Anaphy and Physiology
AN INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
ANATOMY
• Anatomy derived from the Greek words meaning “to cut”
(tomy) and “apart” (ana).
• The study of internal and external body structures and their
physical relationships among other body parts.
• Structure and shape of the body
• Human Anatomy – the study of the structure of the human
body
GROSS ANATOMY (MACROSCOPIC)
• Gross anatomy from the Latin term (grossus) meaning
“thick” or “massive”
• Involves examining fairly large, easily observable structures
• Can be conducted without using a microscope and can
involve the study of anatomy by dissecting (cut up) a cadaver.
FORMS OF GROSS ANATOMY
o Surface or Superficial Anatomy – general form of the
body’s surface
o Regional Anatomy – anatomical organization of specific
areas of the body
o Sectional Anatomy – the relationship of the body’s
structures by examining cross sections of the tissue or
organ.
o Systemic Anatomy – the structure of organ systems that
function together in a coordinated manner. (skeletal,
muscular, and cardiovascular systems.
o Clinical Anatomy – subspecialties important in clinical
practice (pathological, radiographic, and surgical anatomy)
o Developmental Anatomy – changes in form that take place
between conception and adulthood.
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
• Structures that we cannot sea without magnification
• Body structures that are too small to be seen by the naked
eye.
• Can only be seen through the microscope.
o Dissecting Microscope – tissue structure
o Light Microscope – basic detail of cell structure
o Electron Microscope – individual molecules that are
only a few nanometers across
SUBDIVISIONS OF MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
o Cytology – the internal structure of individual cells
o Histology – the examination of tissues
PHYSIOLOGY
• (physio) “nature” and (ology) “the study of”.
• The study of how living organisms perform their vital
functions
• Human Physiology – the study of the functions, or workings,
of the human body.
SPECIALTIES IN PHYSIOLOGY
o Cell Physiology – the study of the functions of the; looks at
the chemistry of the cell (chemical process and chemical
interactions)
o Organ Physiology – function of specific organs (cardiac
physiology = heart function)
o Systemic Physiology – all aspects of the functioning of
specific organ system (cardiovascular, respiratory, and
reproductive physiology).
o Pathological Physiology – effects of diseases on organ
function or system function.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
• Anatomy and Physiology are closely integrated.
• Anatomical Information – clues about functions;
Physiological process – explained only in terms of the
underlying anatomy.
• Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function –
all specific functions are performed by specific structures,
and the form of the structure relates to its functions.
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
o Chemical Level – atoms combine to form molecules; atomic
components and particular molecule determine its function
o Cellular Level – molecules associate in specific ways to form
microscopic cells; complex molecules can form organelles =
has a specific function in a cell.
o Tissue Level – group of cells working together to perform one
or more specific functions (Tissue)
o Organ Level – made up of two or more tissues working
together to perform specific functions (Organ); extremely
complex functions become possible.
o Organ System Level – a group of organs interacting to
perform a particular function (Organ System)
o Organism Level – an individual life form is an organism; the
sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us
alive
 Distal Far from the origin
MAINTAINING LIFE Superficial At the body surface
Deep Internal; away from body
surface
EIGHT NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
o Maintaining Boundaries – the “inside” remains distinct REGIONAL TERMS
from its “outside”
o Movement – all activities promoted by the muscular
Skull Cranial
system, skeletal system, cardiovascular system, digestive
Base of Skull Occipital
system, and urinary system. Back of Neck Nuchal
o Responsiveness or Irritability – ability to sense changes
(stimuli) in the environment and then to react to them; the Head Cephalic
nervous system is the major responsibility for Forehead Frontal
responsiveness. Eye Orbital, ocular
o Digestion – process of breaking down ingested food into Nose Nasal
simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. Mouth Oral
o Metabolism – chemical reactions that occur within the Ear Otic
Cheek Buccal
body and all of its cells; use energy to perform vital
Chin Mental
functions.
Neck Cervical
o Excretion – process of removing excreta or wastes, from
the body; digestive = feces, urinary = urine, skin = TRUNK (ANTERIOR)
components of sweats. Thoracic Thorax
o Reproduction – production of offspring; cellular or Chest Pectoral
organismal level. Breastbone Sternal
o Growth – increase in cell size or an increase in body size; Breast Mammary
cell-constructing activities must occur faster rate than cell-
Abdomen Abdominal
destroying ones.
Navel Umbilical
Pelvis Pelvic
THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY Groin Inguinal
Genital Pubic
ANATOMICAL POSITION
TRUNK (POSTERIOR)
• The standard anatomical reference for the human form; the
Back Dorsal
body is erect with the feet parallel and the arms hanging at Shoulder blade Scapular
the sides with the palms facing forward. Spinal column Vertebral
o Supine – a person is lying down is facing up Lumbar Loin
o Prone – when face down
Between hips Sacral
DIRECTIONAL TERMS Buttock Gluteal
• Explain exactly where one body structure is in relation to Parineum Perineal
another.
TERM DEFINITION UPPER LIMBS (ANTERIOR)
Superior Above; upper part Collarbone Clavicular
Inferior Below; lower part Curve of shoulder Deltoid
Anterior Front Armpit Axillary
Posterior Behind Arm Brachial
Ventral Belly Front of elbow Antecubital
Dorsal Back Forearm Antebrachial
Medial Midline of the body
Lateral Away from the midline of Hand Manual
the body Wrist Carpal
Intermediate Between medial and lateral Palm Palmar
Proximal Close to the origin Fingers Digits
 ➢ Right lumbar and left lumbar region – lateral to the
UPPER LIMBS (POSTERIOR) umbilical region; lumbus = loins
Point of shoulder Acromial ➢ Right hypochondriac region and left hypochondriac
Back of elbow Olecranal region – flank the epigastric region and contain the
Back of hand Dorsum
lower ribs; chondro = cartilage.
LOWER LIMBS (ANTERIOR) PLANES
Hip Coxal
Thigh Femoral o Section or cut – a slice through a three-dimensional
Kneecap Patellar object; slice along a plane
Leg Crural o Plane – two-dimensional flat surface
Lateral Part of Leg Fibular

Foot Pedal
Ankle Talsar
Top of Foot Dorsum
Toes Digital

LOWER LIMBS (POSTERIOR)

Behind knee Popliteal

Calf Sural
Sole Plantar
Heel Calcneal

SUBDIVISION OF ABDOMENS
o Abdominopelvic Quadrants – formed by two o Frontal (coronal) plane – divides the body or organ into
perpendicular lines that intersect the navel. anterior and posterior portions; the cut = frontal or
coronal section.
o Sagittal plane – divides the body into left and right
Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ) portions; the cut = sagittal section.
Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ ➢ Midsagittal plane – lies in the middle
(RLQ) ➢ Parasagittal plane – offset from the middle
o Transverse plane – divides the body into superior and
*Always refer to the right and left of the subject inferior portions; the cut = transverse or cross section.

o Abdominopelvic Regions – provide more precise regional BODY CAVITIES

descriptions.
• Closed, fluid filled, and lined by a thin tissue layer called
serous membrane or serosa.
Right Hypochondriac Epigastric region Left Hypochondriac
region region • Cavity = internal regions.
Right Lumbar region Umbilical region Left Lumbar region o Cranial cavity – space inside the bony skull; brain is well
Right Inguinal Region Hypogastric Left Inguinal Region protected
(Pubic) region o Spinal cavity – extends from the cranial cavity to the end
of the spinal cord
o Thoracic cavity – everything deep to the chest wall of the
thoracic region
➢ Umbilical region – centermost region ➢ Mediastinum – separates the lungs into
➢ Epigastric region – located superior to the umbilical right and left cavities; houses the heart
region epi = upon, above and gastric = stomach and trachea
➢ Hypogastric (pubic) region – inferior to umbilical ➢ Pleural cavity – surrounds the lung
region; hypo = below ➢ Pericardial cavities – surrounds the heart
➢ Right iliac (inguinal) region and left iliac (inguinal) o Diaphragm – flat muscular sheet; separates these
region – lateral to the hypogastric region; iliac = anatomical regions.
superior part of the hip bone.
o Abdominopelvic cavity – all of the structures deep to the
abdominal and pelvic walls.
➢ Abdominal Cavity – extends from the
surface of the diaphragm to the pelvis;
contains liver, stomach, spleen, small
intestine, etc.
➢ Peritoneal cavity – surrounds certain
abdominal and pelvic organs; kidneys,
pancreas.
o
. Pelvic cavity – contains the urinary bladder, various
reproductive organs and rectum.
SEROUS MEMBRANE
• Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs
o Viscera – cavities that enclosed the internal organs
o Serous fluid – moistens serous membrane, coats
opposing surfaces, and reduces friction.
o Visceral Serosa – directly covers a visceral organ
o Parietal Serosa – the opposing layer that lines the
inner surface of the body wall or chamber
HOMEOSTASIS
HOMEOSTASIS
• From the Greek word (homeo) “similar” and (stasis) “state
of standing”.
• The body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal
conditions.
• Indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium or a balance.
HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION
• Controls aspects of the internal environment that affect
every cell in the body
• Adjustment of physiological systems to preserve
homeostasis
o Control center – which receives and processes the
information supplied by the receptor and sends out
commands.
o Effectors – a cell or organ that responds to the
commands of the control center and whose activity
either oppose or enhances the stimulus.
o Set point – desired value
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
o Negative Feedback
• An effector activated by the control center
opposes or negates the original stimulus; tends
to minimize change
• Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation;
provides long-term control over the body’s
internal condition and systems.
• Control of body temperature
o Positive Feedback
• Rare in the body because they tend to increase
the original disturbance (stimulus) and to push
the variable farther from its original value
• Blood clotting and child birth
o State of Equilibrium – when opposing processes or
forces are in balance
o Dynamic Equilibrium – maintain a state of equilibrium
that keeps vital conditions within a normal range of
values
BODY LANDMARKS

o Autoregulation – process that occurs when a cell,

tissue, organ, or organ system adjusts in
response to some environmental change.
o Extrinsic regulation – a process that results from
the activities of the nervous system or endocrine
system; electrical signal (nervous) and chemical
messenger called hormones (endocrine)

COMPONENTS OF HOMEOSTATIC
• Works to keep the internal environment within certain
limits, or a range
o Receptors – type of sensor that monitors and
responds to changes in the environment; responds
to such changes called stimuli
 BODY CAVITIES

BODY PLANES

ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS

ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS
THORACIC & ABDOMINOPELVIC CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
MAJOR ORGANS ABDOMINAL PAIN

OTHER BODY CAVITIES

ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS
 CELLS AND TISSUES
CELLS AND TISSUES PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life • Barrier for cell contents
o Cells – are the building blocks of all living things • Double phospholipid layer:
o Tissues – are groups of cells that are similar in o Hydrophilic heads – water loving
structure and function o Hydrophobic tails – water fearing
• Also contains proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins
ANATOMY OF THE CELL
• Cells are not all the same
• All cells share general structures
• Cells are organized into three main regions
o Nucleus
o Cytoplasm
o Plasma Membrane

THE NUCLEUS
• Control center of the cell
• Contains genetic material
• Three regions:
o Nuclear Membrane
• Barrier of nucleus
• Consists of a double phospholipid
membrane
• Contain nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the
cell
o Nucleolus (Nucleoli)
• Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli
• Sites of ribosome production
– ribosomes then migrate to the
cytoplasm through unclear pores
o Chromatin
• Composed of DNA and proteins
• Scattered throughout the nucleus
• Chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes when the cell divides
PLASMA MEMBRANE SPECIALIZATIONS
o Microvilli – finger-like projections that increase surface
area for absorption
• Membrane Junctions:
o Tight junctions – impermeable junctions that
encircle the cells and bind them together into
leakproof sheets; prevent substances from passing
through the extracellular space between cells
o Desmosomes – anchoring junctions; prevent cells
subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled
apart; heart and skin cells.
o Gap junctions – communicating junctions; allow
communication
 CYTOPLASM o Golgi apparatus
• Modifies and packages proteins
• Material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma • Produces different types of packages
membrane o Secretory vesicles
o Cytosol – fluid that suspends other elements o cell membrane components
o Organelles – metabolic machinery of the cells o Lysosomes
o Inclusions – non-functioning units; cellular “pantry”
where items are kept on hand until needed

CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

o Lysosomes
• Contain enzymes that digest nonusable materials
within the cell
o Peroxisomes
• Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
– detoxify harmful substances
o Ribosomes
– break down free radicals (highly reactive
• Made of protein and RNA
chemicals
• Sites of protein synthesis
• Replicate by pinching in half
• Found at two locations
o Mitochondria
– free in the cytoplasm
• “powerhouses” of the cell
– attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Change shape continuously
o Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to break
• Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
down food
• Two types of ER
• Provides ATP for cellular energy
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum
o Cytoskeleton
• Studded with ribosomes

C
• Network of protein structures that extend
• Site where building materials
throughout the cytoplasm
of cellular membrane are
• Provides the cell with an internal framework
formed
• Three different types:
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
o Microfilaments
• Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat
o Intermediate filaments
metabolism, and detoxification of drugs
o Microtubules
o Centrioles
CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY: MEMBRANE
• Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules TRANSPORT
• Known for their role in generating microtubules
o Membrane transport – movement of substance
• Direct formation of mitotic spindle during cell into and out of the cell
division
• Transport is by two basic method:
CELLULAR PROJECTIONS o Passive transport – no energy required
• Not found in all cells o Active transport – the cell must provide
• Used for movement metabolic energy
o Cilia – move materials across the cell surface
SOLUTIONS AND TRANSPORT
o Flagellum – propels the cell
o Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or
more components
o Solvent – dissolving medium
o Solutes - components in smaller quantities
within a solution
o Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol
o Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell

CELL DIVERSITY SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY

• The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while
excluding others
• This permeability includes movement into and out of the
cell
PASSIVE TRANSPORT PROCESS
o Diffusion
• Particles tent to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution
• Movement is from high concentration to
low concentration, or down a concentration
gradient
• Types of diffusion:
o Simple diffusion
– unassisted process
– solutes are lipid soluble
materials or small enough to
pass through membrane pores
o Osmosis
– simple diffusion of water
– highly polar water easily
crosses the plasma membrane
o Facilitated diffusion
– substance require a
protein carrier for passive
transport
o Filtration
– water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
– a pressure gradient must exist
– solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high
pressure area to a lower pressure area

DIFFUSION THROUGH THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

MAJOR IONS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE THE CELL

o Bulk transport

o Exocytosis is out
• Moves materials out of the cell
ACTIVE TRANSPORT PROCESSES • Material is carried in a
• Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion membranous vesicle
– they may be too large • Vesicle migrates to plasma
– they may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane
membrane • Vesicle combines with plasma
– they may have to move against a concentration membrane
gradient • Material is emptied to the
• Two common forms of active transport outside
o Solute pumping
• Amino acids, some sugars and ions are
transported by solute pumps
• ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most
cases, moves substances against
concentration gradients

o Endocytosis
• Extracellular substance are
engulfed by being enclosed in
a membranous vesicle
• Types of endocytosis:
o Phagocytosis – cell
eating
o Pinocytosis – cell
drinking
 SOLUTIONS STAGES OF MITOSIS
o Isotonic o Interphase
• have the same solute and water concentrations • No cell division occurs
as cells do • The cell carries out normal metabolic activity
• cause no visible changes in cells and growth
o Hypertonic o Prophase
• contains more solutes, or dissolved substances, • First part of cell division
than there are inside the cells • Centromeres migrate to the poles
• cells will begin to shrink o Metaphase
o Hypotonic • Spindle from centromeres are attached to
• solution contains fewer solutes and more water chromosomes that are aligned in the center of
than the cell does the cell
• cells plump up rapidly as water rushes into them o Anaphase
• Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the
poles
• The cell begins to elongate
o Telophase
• Daughter nuclei begin forming
• A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to
form

CELL LIFE CYCLE

• cells have two major periods:
o Interphase
• Cell grows
• Cell carries on metabolic processes
o Cell division
• Cell replicated itself
• Function is to produce more cells
for growth and repair processes
DNA REPLICATION
o Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for
division into two cells
o Occurs toward the end of interphase
o DNA uncoils and each side serves
as a template

EVENTS OF CELL DIVISION PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

o Mitosis • Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for
• Division of the nucleus building one protein
• Results in the formation of two daughter • Proteins have many functions
nuclei – building materials for cells
o Cytokinesis – act as enzyme (biological catalysts)
• Division of the cytoplasm • RNA is essential for protein synthesis
• Begins when mitosis is near completion
• Results in the formation of two daughter cells
 ROLE OF RNA • Regenerate easily if well nourished
• Found in different areas
o Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Body coverings
• Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome
• Body linings
for building the protein
• Glandular tissue
o Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Functions
• Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built
• Protection
o Messenger RNA
• Absorption
• Carries the instructions for building a protein from
• Filtration
the nucleus to the ribosome
• Secretion
TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
CLASSIFICATIO OF EPITHELIUM
o Transcription
• Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence • Number of cell layers
to the complimentary base sequence of mRNA o Simple – one layer
o Translation o Stratified – more than one layer
• Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an
amino acid sequence
• Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

• Shape of cells
o Squamous – flattened
o Cuboidal –
o Columnar – column-like

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
o Simple Columnar
• Single layer of tall cells
• Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus
• Lines digestive tract
BODY TISSUES
• Cells are specialized for particular functions
o Tissues
• Groups of cells with similar structure
and function
• Four primary types o Pseudostratified
• Single layer, but some cells are shorter than
• Epithelium
others
• Connective tissue • Often looks like a double cell layer
• Nervous tissue • Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract
• Muscle • May function in absorption or secretion

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Cells fit closely together
• Tissue layer always has one free surface
• The lower surface is bound by a basement membrane
• Avascular (have no blood supply)
o Stratified squamous CONNECTICE TISSUE
• Cells at the free edge are flattened
• Found everywhere in the body
• Found as a protective covering where friction is
• Includes the most abundant and widely distributed tissues
common • Functions:
• Locations • Binds body tissues together
– Skin • Supports the body
– mouth • Provides protection
– Esophagus
CONNECTIVE TISSUE CHARACTERISTICS
o Variations in blood supply
• Some tissue types are well vascularized
• Some have poor blood supply or are avascular
STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
o Extracellular matrix
o Stratified cuboidal • Non-living material that surrounds living cells
• Two layers of cuboidal cells
o Stratified columnar EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
• Surface cells are columnar, cells underneath • Two main elements:
vary in size and shape o Ground substance - mostly water along with
o Stratified cuboidal and columnar adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules
• Rare in human body o Fibers - Produced by the cells
• Found mainly in ducts of large glands – Three Types:
o Transitional epithelium • Collagen fibers
• Shape of cells depends upon the amount of • Elastic fibers
stretching • Reticular fibers
• Lines organs of the urinary system
CONNECTIVE TISSUE TYPE
o Bone (osseous tissue)
• Composed of:
– Bone cells in lacunae (cavities)
– Hard matrix of calcium salts
– Large numbers of collagen fibers
• Used to protect and support the body

GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
• Gland – one or more cells that secretes a particular product
• Two major gland types:
o Endocrine gland
• Ductless
• Secretions are hormones o Hyaline Cartilage
o Exocrine gland • Most common cartilage
• Empty through ducts to the epithelial • Composed of:
surface
– abundant collagen fibers
• Include sweat and oil glands
– rubbery matrix
• Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage
o Elastic Cartilage
• Provides elasticity
• Example: supports the external ear o Reticular connective tissue
o Fibrocartilage • Delicate network of interwoven fibers
• Highly compressible • Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of
• Example: forms cushion-like discs between lymphoid organs
vertebrae – lymph nodes
– spleen
– bone marrow

o Blood
• Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix
• Fibers are visible during clotting
• Functions as the transport vehicle for materials
o Dense connective tissue
• Main matrix element is collagen fibers
• Cells are fibroblasts
• Examples:
o Tendon – attach muscle to bone
o Ligaments – attach bone to bone

MUSCLE TISSUE
• Function is to produce movement
• Three types:
o Skeletal muscle
o Cardiac muscle
o Smooth muscle

o Areolar connective tissue MUSCLE TISSUE TYPE

• Most widely distributed
o Skeletal muscle
connective tissue
• Can be controlled voluntarily
• Soft, pliable tissue
• Cells attach to connective tissue
• Contains all fiber types
• Cells are striated
• Can soak up excess fluid
• Cells have more than one nucleus

o Adipose Tissue o Cardiac muscle

• Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat globules • Found only in the heart
predominate • Function is to pump blood (involuntary)
• Many cells contain • Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells at
large lipid deposits intercalated disks
• Functions: • Cells are striated
– Insulates the body • One nucleus per cell
– protects some organs
– serves as a site of fuel storage
o Smooth muscle tissue
• Involuntary muscle
• Surrounds hollow organs
• Attached to other smooth muscle cells
• No visible striations
• One nucleus per cell

o Nervous tissue REGENERATION OF TISSUES

• Neurons and nerve support cells
o Tissues that regenerate easily
• Function is to send impulses to other areas of
• Epithelial tissue
the body
• Fibrous connective tissue and bone
– irritability
o Tissues that regenerate poorly
– conductivity
• Skeletal muscle
o Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
• Cardiac muscle
• Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal
cord
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF TISSUES

• Epithelial tissue arises from all three primary germ layers

• Muscle and connective tissue arise from the mesoderm
• Nervous tissue arises from the ectoderm
• With old age there is a decrease in mass and viabililty in
MUSCLE TISSUE TYPE
most tissues
o Regeneration
• Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same
kind of cells
o Fibrosis
• Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar
tissue)
o Determination of method
• Type of tissue damaged
• Severity of the injury

EVENTS IN TISSUE REPAIR

o Capillaries become very permeable
• Introduce clotting proteins
• Wall off injured area
o Formation of granulation tissue
o Regeneration of surface epithelium
SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES
o Serous membranes
FUNCTIONS OF BODY MEMBRANES – surface simple squamous epithelium
– underlying areolar connective tissue
• Cover body surfaces
– line body cavities that are closed to the exterior
• Line body cavities
of the body
• Form protective sheets around body organs – occur in pairs
• Lubricate body surfaces – serous layers separated by serous fluid
CLASSIFICATIONS OF BODY – Serous fluid – allows the organs to slide easily
MEMBRANES across the cavity walls and one another without
o Epithelial membranes friction.
• Cutaneous membrane – Parietal layer – lines a specific portion of the
wall of the ventral body cavity
• Mucous membrane
– Visceral layer – covers the outside of the
• Serous membrane
organs in that cavity
o Connective tissue membranes
▪ Peritoneum
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES – lining the abdominal cavity and covering its
organs
• Covering and lining membrane ▪ Pleura
o Cutaneous membrane – surrounding the lungs
– skin ▪ Pericardium
– a dry membrane – around the heart
– outermost protective boundary and exposed to
air
▪ Superficial Epidermis
– Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
▪ Underlying Dermis
– Mostly dense connective tissue
o Mucous membranes (mucosa)
– composed of epithelium (the type varies with
the site)
– resting on a loose connective tissue
membrane called lamina propia
– lines all body cavities that open to the exterior
body surface (respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive tracts)
– contain stratified epithelium (mouth & EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
esophagus) or simple columnar epithelium (digestive
tract) [both system secrete large amount of mucus] o Synovial membrane
– often adapted for absorption or secretion – composed of loose areolar connective tissue
– no epithelial tissue
– line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
– also line small sacs of connective tissue called
bursae and the tube-like tendon sheaths
 – cells become thinner and flatter and
increasingly keratinized
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM – plasma membrane thickens, organelles die,
and the cells die
• Skin (cutaneous membrane) ▪ Stratum Lucidum
• “covering”; insulates and cushions the deeper body – occurs only in thick skin and hairless
organs and protects the entire body (palms and soles of feet)
• Keeps water and other precious molecules in the body – not present in all skin regions
• Keeps excess water (and other things) out ▪ Stratum Corneum
• Pliable yet tough; allows it to take constant punishment – outermost layer
from external agents – shingle-like dead cells
• Skin derivatives (appendages): – completely filled with keratin
– sweat glands – glycolipids in extracellular space make skin
– oil glands water resistant
– hairs
– nails

