kg = 1000g
Kg solvent
Mass solute x 100%
% w/w Mass solution = 100g
Mass solution
Volume solute x 100%
% v/v Volume solution = 100 mL
Volume solution

EXAMPLE 14

A sample of commercial concentrated hydrochloric acid is 11.8 M HCl and has a density of 1.190 g/mL. Calculate the:
(a) % by mass,
(b) molality, and
(c) mole fraction of HCl.
 1.3 Stoichiometry

• The charge of the atom would have in a molecule (or an ionic compound) if electrons were completely transferred
• Free elements (uncombined state) have an oxidation number of zero
Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4
• The oxidation number of Group 1 metals are +1, Group 2 metals are +2 and fluorine is always –1
• In monatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion
Li+ = +1; Fe3+ = +3; O2– = – 2
• The oxidation number of oxygen is usually –2. In H2O2 and O22– it is –1
• The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except when it is bonded to metals in binary compounds, its oxidation number is –1
• The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a molecule or ion is equal to the charge on the molecule or ion
EXAMPLE 15 (a) HCO3–

Determine the oxidation numbers of all the elements in following compounds

/ ions? (b) IF7
(a) HCO3–
(b) IF7
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation: (C3)
i. by inspection method

EXAMPLE 16

Balance the following chemical equation:

(a) C8H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
(b) Al + O2 → Al2O3
(c) N2 (g) + H2 (g) → NH3 (g)
(d) C6H6 (l) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation:
ii. by ion-electron method (redox equation). (C3)

• Oxidation–reduction reaction
• Net movement of electrons from one reactant to another
EXAMPLE 17

Balance the following equation for the following reaction in acidic solution:
Fe2+ + Cr2O72– → Fe3+ + Cr3+
Step 1: Separate the equation into two half-reactions.

Step 2: Balance the atoms other than O and H in each half- reaction.

Step 3: Add H2O to balance O atoms

Step 4: Add H+ to balance H atoms.

Step 5: Add e- to one side of each half-reaction to balance the charges on the half-reaction.

Step 6: Equalize the e- in the two half-reactions by multiplying the half-reactions by appropriate coefficients.

Step 7: Add the reactions and cancel out common terms.

EXAMPLE 18

Balance the following equation for the following reaction in basic solution:
MnO4– + C2O42− → Mn2+ + CO2
Step 1: Separate the equation into two half-reactions.

Step 2: Balance the atoms other than O and H in each half- reaction.

Step 3: Add H2O to balance O atoms

Step 4: Add H+ to balance H atoms.

Step 5: Add e- to one side of each half-reaction to balance the charges on the half-reaction.

Step 6: Equalize the e- in the two half-reactions by multiplying the half-reactions by appropriate coefficients.

Step 7: Add the reactions and cancel out common terms.

Step 8: Add OH- according to the no. of H+ presence to the both side of reaction.

Step 9: OH- + H+ produce H2O.

Step 10: Cancel out common terms.

 The numerical relationship between chemical quantities in a balanced chemical equation.

From a balanced equation: C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

1 mol C3H8 ≡ 5 mol O2
1 mol C3H8 ≡ 3 mol CO2
1 mol C3H8 ≡ 4 mol H2O
5 mol O2 ≡ 3 mol CO2
5 mol O2 ≡ 4 mol H2O
EXAMPLE 19

Methanol burns in air according to the equation:

2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what is the mass of
water produced?

EXAMPLE 20

How many grams of phosphorus (P4) react with 35.5 L of O2 at STP to form
tetraphosphorus
decaoxide (P4O10)?
P4 (s) + 5O2 (g) → P4O10 (s)
(b) Define: (C1)
i. limiting reactant;
(c) Perform stoichiometric calculations using mole concept including limiting reactant. (C3, C4)

Reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction and limit the amount of products formed.
EXAMPLE 21 (a) Determine the limiting reactant.

In one process, 124 g of Al are reacted with 601 g of Fe2O3.

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe
(a) Determine the limiting reactant.
(b) Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.
(c) How many grams of excess reactant remains in the reaction?

Molar mass of Al = 27 g/mol

Molar mass of Fe2O3 = 159.8 g/mol
Molar mass of Al2O3 = 102 g/mol

(b) Calculate the mass of Al2O3 formed.

(c) How many grams of excess reactant remains in the reaction?

(b) Define: (C1)
ii. percentage yield
(c) Perform stoichiometric calculations using mole concept including percentage yield. (C3, C4)
• actual or theoretical yields can be in mass or volume only!
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 • actual yield – the exact amount obtained from the experiment
% 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 • theoretical yield – amount predicted by the balanced chemical equation when all the
limiting reactant has reacted

EXAMPLE 22 (a) Write a balanced chemical equation.

If 3.7 g sodium metal (Na) and 4.3 g chlorine gas (Cl2) react to form NaCl.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation. (b) Determine the limiting reactant.
(b) Determine the limiting reactant.
(c) What is the theoretical yield?
(d) If 5.5 g NaCl was formed, what is the percentage yield?

(c) What is the theoretical yield?

(d) If 5.5 g NaCl was formed, what is the percentage yield?

Mass % of a specified substance in impure sample
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 pure substances have the potential to form predictable products from
% 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 chemical reactions

EXAMPLE 23 (a) Calculate the number of moles of HCl in the reaction.

An impure sample of solid Na2CO3 is allowed to react with 0.1755 M HCl.

Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
A 0.2330 g sample of sodium carbonate requires 17.85 mL of HCl solution.
(a) Calculate the number of moles of HCl in the reaction.
(b) Calculate the number of moles of pure substance reacted with HCl. (b) Calculate the number of moles of pure substance reacted with HCl.
(c) What is the mass of pure substance?
(d) What is the purity of the Na2CO3?

(c) What is the mass of pure substance?

(d) What is the purity of the Na2CO3?

Titration:
A method of determining the concentration of a solution by monitoring its reaction with a solution of known titrant
concentration

analyte

EXAMPLE 24 (a) Write a balanced chemical equation.

A 1.420 M NaOH solution is required to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4

(b) What volume of NaOH solution is required in this reaction?
solution.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation.
(b) What volume of NaOH solution is required in this reaction?

EXAMPLE 25

A 0.376 g sample an iron ore (Fe2O3) is dissolved in acid, the iron reduced to Fe2+, and then titrated with 41.25 mL of 0.02140 M KMnO4. Determine the
% Fe by mass in the iron ore. Hint: Fe2+ + MnO4– → Fe3+ + Mn2+ (unbalanced chemical reaction)