SKIN FUNCTIONS

o Protects deeper tissues from:

• Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
• Chemical damage (acids and bases)
• Bacterial or Microbe damage
• Thermal damage (heat and cold)
• Ultraviolet radiation (UV and sunlight)
• Desiccation (drying out) o Melanin
• Aids in body heat loss or heat retention – pigment (melanin) produced by melanocytes
• Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid (mostly in the stratum basale)
• Synthesizes vitamin D – color is yellow to brown to black
– amount of melanin produced depends upon
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN genetics and exposure to sunlight
– Epidermal dendritic cells – important
EPIDERMIS “sentries” that alert and activate immune system
cells to threat such as bacteria or viral invasion
• Outer layer – Merkel cells – associated with sensory nerve
• Made up of stratified squamous epithelium that is endings and serve as touch receptors called merkel
capable of becoming hard and tough discs.
• No blood supply of its own (avascular)
• Most cell of the epidermis is keratinocytes (keratin DERMIS
cells; connected by desmosomes throughout the
• Dense connective tissue
epidermis) produce keratin
• Abundantly supplied with blood vessels
• Keratin – fibrous protein that makes the epidermis a
• Has rich nerve supply
tough protective layer in a process called keratinization
• Strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind the body
o LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS (from the inside out):
together
▪ Stratum Basale (stratum germinativum)
o TWO LAYERS OF THE DERMIS
– the deepest cell layer of the epidermis
▪ Papillary layer
– cells undergoing mitosis
– superficial dermal region
– lies closes to the dermis
– uneven and has peg-like projections from
– most adequately nourished epidermal cells
its superior surface called dermal papillae
▪ Stratum Spinosum
(increase friction and enhance gripping)
– contain thick bundles of intermediate
– pain receptors (free nerve endings) and
filaments made of pre-keratin
touch receptors
▪ Stratum Granulosum
– capillary loops
 ▪ Reticular layer
– the deepest skin layer
– contains dense irregular connective tissues,
blood vessels, sweat and oil glands and deep
pressure receptors called lamellar corpuscles
– Phagocytes – detecting stimuli from our
environment; prevent microbes from penetrating
any deeper into the body
– Collagen – toughness of the dermis; attract
and bind water that helps to keep the skin
hydrated
– Elastic fibers – gives the skin its elasticity
HYPODERMIS
• Deep to the dermis (subcutaneous tissue)
• Adipose fat
• Not considered part of the skin
• Anchors skin to underlying organs
• Provides a site for nutrient storage
• Serves as a shock absorber and insulates the deeper
tissue from extreme temperature changes occurring in
the body
• Responsible for the curves (woman’s anatomy)
SKIN COLOR
▪ Melanin
– yellow, brown or black pigments
– more melanin pigment = tanning of the skin
▪ Carotene
– deposited in the stratum corneum and
subcutaneous tissue
– orange-yellow pigment form some
vegetables
▪ Hemoglobin
– red coloring from the blood cells in dermis
capillaries
– oxygen content determines the extent of
red coloring
o Emotions also influence skin color:
▪ Redness or erythema
– reddened skin may indicate embarrassment
(blushing), fever, hypertension, inflammation or
allergy
▪ Pallor or blanching (pale skin)
– under certain types of emotional stress
– anemia, low blood pressure or impaired
blood flow into the area
▪ Jaundice or a yellow cast
– liver disorder in which excess bile pigments
accumulate the blood
▪ Bruises
– black and blue marks of bruising reveal
sites where blood has escaped from the
circulation and has clotted the tissue spaces
• Arise from the epidermis and plays a unique role in
maintaining body homeostasis
SKIN APPENDAGES
CUTANEOUS GLANDS
• all exocrine glands that release their secretions to the
skin surface via ducts
o Sebaceous glands (oil glands)
– found all over the skin except on the palms and
sole of feet
– Sebum (grease) – product of the sebaceous
glands; lubricant for skin and kills bacteria
– most with ducts that empty into hair follicles
– glands are activated at puberty (oilier)
o Sweat glands (sudoriferous glands)
– widely distributed in the skin
▪ Eccrine
– more numerous and are found all over the
body
– produce sweat
– open via duct to pore on skin surfaces
– part of the body’s heat-regulating
equipment
– supplied with nerve ending that cause them
to secrete when the external or body
temperature is too high
▪ Apocrine glands
– confined to the axillary (armpit) and genital
areas of the body
– larger than eccrine glands
– ducts empty into hair follicles
o SWEAT AND ITS FUCNTIONS
• Composition
– mostly water
– some metabolic waste
– fatty acids and proteins (apocrine only)
• Function
– helps dissipate excess heat
– excretes wastes products o HAIR STRUCTURES
– acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth ▪ Hair follicle
• Odor is from associated bacteria – compound structures
– Epithelial root sheath – composed of
HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES
epithelial tissue and forms hair
o Hair – Fibrous sheath – dermal connective tissue
– produced by hair bulb (hair follicle) – Hair papilla – nipple-like; provides blood
– flexible epithelial tissue supple to the matrix in the hair bulb (the deepest
– fastest growing tissue of the body part of the follicle
– serves a few minor protective functions: ▪ Arrector pili (raiser of hair)
guarding the head against bumps, shielding the eyes – connect each side of the hair follicle to the
and helping foreign particles out of the respiratory dermal tissue
tract – smooth muscle
– consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells – goose bumps
– melanocytes provide pigment for hair color ▪ Sebaceous glands
– Root – part of the hair enclosed in the hair ▪ Sweat glands
follicle
NAILS
– Shaft – part projecting from the surface of the
scalp or skin • Scale like modifications of the epidermis
– Matrix (growth zone) – forms by division of • Heavily keratinized
stratum basale • Lack of pigment makes them colorless
o PARTS OF THE NAIL
▪ Free edge; body
– visible attached portion
▪ Root
– embedded in the skin
▪ Nail folds
– the border of the nails are overlapped
by folds of skin
▪ Cuticle
o HAIR ANATOMY – the edge of the thick proximal nail fold
▪ Central Medulla ▪ Nail bed
– central core – the stratum basale extends beneath the
– large cells and air spaces
nail bed
– surrounded by a bulky cortex layer ▪ Nail matrix
▪ Cortex layer – responsible for nail growth
– surrounds the medulla ▪ Lumule
– composed of several layers of flattened – thickened nail matrix that appears white
cells crescent
– enclosed by a cuticle ▪ Eponychium
▪ Cuticle – proximal nail fold that projects onto the
– outside of cortex nail body
– most heavily keratinized region
– provides strength and helps keep the inner
hair layers tightly compacted
SKIN HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
o Pathogens
– the infection in most common skin disorders
o Allergies
– caused by abnormally strong immune system
responses
o INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES:
▪ Athlete’s foot
– itchy, red, peeling condition of the skin
between the toes
– caused by fungal infection (Tinea
pedis)
▪ Boils and carbuncles
– boils are caused by inflammation of
hair follicles and surrounding tissues
– carbuncles are clusters of boils often
caused by bacterial infection
▪ Cold sores
– small fluid-filled blisters that itch and
sting
– caused by human herpesvirus 1
infection
– around the lips and in the oral mucosa
of the mouth and nose
▪ Contact dermatitis
– itching, redness and swelling of the
skin,
▪ Impetigo
– pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions (mouth
and nose) that develop a yellow crust and
eventually rupture
– caused by highly contagious
staphylococcus or streptococcus infections
▪ Psoriasis
– believed to be an autoimmune disorder
in which the immune system attacks a
person’s own tissue leading to the rapid
overproduction of skin cells (cause is
unknown)
– triggered by trauma, infection, stress
BURNS
• Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat,
electricity, UV radiation or chemicals
• Associated dangers:
– dehydration
– electrolyte imbalance
– circulatory shock
o Rules of nine
– way to determine the extent of burns
– body is divided into 11 areas for quick
estimation
– each area represents about 9%
SEVERITY OF BURNS
o Burn skin is sterile for about 24 hours
▪ First-degree burns
– only superficial epidermis is damaged
– red and swollen
– heal in two to three days
– sunburn without blistering
▪ Second degree burns
– injury to the epidermis and the
superficial part of the dermis
– red, painful and blistered
– regeneration of the epithelium can
occur
▪ Third-degree burns
– destroy both the epidermis and the
dermis
– burn is gray-white or black
– burned area is not painful
– regeneration is not possible
– skin grafting must be done
▪ Fourth-degree burns
– extend into deeper tissues (bone,
muscle or tendons)
– dry and leathery
– require surgery and grafting or
amputation
o Burns are considered critical if:
• Over 25% of body has second degree burns
• Over 10% of the body has third degree
burns
• There are third degree burns of the face,
hands, or feet
SKIN CANCER
• Most common type of cancer in humans
• Risk factor: overexposure to UV radiation sunlight and
tanning beds
• Cancer – abnormal cell mass
• Neoplasms (tumors) arise in the skin
o TWO TYPES: o Vellus
▪ Benign – hairs are colorless and very tiny
– does not spread (encapsulated) – graying of hair
▪ Malignant
– metastasized (moves) to other parts of INTEGUMENTARY AND OTHER
the body SYSTEM
o Endocrine system
SKIN CANCER TYPES – skin protects endocrine organs
– androgens activate sebaceous glands and help
o Basal cell carcinoma
regulate hair growth
– least malignant and most common skin cancer
– estrogen helps maintain skin hydration
– cannot form keratin; no longer honor the
boundary between epidermis and dermis o Nervous system
– arises from stratum basale – skin protects nervous system organs
– cutaneous sensory receptors located in skin
o Squamous cell carcinoma
– regulates blood vessels in skin
– arises from the stratum spinosum
– activates sweat glands
– scaly, reddened papules (small, rounded
o Lymphatic system
swelling) that gradually form shallow ulcers with firm
– skin protects lymphoid organs; prevents
raised borders
pathogen invasion
– metastasizes to lymph nodes
– immune system protects skin cells
– early removal allows a good chance of cure
o Respiratory system
o Malignant melanoma
– most deadly of skin cancers – skin protects respiratory organs
– cancer of melanocytes – furnishes oxygen to skin cells
o Digestive system
– metastasized rapidly to lymph and blood
– protects digestive organs
vessels
– provides vitamin D
– detection uses ABCD rule
– provides nutrients needed by the skin
▪ A = Asymmetry
o Cardiovascular system
– two sides of pigmented mole do not
– protects cardiovascular organs
match
– prevents fluid loss; blood reservoir
▪ B = Border irregularity
– borders of mole are not smooth – transport nutrients to the skin; removes waste
▪ C = Color from skin
o Urinary system
– different colors in pigmented area
– protects urinary organs; excretes salts and
▪ D = Diameter
waste in sweat
– spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
– activates vitamin D; disposes waste of skin
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF metabolism
SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES o Reproductive system
– protects reproductive organs; highly modified
o Lanugo
sweat glands
– a downy type of hair that covers the fetus
– skin stretches to accommodate growing fetus
o Vernix caseosa
o Muscular system
– an oily coating
– protects muscles
– produced by the sebaceous glands that
– active muscles increases blood flow to the skin
protects the baby’s skin while in the womb
o Skeletal system
o Millia
– protects bones; synthesizes vitamin D that
– small white spots on the baby’s nose and
bones need
forehead
– provides support for the skin
o Dermatitis
– pimples, scales
– skin inflammation become more common
(adolescence)
o Alopecia
– hair thinning and some baldness
 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
o Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
– occurs within the marrow cavities of certain bones

SKELETAL BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY

Bone is one of the hardest materials in the body; has an • The adult skeleton has 206 bones
ability to resist tension and other forces acting on it. o TWO BASIC TYPES OF BONE TISSUE:
• Skeleton – Greek word meaning “dried- up body” ▪ Compact bone
• Skeletal System – bones of the skeleton – dense and looks smooth and homogeneous
o PARTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM ▪ Spongy bone
▪ Bones – spiky open appearance like a sponge
▪ Joints – small needle-like pieces of bone
– give these parts of the skeleton flexibility – many open spaces
and allow movement to occur
▪ Cartilages
▪ Ligaments
000
– fibrous cords that binds bones together
o DIVIDED INTO TWO DIVISIONS:
▪ Axial skeleton
– forms longitudinal axis of body
▪ Appendicular skeleton
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE ON THE
– bones of the limbs and girdles that attach
BASISI OF SHAPE
o Long bones
FUNCTIONS OF BONES – typically longer than wide
them to the axial skeleton – have a shaft with heads at both ends
o Support – mostly compact bone but also contain spongy bone
– Bones are the “steel girder” and “ reinforced at the ends
concrete” of the body – ex. Femur, humerus, all bones of the limbs except
– form the internal framework that supports the body wrist and ankles.
and cradles its soft organs o Short bones
– bones of the legs act as a pillars to support the body – generally cube-shape
trunk when we stand; ribcage supports the thoracic wall – contains mostly of sponge bone with an outer layer
o Protection of compact bone
– protect soft organs – ex. Carpals-wrist, tarsals-feet, bones of wrist and
– skull protects the brain; vertebrae surround the ankles Meta carpal
spinal cord; ribcage protects vital organs of the thorax – Sesamoid –special type of short bones which forms
o Allow movement within tendons; patella
– skeletal muscle attached to bones by tendons o Flat bones
– use the bones as levers to move the body and its – thin flattened and usually curves
parts – two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer
o Storage of spongy bone between them
– fat is stored in the internal (marrow) cavities of – ex. Bones of the skull, ribs and sternum
bones o Irregular bones
– storehouse for minerals, calcium and phosphorus – irregular shape (synecoid)
(calcium must always be present in the blood for the – do not fit into other bone classification categories
nervous system to transmit message, for muscles to – mainly spongy bone with an outer layer of compact
contract and for blood clot. bone
– Hormones – control the movement of calcium to – ex. Vertebrae and hip
and from the bones and blood according to the needs of
the body
 o Epiphyseal plate
– a flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young
growing bone
– cause the lengthwise growth of long bone
o Endosteum
– a delicate connective tissue that covers the inner
bony surface of the shaft
o Medullary cavity or yellow marrow
– cavity of the shaft
– storage area for adipose
– storage area for red marrow (for blood cell
GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE
formation) in infants
o Diaphysis (skaft) – red marrow is confined to cavities in the spongy
– Makes up most of the bone’s length bone of axial skeleton, the hip bones and the epiphyses
– Composed of compact bone of long bones (humerus & femur)
o Epiphysis – contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
– Ends of the bones
– Consist of thin layer of compact bone enclosing area
filled with spongy bone

BONE MARKINGS
• Surface features of the bones
• Not smooth but scarred with bumps, holes and ridges
• Reveal where muscles, tendons, and ligaments attach
• Passages for nerve and blood vessels
o CATERGORIES OF BONE MARKINGS
STRUCTURES OF A LONG BONE ▪ Projections or process
– grow out from the bone surface
o Periosteum – all terms beginning withO
T
– a fibrous connective tissue that covers and protects ▪ Depressions or cavities
the diaphysis – indentions in the bone
o Perforating fibers or Sharpey’s fibers – all terms beginning with0
F except facet
– hundreds of connective tissue fibers that secure the
periosteum to the underlying bone
o Arteries
– supply bone cells with nutrients
o Articular cartilage
– cover the external surface of the epiphyses
– made of glassy hyaline cartilage
– provides a smooth surface that decreases friction at
joint surfaces
o Epiphyseal line
– thin line of bone tissue that looks different from the
rest of the bones
 O C
O

CHANGES IN THE HUMAN SKELETON

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BONE • The skeleton is formed from two of the strongest and most
supportive tissues in the body – cartilage and bone
o Trabeculae • In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
– small needlelike pieces of bone that composed a • During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by
spongy bone bone
– lots of “open” space filled by marrow, blood vessels
• Cartilage – remains only in isolated areas (bridge of nose,
and more
parts of ribs and joints
o Osteocytes
– mature bone cells BONE GROWTH
– found within the bone matrix in tiny cavities called
↑ • Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during
lacunae
childhood
o Lacunae
• New cartilage is form
– cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
• Older cartilage becomes ossified
– arranged in concentric rings called lamellae
– cartilage is broken down
o Lamellae
– bone replaces cartilage
– sites of lacunae
• Ossification – process of bone formation
– rings around the central canal
o TWO PHASE:
o Central canals (Haversian)
▪ The hyaline cartilage model is completely
– opening in the center of an osteon
covered with bone matrix (bone “collar”) by
– run lengthwise to the bony matrix , carrying blood
bone-building cells called osteoblasts
vessels and nerves to all areas of the bone
▪ The enclosed hyaline cartilage model is replaced
o Osteon (Haversian system)
-
by bone and the center is digested away
– a unit of bones consisting of central canal and matrix
opening up medullary cavity within the newly
-rings
formed bone
– structural and functional unit of compact bone
• Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
o Canaliculi
• Bones change shape somewhat
– tiny canals
• Bones grow In width
– radiate from the central canal to lacunae
o 2 REGIONS NOT CONVERTED TO BONE AFTER BIRTH:
– form a transport system that connects all bone cell
▪ Articular cartilages
to nutrient supply and waste removal services through
– covers bone end
the hard bone matrix
– persists for life
o Perforating canal (Volkman’s)
– reduce friction at joint surfaces
– canal perpendicular to the central canal
▪ Epiphyseal plates
&
– run in the compact bone at right angles to the shaft
C
(diaphysis) and central canals
– for longitudinal growth of long bones during
childhood
• Growing bones also widen as they lengthen to maintain TYPES OF BONE CELLS
proper proportion
• How do bones widen? Osteoblast in the periosteum add o Osteocytes
bone matrix to the outside of the diaphysis as cell called – mature bone cells
osteoclasts in the endosteum remove bone from the inner o Osteoblasts
face of the diaphysis wall enlarging the medullary cavity – bone-forming cells
• Appositional growth – bones increase in diameter and o Osteoclast
growth in length; controlled by hormones – bone-destroying cells
– break down bone matrix for remodeling and release
• The most important hormones are growth hormones and
of calcium
during puberty, sex hormones.
• Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and
osteoclast
• Rickets – disease of children where bone fail to calcify
– bone soften and the weight-bearing bones of the
legs become bowed
– lack of calcium in the diet or lack of vitamin D
• A break in a bone

BONE FRACTURES
o TYPES OF BONE FRACTURE:
▪ Closed (simple) fracture
– break that does not penetrate the skin
▪ Open (compound) fracture
– broken bone penetrated through the skin
BONE REMODELING • Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization
• Reduction – realignment of the bone
• Bone remodeling is essential if bones are to retain normal
▪ Closed reduction
proportions and strength during long-bone growth as the
– the bone ends are coaxed back into their
body increases it size and weight
normal position by the physician’s hands
• Bones become thicker and form large projections to
– simple fracture
increase their strength in areas where bulky muscles are
– done through sedation
attached
– done in minor O.R. (outpatient)
• Bones are remodeled continually in response to changes in
▪ Open reduction
two factors:
– surgery is performed
– the calcium ion level in the blood
– under general anesthesia
– the pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
– secured together by plates, pins, wires and
rods for alignment
• It is immobilized by a cast or traction to allow the healing
process to begin; simple fractures 6 to 8 weeks

REPAIR OF BONE FRACTURES

o A hematoma forms
– blood vessels are ruptured when the bone breaks as
a result hematoma (blood-filled swelling) forms
o A fibrocartilage callus forms
– two early events of tissue repair are the growth of
new capillaries (granulation tissue) into the clotted blood
at the site of the damage and disposal of dead tissue by
phagocytes
– break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
– fibrocartilage callus is replaces by a bony callus
o The bony callus forms
– more osteoblasts and osteoclasts migrate into the
area and multiply, the fibrocartilage callus is gradually
replaced by the bony callus made of spongy bone.
o Bone remodeling occurs
– the bony callus is remodeled in response to the
mechanical stresses placed on it so that it forms a strong
permanent “patch” at the fracture site.

THE SKULL
• Formed by two sets of bones:
▪ Cranium
– encloses and protects the fragile brain tissue
– 8 large flat bones protecting brain
▪ Facial bones
– form a cradle for the eyes that is open to the
anterior and allow the facial muscles to show our
feelings through smiles or frowns
– 14 bones, 12 paired, 2 single (mandible &
vomer
• Sutures – interlocking immovable joints
• Mandible (jawbone) – attached to the rest of the skull by a
freely movable joint.

HUMAN SKULL, LATERAL VIEW

THE AXIAL SKELETON

• Forms the longitudinal part of the body
o DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS:
▪ Skull
▪ Vertebral column
▪ Bony thorax
o Frontal bone – joins the parietal bones anteriorly at the lambdoid
– forms the forehead – Foramen magnum – surrounds the lower part of the
– bony projections under the eyebrows and the brain and allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain
superior part of each eye’s orbit – Occipital condyles – rocklike; lateral to the foramen
o Parietal Bones magnum on each side; rest on the first vertebra of the
– forms superior and parietal walls of the cranium spinal column
– Sagittal suture – formed at the midline where the
two parietal bones meet HUMAN SKULL, SUPERIOR VIEW
– Coronal suture – formed where the paired parietal
bones meet the frontal bone
o Temporal bones
– inferior to parietal bone
– join them at the squamous sutures
– several important bone markings appear on the
temporal bones
▪ External acoustic meatus
– canal that leads the eardrum and the middle
ear
– route by which sound enters the ear
▪ Styloid process
– sharp needle like projection
– inferior to the external auditory
– many neck muscles use the styloid process as
an attachment point
▪ Zygomatic process HUMAN SKULL, INFERIOR VIEW
– thin bridge of bone that joins with the check
bone (zygomatic bone) anteriorly
▪ Mastoid process
– full of air cavities (the mastoid sinuses) is a
rough projection posterior and inferior to the
external acoustic meatus
– it provides an attachment site for some
muscles of the neck
– Mastoiditis – infection; close to the brain
▪ Jugular foramen
– the junction of the occipital and temporal
bones
– allows passage of the jugular vein
– Jugular vein – the largest vein of the head;
drains blood from the brain.
▪ Internal acoustic meatus
– anterior to the cranial cavity
– transmit cranial nerves VII and VIII o Sphenoid bone
▪ Carotid canal – butterfly-shaped sphenoid bone spans the width of
– anterior to the jugular foramen on the skull’s the skull and forms part of the floor of the cranial cavity
inferior aspect – Sella turcica or turtle’s saddle – a small depression
– Internal carotid artery – supplying blood to in the midline of the sphenoid; forms a snug enclosure
most of the brain for the pituitary gland
o Occipital bone – Foramen ovale – large oval opening in line with the
– the most posterior bone of the cranium posterior end of the sella turcica allows fibers of cranial
– forms the base and back wall of the skull
 nerve V to pass on the chewing muscles of the lower jaw
(mandible)
– Optic canal – allows the optic nerve to pass to the
eye
– Superior orbital fissure – slit like; the cranial nerves
controlling eye movements (I, IV, and VI)
– Sphenoidal sinuses – the central part of the
sphenoid bone is riddled with air cavities
ANTERIOR VIEW
POSTERIOR VIEW
o Ethmoid bone
– irregularly shaped and lies anterior to the sphenoid
– forms the roof of the nasal cavity and part of the
medial walls of the orbits
– Crista galli (cockk’s comb) – projections from
superior surface where outer cavity of brain attaches
– Cribriform plates – holey areas that allows fiber
carrying impulse from olfactory receptors to reach the
brain
– superior nasal conchae and middle nasal conchae –
extensions of the ethmoid bone; form part of the lateral
walls of the nasal cavity.
FACIAL BONES
o Maxillae/Maxillary bones
– fuse to form the upper jaw
– facial bone except the mandible join the maxillae,
they are the main bones of the face
– carry the upper teeth in the alveolar process
– Palatine processes – forms anterior part of the hard
palate
– Paranasal sinuses – lighten the skull bones and
amplify the sound we make as we speak
o Palatine bones
– form the posterior part of the hard palate
– Cleft palate -failure of these or the palatine
processes to fuse medially
o Zygomatic bone/cheek bones
– forms the lateral walls of the orbit or eye sockets
o Lacrimal bones
– finger nail size bones forming part of media walls of
each orbit
– has a groove for passage tears
o Nasal Bones
– small, rectangular bones forming the nasal bridge
o Vomer Bone (plow)
– single bone in the median line of the nasal cavity
– forms the inferior part of the body nasal septum
which separates the two nostrils
o Inferior conchae
– thin curved bones projecting from the lateral walls
of the lateral nasal cavity
o Mandible/Lower jaw
– largest and strongest bone of the face
– joins the temporal bones on each side of the face
– only free movable joints in the skull
– horizontal of the body forms the chin
– Rami – 2 upright bones that connect the mandible to
temporal bone
– alveolar process – lower teeth lie in alveoli (sockets)
at the superior edge of the mandibular body
o Hyoid Bone
– not really part of the skull
– only bone of the body that does not articulate (form
a joint) with any other bone
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN (SPINE)
• Axial support of the body
• Extends from the skull which it support, to the pelvis where
it transmits the weight of the body to the lower limbs
• The spine is formed from 26 irregular bones connected and
reinforced by ligaments in such a way that a flexible curved
structure results
• Spinal cord – the vertebral column surrounds and protects
• Vertebrae – 33 separate bones but 9 are fuse to form the
two composite bones the sacrum and the coccyx that
construct the inferior portion of the vertebral column
• Cervical vertebrae – 7 vertebrae of the neck
• Thoracic vertebrae – 12
• Lumbar vertebrae – 5 supporting the lower back
• Intervertebral disc – the individual vertebrae are separated
by pads of flexible fibrocartilage that cushions the vertebrae
and absorb shock while allowing the spine flexibility
COMMON FEATURES OF VERTEBRAE
o Body or centrum
– disc like, weight-bearing part of the vertebrae facing
anteriorly in the vertebral column
o Vertebral arch
– formed from the joining of all posterior extensions,
the laminae and pedicles from the vertebral body
o Vertebral foramen
– canal through which the spinal cord passes
o Transverse processes
– two lateral projections from the vertebral arch
o Spinous process
– single projection arising from the posterior aspects
of the vertebral arch
o Superior articular process and inferior articular process
– paired projections lateral to the vertebral foramen
allowing a vertebra to form joints with adjacent
vertebrae
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
• Identified as C1 to C7 from the neck region of the spine
• Atlas and axis – they perform functions not shared by the
other cervical vertebrae
▪ Atlas (C1)
– no body
– contain large depressions that receive the
occipital condyles of the skull
– allows you to nod “yes”
▪ Axis (C2)
– acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (and
skull) above
– Dens – acts as the pivot point
• The joint between C1 and C2 allows you to rotate your head
from side to side to indicate “no”
• C3 to C7 are the smallest, lightest vertebrae and most often
their spinous processes are short and divided into two
branches
• Transverse process – contain foramina (openings) through
which the vertebral arteries pass on their way to the brain
above
THORACIC VERTEBRAE
• 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12)
• Larger than the cervical vertebrae and are distinguished by
the fact that they are the only vertebrae to articulate with
the ribs
• Transverse processes – articulate with the knoblike
tubercles of the ribs
• Spinous process – long and hooks sharply downward
causing the vertebra to look like a giraffe’s head viewed
from the side
LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
• (L1 to L5) have massive block like bodies that are somewhat
kidney bean-shaped
• These are the sturdiest of the vertebrae
SACRUM
• Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
• Forms the posterior wall of the pelvis
• Ala – articulates laterally with the hip bone forming
sacroiliac joint
• Median sacral crest – fused spinous processes of the sacral
vertebrae this if flanked by the posterior sacral foramina
• The vertebral canal continues inside the sacrum as the
sacral canal and terminates in a large inferior opening called
the sacral hiatus
COCCYX
• Formed from the fusion of three to five tiny irregularly
shaped vertebrae
• The human “tailbone”
THORACIC CAGE
• Bony thorax (sternum, ribs and thoracic)
• Forms a protective cage of slender bones and cartilages
around the organs of the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs and
major blood vessels)
o Sternum (breastbone)
– flat bone and the result of the fusion if three bones
(manubrium, body and xiphoid process)
– attached directly to the first seven pairs of ribs via
costal cartilages
– close to the body surface that it is easy to obtain
samples for diagnosis of suspected blood disease (Sternal
puncture)
o STERNUM IMPORTANT LAND MARKS:
▪ Jugular notch
– concave upper border of the manubrium
– can be palpated easily
– at the level of the third thoracic vertebra
▪ Sternal angle
– where the manubrium and body meet at a
slight angle to each other
– a handy reference point for counting ribs to
locate the second intercostal space for listening to
certain heart valves
▪ Xiphisternal joint
– where the sternal body and xiphoid process
fuse lies at the level if the ninth thoracic vertebra
o Ribs
– twelve pairs of ribs form the walls of the bony thorax
– Intercostal spaces – spaces between the ribs that aid
in breathing
▪ True ribs
– the first seven pairs attach directly to the
sternum by costal cartilages
 – Acromioclavicular joint – where the acromion
▪ False ribs connects with the clavicle
– the next five pairs either attach indirectly to – Suprascapular notch – nerve passageway
the sternum or are not attach at all

▪ Floating ribs
– last to pairs of the ribs lack the sternal
attachment

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
• Composed of 126 bones of the limbs and the pectoral and
pelvic girdles which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton
o Pectoral (shoulder girdle)
– consists of two bones – clavicle and scapula o Arm
– very light and allows the upper limb to have – 30 skeletal framework (upper limbs)
exceptionally free movement – formed by a single bone the humerus
▪ Clavicle (collarbone) – Humerus – long bone, proximal end is a rounded
– slender double curved bones head that fits into the shallow glenoid cavity of the
– each clavicle attaches to the manubrium of scapula
the sternum medially and to the scapula laterally
where it helps form the shoulder joint
– acts as a brace to hold the arm away from the
top of the thorax and helps prevent shoulder
dislocations
▪ Scapulae (shoulder blades)
– commonly called “wings”
– not directly attach to the axial skeleton
– loosely held in place by trunk muscles
– Glenoid cavity – shallow sockets that receives
the head of the arm bone
– Acromion – enlarged lateral end of the spine
of the scapula
– Coracoid process – beaklike
 – Anatomical neck – a slight constriction inferior to
the head
– Intertubercular sulcus – separates the two body
projections greater tubercle and lesser tubercle which
are sites of muscle attachment
– Surgical neck – distal to the tubercles; most
frequently fractured part of the humerus
– Deltoid tuberosity – midpoint of the shaft is a
roughened where the large fleshy deltoid muscle of the
shoulder attaches
– `Radial groove – runs obliquely down the posterior
of the shaft
– Trochlea – distal end of the humerus
– Capitulum – outlined with a “c” from the anterior
view
– Coronoid fossa – depression and on the posterior
surface olecranon fossa
– Medial epicondyle and lateral epicondyle – allow
the corresponding processes of the ulna to move freely
when the elbow is bent and extended
o Forearm
– has to bones – Ulna and radius form the skeleton of
the forearm
▪ Radius
– the lateral bone when the body is in
anatomical position
– Radioulnar joints – where the radius and ulna
articulate at
– Interosseous membrane – flexible that
connects the two bones
– Radial tuberosity – where the tendon of the
bicep muscles attaches
▪ Ulna
– the medial bone of the forearm
– its proximal end are the anterior coronoid
process and the posterior olecranon which are
separated by the trochlear notch
o Hand
▪ carpal bones
– 8; arranged in two irregular rows of four bones
beach; form the part of the hand called the carpus
or the wrist
– bound together by ligaments that restrict
movements between them
▪ metacarpals
– numbered to 1 to 5 from the thumb side of the
hand toward of the little fingers
▪ Phalanges
– boned of the fingers
– each contain 14 phalanges, three in each finger
except in thumb which is only two
PELVIC GIRDLE
• Formed by two coxal bones commonly called “hip bone”
and the sacrum
• Forms the pelvis
• Large and heavy and they are attached securely to the axial
skeleton via the sacral attachment to the L5 lumbar vertebra
• Bearing weight is the most important function of the girdle
because the total weight of the upper body rest on the
pelvis
• Urinary bladder and part of the large intestine lie within
and are protected by the pelvis
▪ Ilium
– which connects posteriorly with the sacrum at
the sacroiliac joint that forms most of the hip bone
– iliac crest – kept in mind by those who give
intramuscular injections
▪ Ischium
– “sit-down bone”
– forms the most inferior part of the coxal bone
– Ischial tuberosity – roughened area that
receives body weight when you are sitting
 – Ischial spine – particularly in pregnant woman;
it narrow the outlet of the pelvis through which the THE PELVIS: RIGHT COXAL BONE
baby must pass during birth
– Greater sciatic notch – allows blood vessels
and the large sciatic nerve to pass from the pelvis
posteriorly into the thigh
▪ Pubis
– the most anterior and inferior part of a coxal
bone
– Obturator foramen – opening that allows
blood vessels and nerves to pass into the anterior
part of the thigh
– Pubic symphysis – the result when the hip
bone articulate anteriorly to form cartilaginous
joint
– Acetabulum – vinegar cup, a deep socket
where the ilium, ischium and pubis fuse; receives
the head of the thigh bone
– bony pelvis is divided into 2 regions: False
pelvis (superior to the true pelvis; medial to the
flaring portions of the ilia) and True pelvis
(surrounded by bone and lies inferior to the flaring
parts of the ilia and the pelvic brim
– Outlet – inferior opening of the pelvis GENDER DIFFERENCE OF THE PELVIS
measured between the ischial spines
– Inlet – superior opening between the right and
left side of the pelvic brim
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FEMALE AND MALE
PELVIS:
– female inlet is larger and more circular
– female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and
bones are lighter and thinner
– female ilia flare more laterally, giving women
curvy hips
– female sacrum is shorter and less curved
– female ischial spines are shorted and farther
apart
– female pubic arch is more rounded because
the angle points arch is greater
 BONES OF THE LOWER LIMB – Medial malleolus – forms the inner bulge of
the ankle
• The lower limb carry our total weight when we are erect – Anterior border – unprotected by the muscle;
o Thigh easily felt beneath the skin
▪ Femur ▪ Fibula
– the only bone in the thigh – lies alongside the tibia laterally forms joints
– heaviest, strongest and longest bone in the with it both proximally and distally
body – thin and sticklike
– slants medially as it runs downward to join – no part in forming the knee joint
with the leg bones – Lateral malleolus – forms the outer part of the
– proximal end has a ball-like head, a neck and ankle
a greater trochanter and lesser trochanter
(separated anteriorly by the intertrochanteric line
and posteriorly by the intertrochanteric crest)
– Gluteal tuberosity – serves as sites for muscle
attachment
– Lateral and medial condyle – articulate with
the tibia below separated by the Intercondylar
fossa
– Patellar surface – forms a joint with the
patella

o Foot
– composed of the tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges
– it supports our body weight and serves as a lever
that allows us to propel our body forward when we walk
and run
▪ Tarsus
– forming the posterior half of the foot is
composed of 7 tarsal bones
– Calcaneus (heel bone) and talus (pointing of
the toes) – two largest tarsal that mostly carried
the body weight
▪ Metatarsals
o Leg – 5 forms the sole
– tibia and fibula form the skeleton of the leg ▪ Phalanges
▪ Tibia (shinbone) – 14 form the toes
– larger and more medial – each has three phalanges except the big toe
– Patella – encloses by the patellar (kneecap);
sesamoid bone attaches to the tibial tuberosity, a
roughened area on the anterior tibial surface

– the bones in the foot are arranged to form three
strong arches: two longitudinal (medial and
lateral) and one transverse
– Ligaments – bind the foot together
– Tendons – help to hold the bones firmly in the
arched position but still allow a certain amount of
give or springiness
– Weak arches are referred to as “fallen arches”
or “ flat feet”
JOINTS
• Also called articulations
• Sites where two or more bones meet
• They hold the bones together securely but also give the
rigid skeleton mobility
• Classified in two way – functionally and structurally
o Functional
– the amount of movement the joint allows
▪ Synarthroses – immovable
▪ Amphiarthroses – slightly movable
▪ Diarthroses – freely movable joints
– Immovable and slightly are mainly axial
skeleton; Freely movable predominant in the limbs
o Structurally
– based on whether tissue, cartilage or a joint cavity
separates the bony regions at the joints
– fibrous (immovable), cartilaginous (both movable
and slightly movable) and synovial (freely movable)
▪ Fibrous joints
– bones are united by fibrous tissue
– ex. Sutures of the skull
– in sutures bones are interlock and tightly bound
together by connective tissue fibers allowing no
movement
– Gomphoses – peg-in-socket fibrous joints that
are found where the teeth meet the facial bones
– Syndesmoses – connecting fibers are longer
than those of sutures; connecting the tibia and fibula
▪ Cartilaginous joints
– two varieties which differ in the type of cartilage
involved
– Synchondroses – are immovable joints linked by
hyaline cartilage (ex. Epiphyseal plates of growing
 long bones and the joints between ribs 1-7 and the – (ex. Proximal radioulnar joint and the joint between
sternum) the atlas and the dens
– Symphyses – amphiarthrotic (slightly movable) o Condylar joint
joints linked by the disc of fibrocartilage (ex. – egg shaped articular surface of one bone fit into an
Intervertebral disc and the pubic symphysis. oval concavity in another
▪ Synovial joint – allow the moving bone to travel from side to side
– joints in which the articulating bone ends are and back and forth
separated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid – bone cannot rotate around its long axis
– all joints of the limbs are synovial joints – movement occurs around two axis – biaxial
– (ex. Knuckle (metacarpophalangeal) joint
4 DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF o Saddle joint
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
– articular surface has both convex and concave area
o Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the bones
– biaxial joints allow essentially the same movements
forming the joint
as a condylar joint
o Articular capsule – enclosed by a sleeve or layer of
– (ex. Carpometacarpal joints in the thumb)
fibrous connective tissue which is lines with a smooth
o Ball-and-socket joint
synovial membrane
– spherical head of one bone fits into round socket in
o Joint cavity – articular capsule encloses a cavity; contains
another
lubricating synovial fluid
– multiaxial joint allow movement in all axes including
o Reinforcing ligaments – fibrous layer of the capsule is
rotation and are the most freely moving synovial joints
usually reinforced with ligaments
– (ex. Shoulder and hips)
• Bursae and tendon sheaths are not strictly part of the
synovial joints but they are often found closely associated
with them
o Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial
membrane and containing a thin film of synovial fluid;
where muscles, skin, tendons or bones rub together
o Tendon sheath – elongated bursa that wraps completely
around a tendon subjected to friction

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED

ON SHAPE
• Shapes of the bone determine what movement are allowed
at a joint
o Plane joint
– flat and only short slipping or gliding movement are
allowed
– movement of the plane joints are nonaxial
– gliding back and forth does not involve rotation
around any axis (ex. Intercarpal joints of the wrist)
o Hinge joint
– cylindrical end of the bone fits into a trough-shaped
surface on another bone
– uniaxial allow movement around one axis only
– angular movement is allowed in just one plane
– (ex. Elbow joint, ankle joint and the joints between PROBLEMS OF THE BONES
the phalanges
o Pivot Joint o Bursitis
– rounded end of the bone fits into sleeve or ring of – “water on the knee” due to inflammation of bursae
bone or synovial membrane
– rotating bone can turn only around its long axis pivot
joints are also uniaxial joints
o Sprain DEVELOPEMTN ASPECTS OF THE
– when ligaments or tendons reinforcing a joint are SKELETON
damaged by excessive stretching or are torn away from
– as fetus develops and grows all bones models are
the bone
converted to bones
– heal slowly and can be painful
– Fontanels – fibrous membranes connecting the
o Arthritis
cranial bone; baby’s pulse can be felt; allow the fetal skull
– 100 different inflammatory or degenerative disease
to be compressed slightly during birth
that damage the joint
– at birth and in infancy the baby’s cranium is huge
– symptoms: pain, stiffness, and swelling of the joint
relative to its face
– the synovial thickens and fluid production decreases
– the rapid growth of the cranium before and after
leading to increase friction and pain
birth is related to the growth of the brain
– chronic forms of arthritis: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid
– growth of the skeleton not only increases overall
arthritis and gouty arthritis
body height and size but also changes body proportions
▪ Osteoarthritis (OA)
– during puberty the female pelvis broadens in
– most common form of arthritis
preparation for child bearing and the entire male
– chronic degenerative condition that typically
skeleton becomes more robust
affects the aged
– once adult height is reached a healthy skeleton
– slow and irreversible
changes very little until late middle age
– also called degenerative joint disease (DJD) or
o Older adults
“wear-and-tear arthritis” affects the articular
– bones have to be physically stress to be healthy
cartilage
– Osteoporosis – bone-thinning disease that afflicts
– Bone spurs – exposed bone thickens and extra
half of women over 65 and 20 percent of men over the
bone tissue; grows around the margins of the eroded
age 70; make the bone fragile
cartilage and restricts joint movement
– Estrogen – helps maintain the health and normal
▪ Rheumatoid
density of woman’s skeleton
– chronic inflammatory disorder
– Menopause – estrogen deficiency
– autoimmune disease in which the body’s
immune system mistakenly attempts to destroy its SKELETAL SYSTEM AND OTHER
own tissue SYSTEMS
– begins with inflammation of the synovial
o Endocrine system
membranes
– skeletal system provide bony protection
– the membrane thickens and the joints swell as
– hormones regulate, promote long-bone growth and
synovial fluid accumulates
maturation, and release of calcium from bone
– usually occurs between the ages of 40 and 50
o Nervous system
– fingers, wrists, ankles and feet are affected at
– protects brain and spinal cord
the same time and usually symmetrical manner
– nerves provide pain and joint sense
– (ex. Right elbow is affected the left elbow will be
o Lymphatic system
affected to)
– protection to lymphoid organs; lymphocytes
– Pannus – an abnormal tissue that clings to and
originate in bone marrow (immune response)
erodes articular cartilages
– immune cells protect against pathogens
▪ Gouty arthritis or gout
o Respiratory system
– uric acid accumulates in the blood and may be
– rib cage protects lungs
deposited as needle-shaped crystal in the soft tissue
– provides oxygen and dispose carbon dioxide
of joints
o Digestive system
– painful attacks that typically affects a single joint
– protection to intestines, pelvic organs and liver
often the great toe
– provides nutrients for bone health and growth
– most common in men
o Cardiovascular system
o Birth to adulthood
– site for blood cell formation; stores calcium
– long bones in the fetus are formed by hyaline
– delivers nutrients and oxygen to the bone
cartilage and the earliest flat bone of the skull are fibrous
o Urinary system
membrane
– protects pelvic organs
 – activates vitamin D; disposes nitrogen containing
waste o Perimysium
o Reproductive system – coarser fibrous membrane
– protects reproductive organs by enclosure – around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers
– produce hormones that influence form of skeleton o Fascicle
o Muscular system – bundle of fibers
– provides levers plus calcium for muscle activity o Epimysium
– muscle pull on bone increases bone strength and – tougher “overcoat” of connective tissue
viability – covers the entire muscle/skeletal system
o Integumentary
– provides support for body organs including skin
– skin provides vitamin D

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

MUSCLES
• Muscles from the Latin word “mus” meaning “little mouse”
• Dominant tissue of the heart and in the walls of other
hollow organs of the body such as intestine and blood SKELETAL MUSCLE ATTACHMENTS
vessels and make up nearly half of the body mass
• Epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachments
• Responsible for all types of body movement
▪ Tendon
• Three basic muscle types are found in the body: Skeletal
– cord-like structure
muscle, Cardiac muscle and Smooth muscle
– mostly tough collagen fibers
CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE ▪ Aponeuroses
o Muscle cells are elongated (muscle cell = muscle fibers) – sheet-like structure
o Contraction of muscle is due to the movement of • Sites of muscle attachment:
myofilaments, muscle equivalents of the microfilaments ▪ Bones
o All muscles share some terminology ▪ Cartilages
– Prefix “myo” refers to muscle ▪ Connective tissue coverings
– Prefix “mys” refers to muscle
SMOOTH MUSCLE
– Prefix “sarco” refers to flesh
• Smooth muscle has no striations and is involuntary
SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Found mainly in the walls of hollow (tubelike) visceral
• Skeletal muscle fibers – packaged into organs called organs such as the stomach, urinary bladder and respiratory
skeletal muscles that attaches to the skeleton; large, cigar passages
shaped, multinucleate cells • Spindle-shaped, uninucleate and surrounded by scan
• Largest muscle fibers endomysium
• Soft and surprisingly fragile • Involuntary – no conscious control
• Skeletal muscles cover our bones and cartilage framework; • Smooth muscle contraction is slow and sustained
help form the smooth contours of the body • 2 layers: Circularly and longitudinally
• Striated – have visible banding
• Voluntary – subject to conscious control
• Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF

SKELETAL MUSCLE
o Endomysium
– delicate connective tissue sheath
– around single muscle fiber
 CARDIAC MUSCLE
• Found only in the heart where is forms the bulk of the heart
walls
• Has striations, uninucleate and involuntary
• Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
• Cardiac muscle usually contracts at a fairly steady rate set
by the heart’s “in-house” pacemaker.
• Heart – serves as a pump, propelling blood through blood
vessels to all body tissues
– allow us to express our emotions with the silent
language of smiles and frowns
▪ Smooth muscle of blood vessel walls
– forces fluids and other substance through
internal body channels
▪ Cardiac muscle of the heart
– work together to circulate blood and maintain
blood pressure
o Maintain posture and body position
– maintain an erect or seated posture, even when we
slouch, despite the never-ending downward pull of
gravity
o Stabilize joints
▪ Skeletal muscle
– pull on bones to cause movements and also
stabilize the joints of the skeleton
▪ Muscles and tendons
– reinforcing and stabilizing joints that have
poorly articulating surfaces
– ex. Shoulder and knee joints
o Generate heat
– vital in maintaining normal body temperature
▪ Muscle activity
– generates body heat as a by-product
▪ Skeletal muscle
– accounts for at least 40 percent of the body
mass
– muscle types responsible for generating heat
o Additional functions
▪ Smooth muscle
– form valves that regulate the passage of
substances through internal body openings, dilate
and constrict the pupils of our eyes, and make up the
arrector pili
▪ Skeletal muscle
– form valves that are under voluntary control,
and they enclose and protect fragile internal organs

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE
• Cells are multinucleate
o Sarcolemma (muscle husk)
FUNCTION OF MUSCLES – where the nuclei can be seen just beneath the
o Produce movement plasma membrane
▪ Skeletal muscles – specialized plasma membrane
– are responsible for our body’s mobility including
locomotion and manipulating things with your agile
upper limbs
– enable us to respond quickly to change in the
external environment
o Myofibrils PROPERTIES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
– long ribbon-like organelles; fill the cytoplasm ACIVITY
– Bundles of myofilaments
o Irritability or responsiveness
– aligned to give distinct bands
– ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
▪ I band – light band; has a midline interruption; a
o Contractility
darker area called Z disc
– ability to forcibly shorten when an adequate
▪ A band – dark band; has a lighter area called H zone
stimulus is received
▪ M line – center of the H zone contains tiny protein
o Extensibility
rods that hold adjacent thick filaments together
– ability of the muscle fibers to stretch
o Elasticity
– ability to recoil and resume their resting length after
being stretched

NERVE STIMULUS TO MUSCLES

• Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a nerve (nerve
o Sarcomere
impulses) to contract
– contractile unit of a muscle fiber
o Motor unit
– the structural and functional units of skeletal muscle
– one neuron and all the skeletal muscle fibers it
– aligned end to end like boxcars in a train along the
stimulates
length of the myofibrils
– Axon – long thread-like extension of the neuron
ORGANIZATION OF THE SARCOMERE
– Axon terminals – branch of axon that forms junction
▪ Thick filaments
with the sarcolemma of a different muscle cell
– bundled molecules of the protein myosin
– composed of the protein myosin
– has ATPase enzymes (split ATP for
muscle contraction)
– extend the entire length of the dark A
band
▪ Thin filaments
– actin filaments
– composed of the protein actin
– anchored to the Z disc

o Neuromuscular junctions
– association site of nerve and muscle
– contains synaptic vesicles filled with a chemical
referred to as a neurotransmitter
– Acetylcholine (ACh) – specific neurotransmitter that
• Myosin filaments have heads (extension/cross bridge)
stimulates skeletal muscle fibers
• Myosin and actin overlap
o Synaptic cleft
• At rest, there is a bare zone that lacks actin filaments
– gap between nerve and muscle and filled with
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
interstitial fluid
– specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
– nerve and muscle do not make contact
– storage of calcium and to release it on demand
when the muscle fiber is stimulated to contract
 TRANSMISSION ON NERVE IMPULSE CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL
TO MUSCLE MUSCLE
• Neurotransmitter – chemical released by nerve upon arrival • Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
of nerve impulse • Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated
• Neurotransmitter attached to receptors on the sarcolemma during the same interval
• Sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium (Na+) • Different combination of muscle fiber contractions may give
• Sodium rushing into the cell generates an action potential differing responses
• Once started, muscle contraction cannot be stopped • Graded responses – different degrees of skeletal muscle
shortening
THE SLIDING OF FILAMENT THEORY
• TYPES OF GRADED RESPONSES
OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
o Twitch
• Activation by nerve causes myosin heads (cross bridges) to – single, brief contraction
attach to binding sites on the thin filaments – sometimes result from certain nervous problems
• Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the thin – not a normal muscle function
filaments o Tetanus (summing of contractions)
• This continues action causes a sliding of the myosin along – one contraction is immediately followed by another
the actin – the muscle does not completely return to a resting
• The result is that the muscle is shortened (contracted) state
– the effects are added

o Unfused (incomplete) tetanus

– some relaxation occurs between contractions
– the results are summed
o Fused (complete) tetanus
– no evidence of relaxation before the following
contractions
THE SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY – the result is a sustained muscle contraction

MUSCLE RESPONSE TO STRONG

STIMULI
• Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers
stimulated
• More fibers contracting results in greater muscle tension
• Muscles can continue to contract unless they run out of
energy
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
• Initially, muscles used stored ATP for energy
– bonds of ATP are broken to release energy
– only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by muscles
• After this initial time, other pathways must be utilize to
produce ATP
• ATP – is the only energy source that can be used directly to
power muscle activity
o Direct phosphorylation
– muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP)
– Creatine phosphate – is a high energy molecule;
found in muscle fibers but not other cell types
– after ATP is depleted ADP is left
– CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
– CP supplies are exhausted in about 20 seconds
o Aerobic Pathway
▪ Aerobic respiration
– some 95 percent of the ATP used for
muscle activity comes from aerobic
respiration
– series of metabolic path ways that occur
in the mitochondria.
– this pathways are collectively called as
oxidative phosphorylation
– Glucose is broken down to carbon
dioxide and water, releasing energy
– this is a slower reaction that requires
continuous oxygen
o Anaerobic glycolysis
– reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
– Glycolysis – initial step glucose breakdown occur in
this pathway; does not use oxygen
– Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce
some ATP
– Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
– this reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
– huge amounts of glucose are needed
– Lactic acid produce muscle fatigue
– Anaerobic glycolysis – produces only about 5
percent as much ATP from each glucose molecule as
aerobic respiration
– 2 ½ times faster, and it can
provide most of the most ATP needed for 30 to 40
seconds of strenuous muscle activity
ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS HAS TWO SHORTCOMINGS
▪ uses huge amounts of glucose for a small ATP
harvest
▪ accumulating lactic acid promotes muscle
soreness
MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN DEBT
• Muscle fatigue – unable to contract even though it is still
being stimulated.
• The common reason for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt
– oxygen must be “repaid” to issue to remove oxygen
debt
– oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated lactic acid
• Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes
the muscle to contract less
• True muscle fatigue – the muscle quits entirely, rarely
occurs in most of us because we feel tired long before it
happens and we simply slow down or stop our activity
• Oxygen deficit – occurs during prolonged muscle activity;
when a person is not able to take in oxygen fast enough to
keep the muscle supplied with all the oxygen they need
when they are working vigorously
 TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION MOST COMMON TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENT
o Flexion
o Isotonic contractions
– generally in the sagittal plane; decrease the angle of
– myofilaments are able to slide past each other
the joint and brings two bones closer together
during contraction
– typical of hinge joints and in ball-and-socket joints
– myofilaments are successful in their sliding
– (ex. Bending forward at the hip)
movements, the muscle shortens and movement occurs
o Extension
– (ex. Bending the knee, lifting weights and smiling
– opposite of flexion
o Isometric contractions
– movement that increase the angle, or distance
– the muscle do not shorten
between two bones or parts of the body
– tension in the muscle increases
– hyperextension – tip your head so that your chin
– (ex. When you push the palms of your hands
points toward the ceiling
together in front of you, your arms and chest muscles are
o Rotation
contracting isometrically.
– movement of the bone around longitudinal axis
MUSCLE TONE – common movement of ball-and socket joint and
describe the movement of the atlas around the dens of
• Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed muscle
the axis
• Different fibers contract at different times to provide
– ex. Shaking your head no
muscle tone
o Abduction
• The process of stimulating various fibers is under
– moving a limb away from the midline or median
involuntary control
plane of the body
EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLE – fanning movements of your fingers or toes when
• Muscle inactivity – always leads to muscle weakness and they are spread apart
wasting o Adduction
• Results of increases muscle use: – the opposite of the abduction so it is the movement
▪ Increase in muscle size of a limb toward the body midline
▪ Increase in muscle strength – “adding” a body part by bringing it closer to the
▪ Increase in muscle efficiency trunk
▪ Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant o Circumduction
o Aerobic exercise or endurance exercise – combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and
– results in stronger more flexible muscles with adduction commonly seen in ball-and-socket joints such
greater resistance to fatigue as the shoulder
– helps us reach a steady rate of ATP production and
improves the efficiency of aerobic respiration
– makes overall body metabolism more efficient,
improves digestion, enhances neuromuscular
coordination and strengthens the skeleton
o Resistance exercise or isometric exercise
– pit the muscle against an immovable objects
– require very little time and little or no special
equipment
MUSCLE AND BODY MOVEMENT
• Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an attached
bone
• Muscles are attached to at least two points
o Origin – attached to the immovable or less movable bone
o Insertion – attached to the movable bone
 TYPES OF MUSCLES
o Prime mover
– muscle with the major responsibility for a certain
movement
o Antagonist
– muscle that opposes or reverse a prime mover
o Synergist
– muscle that aids a prime mover in a movements and
helps prevent rotation
o Fixator
SPECIAL MOVEMENTS
– stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
o Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
– up and down movements of the foot at the ankle are
given special names
– Dorsiflexion – lifting the foot so that its superior
surface approaches the shin
– Plantar flexion – whereas pointing the toes away
from your head
o Inversion and eversion
– special movements of the foot
– Invert – turn the sole medially
– Evert – turn the sole laterally
o Supination and pronation
– Supination – turning backward; the forearm rotates
laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly (or up) and the
radius and ulna are parallel
– Pronation – turning forward; the forearm rotates
medially so that the palm faces posteriorly
o Opposition
– the saddle joint between metacarpal 1 and carpals
NAMING OF SKELETAL MUSCLES
allows opposition of the thumb
o Direction of the muscles fibers
– move your thumb to touch the tips of the other
– rectus – straight; its fibers run parallel to the
fingers on the same hand
imaginary line
– ex. Rectus femoris is the straight muscle of the thigh
– oblique – the muscle fibers run obliquely (at a slant)
to the imaginary line
o Relative size of the muscle
– maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), and longus
(long)
– ex. Gluteus maximus is the largest muscle of the
muscle group
o Location of the muscle
– named for the bone with which they are associated
– ex. The temporalis and frontalis muscle overlie the
temporal and frontal bones of the skull
o Number of origins
– triceps, biceps and quadriceps
– ex. The biceps muscle of the arm has two heads or
origins and the triceps muscle has three
o Location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
– muscles are named for their attachment sites
– ex. The sternocleidomastoid muscle has its origin on
the sternum (sterno) and clavicle (cleido) and inserts on
the mastoid process of the temporal bone
o Shape of the muscle
– distinctive shape that helps to identify them
– ex. The deltoid muscle is roughly triangular
o Action of the muscle
– flexor, extensor and adductor
– ex. The adductor muscles of the thigh all bring about
its adduction and the extensor muscles of the wrist al
extend the wrist
ARRANGEMENT OF FASCICLES
o Circular
– general term “sphincters”
– fascicles are arranged in concentric circles
– surrounding the body openings which they close by
contracting creating a valve
– ex. The orbicularis muscles surrounding the eyes and
mouth
o Convergent
– fascicles converge toward a single insertion tendon
– triangular insertion tendon
– ex. Pectoralis major muscle of the anterior thorax
o Parallel
– fascicle run parallel to the long axis of the muscle as
in the sartorius of the anterior thigh
– strap-like
– Fusiform – spindle-shaped muscle with expanded
belly
o Pennate
– short fascicle attach obliquely to a central tendon
– unipennate – insert in only one side of the tendon
– bipennate – insert into the opposite sides of the
tendon
– multipennate – insert from several different sides
HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
FACIAL MUSCLES
• They insert into soft tissues such as other muscles or skin
• Permit us to express ourselves by frowning and smiling
FACIALS MUSCLES
o Frontalis
– covers the frontal bone
– runs from the cranial aponeurosis to the skin of the
eyebrows
– allows you to raise your eyebrows as in surprise and
to wrinkle your forehead
– Occipitalis – which covers the posterior aspects of
the skull and pulls the scalp posteriorly
o Orbicularis oculi
– run in circles around the eyes
– allows you to close your eyes, squint, blink and wink
o Orbicularis oris
– kissing muscle
– circular muscle of the lips
– closes the mouth and protrudes the lips
o Buccinator
– runs horizontally across the cheek and inserts into
the orbicularis oris
– flattens the cheek (whistling or blowing)
– chewing muscle because it compresses the cheek to
hold food between the teeth during chewing
o Zygomaticus
– from the corner of the mouth to the cheekbone
– referred to as the “smiling” muscle because it raises
the corners of the mouth
o Masseter
– from the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to
the mandible
– covers the angle of the lower jaw
– closes the jaw by elevating the mandible
o Temporalis
– fan-shaped muscles overlying the temporal bone
Inserts mandible and acts as a synergist of the
masseter in closing the jaw
NECK MUSCLES
• Moves the head and shoulder girdle
• Small and strap-like
NECK MUSCLES
o Platysma
– single sheet-like muscle that covers the anterolateral
neck
– action is to pull the corners of the mouth inferiorly,
producing a downward sag of the mouth (sad clown face)
o Sternocleidomastoid
– two headed muscles, one found on each side of the
neck
– when both sternocleidomastoid muscles contract
together, they flex your neck
– bowing of the head (the prayer muscle)
TRUNK MUSCLES
• Muscle that move the vertebral column
• Anterior thorax muscles, which move the ribs, head, and
arms
• Muscles of the abdominal wall which hold your guts in by
forming a natural girdle and help to move the vertebral
column
ANTERIOR MUSCLES
o Pectoralis major
– large fan-shaped muscle
– covering the upper part of the chest
– from the sternum, shoulder girdle and the first six
ribs
– inserts on the proximal end of the humerus
– forms the anterior wall of the axilla (armpit) and acts
to adduct and flex the arm
o Intercostal muscles
– deep muscles found between the ribs
– External intercostal – important in breathing
because they help to raise the rib cage when you inhale
– Internal intercostal – depress the ribcage; helping to
move air out of the lungs when you exhale forcibly
o Muscles of the abdominal girdle
– anterior abdominal muscle
– form a natural girdle that reinforces the body trunk
– Abdominal muscle – form a muscular wall that is
well suited for its job of containing and protecting the
abdominal contents
▪ Rectus abdominis
– paired stap-like
– most superficial muscle of the abdomen
– from the pubis to the rib cage
– flex the vertebral column
– compress the abdominal contents during
defecation and childbirth and are involve in
breathing
▪ External Oblique
– paired superficial muscles that make up the
lateral walls of the abdomen
– runs downward and medially from the last
eight ribs and insert into the ilium
– flex the vertebral column and they also
rotate the trunk and bend it laterally
▪ Internal oblique
– runs at right angles to those of the external
obliques
– arise from the iliac crest and insert into the
last three ribs
▪ Transverse abdominis
– deepest muscle of the abdominal wall
– runs horizontally across the abdomen
– compresses the abdominal contents
POSTERIOR MUSCLES
o Trapezius
– the most superficial muscle of the posterior neck
and upper trunk
– diamond or kite-shape muscle mass
– from the occipital bone of the skull down to the
vertebral column to the end of the thoracic vertebrae
– flare laterally to insert on the scapular spine and
clavicle
– extend the head (antagonist of sternocleidomastoid)
– can elevate depress, adduct and stabilize scapula
o Latissimus dorsi
– two large flat muscles that cover the lower back
– originate on the lower spine and ilium and then
sweep superiorly to insert into the proximal end of the
lumbar
– extends and adducts the humerus
– important muscles when the arm must be brought
down in a power stroke (swimming or striking a blow)
o Erector spinae
– prime mover of back extension
– deep muscles of the back
– three muscle columns : longissimus, iliocostalis and
spinalis that collectively span the entire length of the
vertebral column
 – also provide resistance that helps control the action
of bending over at the waist
– Spasms – common source of lower back pain
o Quadratus Lumborum
– form part of the posterior abdominal wall
– each muscle of the pair flexes the spine laterally
– extend the lumbar spine
– insert into the upper lumbar vertebrae
o Deltoid
– fleshy, triangle-shaped muscles that form the
rounded shape of your shoulders
– favorite injection site
– prime movers of arm abduction
MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LIMB
• UPPER LIMB MUSCLES THREE GROUPS:
– Group 1- muscles that arise from the shoulder girdle
and cross the shoulder joint to insert into the humerus
– Group 2 - causes movement at the elbow; enclose the
humerus and insert on the forearm bone
– Group 3 - the muscle of the forearm, which insert on
the hand bones and cause their movement; thin and
spindle-shaped, and there are many of them
MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT AT
THE ELBOW
• All anterior muscles of the humerus cause elbow flexion
o Biceps brachii
– most familiar muscle of the arm because it bulges
when you flex your elbow
– originates by two heads from the shoulder girdle and
inserts into the radial tuberosity
– powerful prime mover for flexion of the forearm and
acts to supinate the forearm
o Brachialis
– lies deep to the biceps brachii and like the biceps is a
prime mover in elbow flexion
– lifts the ulna as the biceps lifts the radius
o Brachioradialis
– fairly weak muscle that arise on the humerus and
inserts into the distal forearm
– resided mainly in the forearm
o Triceps Brachii
– the only muscle fleshing out the posterior humerus
– three heads arise from the shoulder girdle and
proximal humerus and inserts into the olecranon process
of the ulna
– powerful prime mover of elbow extension
(antagonist of the biceps brachii and brachials)
MUSCLES OF THE LOWER LIMB
• The largest and strongest muscles in the body and are
specialized for walking and balancing the body
• Origin and Insertion are often interchangeable depending
on the action being performed
MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE
HIP JOINT
o Gluteus maximus
– superficial muscle of the hip that forms most of the
flesh of the buttock
– acts to bring the thigh in a straight line with the
pelvis
– most important muscle for extending the hip when
power is needed
– from the sacrum and iliac bones and inserts on the
gluteal tuberosity of the femur and into the large
tendinous iliotibial tract.
o Gluteus Medius
– runs from the ilium to the femur beneath the
gluteus maximus for most of its length
– a hip abductor and is important is steadying the
pelvis during walking
– important site for giving intramuscular injections,
particularly when administering more than 5ml
– Sciatic nerve – this area must be carefully avoided to
prevent nerve damage
o Iliopsoas
– fused muscle composed of the two muscle the
iliacus and psoas major
– runs from the iliac bone and lower vertebrae deep
inside the pelvis to insert on the lesser trochanter of the
femur
– prime mover of hip flexion
– keep the upper body from falling backward when we
are standing erect.
o Adductor muscle
– from the muscle mass at the medial side of each
thigh
– adduct or press the thigh together
– tend to become flabby very easily
– origin on the pelvis and insert on the proximal
aspect of the femur
MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE
KNEE JOINT
o Hamstring group
– muscle forming the muscle mass of the posterior
thigh
– three muscle: Biceps femoris, semimembranosus
and semitendinosus
– originate on the ischial tuberosity and run down the
thigh to insert on both sides of the proximal tibia
– prime movers of thigh extension and knee flexion
– you can feel these tendons at the back of your knees
o Sartorius
– not too important; weak thigh flexor
– most superficial muscle of the thigh and so is rather
hard to miss
– runs obliquely across the thigh from the anterior iliac
crest to the medial side of the tibia
– commonly referred to as the “tailor’s” muscle
because it acts as a synergist to help tailors sit with both
legs crossed in front of them
o Quadriceps group
– consist of four muscles: rectus femoris and vastus
muscles – flesh out the anterior thigh
– Vastus intermedius – obscured by the rectus femoris
muscle
– Vastus muscles – originate from the femur
– Rectus femoris – originates on the pelvis
– the group as a whole acts to extend the knee
powerfully as when kicking a soccer ball
– Vectus lateralis and rectus femoris sometimes used
as intramuscular injection sites, particularly in infants
who have poorly developed gluteus muscles
MUSCLE CAUSING MOVEMENT AT THE
ANKLE AND FOOT JOINT
o Tibialis Anterior
– superficial muscle on the anterior leg
– form the upper tibia and then parallels the anterior
crest as it runs to the tarsal bones where it inserts by a
long tendon
– it acts to dorsiflex and invert the foot
o Extensor Digitorum Longus
– arise from the lateral tibial condyle and proximal
three-quarters of the fibula and inserts into the
phalanges of toes 2 to 5
– prime mover of toe extension
o Fibularis Muscles
– three fibularis muscles: longus, brevis and tertius
are found on the lateral part of the leg
– from the fibula and insert into the metatarsals bones
of the foot
– plantar flexes and everts the foot which is
antagonistic to the tibialis anterior
o Gastrocnemius
– muscle is a two-bellied muscle that forms the curved
calf of the posterior leg
– one from each side of the distal femur, and inserts
through the large calcaneal (achilles) tendon into the
heel of the foot
– prime mover for plantar flexion of the foot
– often called “toe dancer’s muscle”
o Soleus
– deep to the gastrocnemius is the fleshy soleus
muscle
– it arises on the tibia and fibula
– it does not affect knee movement
– it inserts into the calcaneal tendon and is a strong
plantar flexor of the foot
 – nervous system stimulates and regulates muscle
activity
• Lymphatic system
– Physical exercise may enhance or depress immunity
– immune system protects muscle form disease
• Respiratory system
– muscular exercise increases respiratory capacity
– provides oxygen and dispose carbon dioxide
• Digestive system
– physical activity increases gastrointestinal mobility
when at rest
– provides nutrients for muscle health
• Cardiovascular system
– increases efficiency of cardiovascular functioning
– delivers nutrients and oxygen to the bone
• Urinary system
– normal voiding behavior
– dispose nitrogen containing waste
• Reproductive system
– help support pelvic organs
– testicular androgen promotes increased skeletal
muscle size
• Skeletal system
– maintains bone health and strength
– provide levers for muscle activity
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE
• Integumentary
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
– enhance circulation to skin
• Embryo – the muscular system is laid down in segments
– protects the muscle
and then each segment is invaded by nerves
• The thoracic and lumbar regions become b=very extensive
because they must cover and move the bones of the limbs
• The muscle and their control by the nervous system
develop rather early in pregnancy
• After birth, a baby’s movement are all gross reflex types of
movements
• Nervous system must mature before the baby can control
muscles
• All through childhood the nervous system’s control of the
skeletal muscles becomes more and more precise
• As we age the amount of connective tissue in muscle
increases and the amount of muscle tissue decreases

MUSCULAR SYSTEM AND OTHER

SYSTEMS
• Endocrine system
– Growth hormone and androgens influence skeletal
muscle strength and mass
• Nervous system
– facial muscle activity that allows emotions to be
expressed